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Thermodiodes and Transistors
When the temperature of doped semiconductors changes, the

mobility of their charge carriers change. As a consequence,
when a p-n junction has a potential difference across it, the
current through the junction is a function of the temperature.
Such junctions for use as temperature sensors are supplied,
together with the necessary signal processing circuitry as
integrated circuits, e.g. LM3911 which gives an output voltage
proportional to temperature.
In a similar manner, transistors can be used as temperature
sensors. An integrated circuit temperature sensor using
transistors is LM35. This gives an output, which is a linear
function of temperature, of 10 mV/0C when the supply voltage
is 5 V. The specification for LM35 includes: Accuracy at 250C
±0.4%, Non-linearity 0.20C, Sensitivity 10 mV/0C
PYROMETERS:
Methods used for the measurement of temperature which
involve the radiation emitted by the body include
1. Optical pyrometer
2.Total radiation pyrometer
Optical Pyrometer - Construction, Principle,
Working, Advantages & Disadvantages
An optical pyrometer is a device used for the measurement
of temperature. It is a non-contact type temperature measuring
device i.e., it measures temperature without making any
contact with the body whose temperature is being measured.
Hence, it can measure higher temperatures, where there is a
chance of damaging the sensors that measure high
temperature by making physical contact.
It measures the temperature of hot bodies by measuring the

heat radiations emitted by that body. The optical pyrometer is
also referred to as the Disappearing Filament Type of
Pyrometer. Let us see its construction and principle of
operation.
Principle of Optical Pyrometer :

The measurement of temperature using optical pyrometers
is based on the principle of brightness comparison. The
brightness produced by the hot object (whose temperature is
being measured) is compared with the brightness of the
reference temperature lamp.
The brightness of the reference temperature lamp is
adjusted until it becomes equal to the brightness of the hot
body. The value of current passing through the filament of the
lamp when both the brightnesses becomes equal gives the
temperature of the hot body under measurement.
Construction of Optical Pyrometer :

The construction of optical pyrometer or disappearing
filament type of pyrometer is quite simple. It consists of a
reference temperature lamp, absorption screen, objective lens,
red filter, and eyepiece. The below figure shows the systematic
arrangement of the optical pyrometer.
t is a cylindrical inside with an objective lens and absorption

screen on one side and a red filter and eyepiece on the other
side. The reference temperature lamp is placed between the
absorption screen and red filter which is connected to a battery
source through a rheostat and PMMC meter.
The intensity of the lamp can be controlled by varying
rheostat i.e., by varying the current through the filament of the
lamp. The red filter allows only a narrow band of wavelength to
the observer observing from the eyepiece. The absorption
screen increases the temperature measuring range of the
instrument.
Working of Optical Pyrometer :

In order to measure the temperature of a body, the
radiation emitted from that body is made to fall on the
reference temperature lamp filament. Now by observing the
lamp's filament through the eyepiece, the brightness of the
lamp is varied until the brightness of both the reference
temperature lamp and radiation emitted from the hot body
becomes same. When the brightness of both the filament of
the lamp and the hot body becomes equal the filament gets
disappeared.
Since the radiations emitted from the hot body i.e., the
brightness of the hot body depends upon its temperature, and
the brightness of the lamp depends upon current passing
through the filament. The temperature can be determined by
calibrating the optical pyrometer in terms of current flowing
through the filament of the lamp. Therefore, the reading
indicated by the PMMC meter that measures the flow of
current through the lamp's filament gives the temperature of
the hot body.
Figi
Figure (ii) above shows the disappearance of the filament of

the lamp when the brightness of the hot body and reference
temperature lamp becomes equal. When the brightness of the
lamp is low than the hot body's brightness, the filament of the
lamp appears dark as shown in figure (i) above. Similarly, when
the brightness of the hot body is low than the brightness of the
reference temperature lamp, the filament of the lamp appears
bright as shown in figure (iii).
Advantages of Optical Pyrometer :
 The accuracy of the optical pyrometers is quite high.

 Capable of measuring high temperatures.
 It measures the temperature without making any contact
with the body whose temperature is being measured.
 It is a portable instrument with lightweight.
 The operation is simple.
Disadvantages of Optical Pyrometer :
 Cannot be used in the continuous measurement of

temperature.
 Exhibits less sensitivity at low temperatures.
 The cost of optical pyrometers is high.
 The accuracy can be affected by incorrect adjustment of
rheostat and other thermal background radiations.
Applications of Optical Pyrometer :
 It can be applied to measure the temperature of furnaces.

 It can be applied in the measurement of the temperature of
heated materials and also molten metals.
Total Radiation Pyrometer - Construction,

Working, Advantages & Applications:
The total radiation pyrometer is a type of pyrometer in which
total radiation or total heat emitted from the hot body or
temperature source is focused on the radiation sensing
element. In this, both visible and invisible radiations are
virtually received by the radiation sensing element. Generally,
thermocouple, bolometer, or thermopile are used as a
radiation sensing element that measures the temperature of
the radiations received.
Principle of Total Radiation Pyrometer :
The process of measuring temperature using this type of
pyrometer makes use of the total energy emitted by the hot
body i.e., uses the intensity of the total radiation emitted. The
energy is then known by 'Stefan Boltzman Law', which states
that the total intensity of the emitted radiations from a black
object is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature
of the hot body i.e., E ∝ T4.
The operating principle of this pyrometer is that the total

radiation of a hot body whose temperature is required to be
known is made to fall on the devices which receive the
radiation such as thermocouple, bolometer, thermopile, etc.,
and the emf developed by these devices gives the temperature
of the hot object.
Construction of Total Radiation Pyrometer :

The total radiation pyrometer contains a tube that houses the
components of this pyrometer. One end of the tube is open to
receive radiations from the temperature source or hot object
whose temperature is to be determined, and the other end has
a sighting hole (which contains an adjustable eyepiece). The
below shows the construction of the total radiation pyrometer.
Inside the tube an adjustable lens (whose position can be
adjusted by rack and pinion mechanism to make total radiation
fall on the receiving element) and a radiation receiving element
(thermocouple) are present. The thermocouple is connected to
a millivoltmeter which is calibrated in terms of temperature.
Working of Total Radiation Pyrometer :

As shown in the figure the temperature source emits radiation.
All the emitted radiation is focused on the hot junction of the
thermocouple through the lens. When the thermocouple
receives the radiation, a temperature difference occurs in it and
a proportionate emf will be generated which can be indicated
and read by the millivoltmeter, which in turn indicates the
temperature of the source of the hot object.
Advantages of Total Radiation Pyrometer :
 It can be used to measure a high range of temperatures.
 It can measure the temperatures of those objects which are
fixed at someplace and also the objects which are moving.
 It is a non-contact type of pyrometers i.e., they measure the
temperature of hot objects without contacting them.
 It produces a fast response.
Disadvantages of Total Radiation Pyrometer :
 Exhibits poor performance if any dust particles or gases are

present between the hot object and the receiving lens.
 Sometimes it requires some cooling arrangement to remove
the overheating of the instrument.
 There is a problem in focusing the total radiation on the
thermocouple if the lens is not placed properly.
 It cannot be used to measure low temperatures.
 It is expensive.
Applications of Total Radiation Pyrometer :
 It is used to measure temperatures in a bright annealing

furnace, hydrogen atmosphere in copper bearings.
 It is used to measure the temperature of hot objects within a
furnace.
 It is used in conditions where thermocouples fail to operate

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Thermodiodes and Transistors

When the temperature of doped semiconductors changes, the

It measures the temperature of hot bodies by measuring the

Principle of Optical Pyrometer :

Construction of Optical Pyrometer :

t is a cylindrical inside with an objective lens and absorption

Working of Optical Pyrometer :

Figure (ii) above shows the disappearance of the filament of

 The accuracy of the optical pyrometers is quite high.

 Cannot be used in the continuous measurement of

 It can be applied to measure the temperature of furnaces.

Total Radiation Pyrometer - Construction,

The operating principle of this pyrometer is that the total

Construction of Total Radiation Pyrometer :

Working of Total Radiation Pyrometer :

 Exhibits poor performance if any dust particles or gases are

 It is used to measure temperatures in a bright annealing

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