Measurement of

Temperature and pressure

 Temperature Measurement Pressure Measurement

 Method of measuring temperature  Method of pressure measurement

 Thermocouple  Static pressure measurement

 Law of Thermocouples  Elastic pressure transducers

 Thermistor  Dead weight pressure gauges

 Pyrometry  Measurement of vacuum

 IR thermography  Measurement of high pressure

 A temperature is an objective comparative measurement of hot or

cold

 Temperature measurement describes the process of measuring a

current local temperature for immediate or later evaluation.

 Datasets consisting of repeated standardized measurements can

be used to assess temperature trends.

4/5/2023 5:18:29 AM
There are three temperature

scales in use today,

 Fahrenheit

 Celsius and

 Kelvin.

4/5/2023 5:18:29 AM
 Thermometers
 Thermocouples
 Thermistors
 Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
 Pyrometer
 Langmuir probes (for electron temperature of a plasma)
 Infrared
Principle of Operation
A change in temperature causes mechanical motion, typically due to the fact that most materials
expand with a rise in temperature. Mechanical thermometers can be constructed using liquids,
solids, or even gases as the temperature-sensitive material.
The mechanical motion is read on a physical scale to infer the temperature. The examples
include:

1) Liquid-in-glass thermometer
The most common and well-known thermometer is the liquid-in-glass thermometer.

As the temperature rises, the liquid expands, moving up the tube. The
scale is calibrated to read temperature directly. Usually, mercury or
some kind of alcohol is used for the liquid.
2) Bimetallic strip thermometer
Two dissimilar metals are bonded together into what is called a
bimetallic strip as figured below.

One common application of bimetallic strips is

in air-conditioning thermostats, where a
bimetallic strip is used as the arm of a switch
between electrical contacts. As the room
temperature changes, the bimetallic strip
bends. When the bimetalic strip bends far
enough, it makes contact with electrical leads
which turn the heat or air conditioning on or
off.
3) Sealed Bellows
The sealed bellows type is filled with a gas, vapor or liquid, which
responds to change in temperature by variation in volume and pressure
causing expansion or contraction.
4) Bulb and Capillary Sensor
Bulb and capillary elements are used where temperatures are to be
measured in ducts, pipes, tanks or similar locations remote from the
controller.

The bulb is filled with liquid, gas or

refrigerant depending on the temperature
range required. Expansion of the fluid in
the heated bulb exerts a pressure which is
transmitted by the capillary to the
diaphragm and then translated into
movement.
 5) Pressure thermometer
A pressure thermometer, while still considered mechanical, operates by the expansion of
a gas instead of a liquid or solid. (Note: There are also pressure thermometers which use
a liquid instead of a gas.)

The gas inside the bulb and tube can be considered

an ideal gas. The bulb and tube are of constant
volume, so V is constant. Also, the mass m, of gas in
the sealed bulb and tube must be constant. Hence,
P = kT, where k is a constant.
A pressure thermometer therefore measures
temperature indirectly by measuring pressure. The
gauge is a pressure gauge, but it is calibrated in
units of temperature instead.
A common application of this type of thermometer is measurement of outside temperature from the inside of a
building. The bulb is placed outside, with the tube running through the wall into the inside. The gauge is on the
inside. As T increases outside, the bulb temperature causes a corresponding increase in pressure, which is
read as a temperature increase on the gauge.
• A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two
dissimilar conductors forming electrical junctions at
differing temperatures.

• A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage as a

result of the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be
interpreted to measure temperature.

• Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor.

1) When two dissimilar metals are connected together, a small voltage called a thermo-junction
voltage is generated at the junction. This is called the Peltier effect.

2) If the temperature of the junction changes, it causes voltage to change too, which can be
measured by the input circuits of an electronic controller. The output is a voltage
proportional to the temperature difference between the junction and the free ends. This is
called the Thompson effect.

3) Both of these effects can be combined to measure temperature. By holding one junction at a
known temperature (reference junction) and measuring the voltage, the temperature at the
sensing junction can be deduced. The voltage generated is directly proportional to the
temperature difference. The combined effect is known as the thermo-junction effect or the
Seebeck effect.
 digital voltmeter (DVM)
 digital multimeter (DMM)
 digital data acquisition system or
 Some other voltage measuring device
The performance of a thermocouple material is generally determined by using that material
with platinum. The most important factor to be considered when selecting a pair of
materials is the "thermoelectric difference" between the two materials. A significant
difference between the two materials will result in better thermocouple performance.
commonly used materials when used with platinum:
 Chromel-Constantan
 Nickel/Nickel-Molybdenum
 Chromel-Alumel
 Tungsten-Rhenium
 Chromel-White Gold
 Molybdenum-Tungsten
 Tungsten-Iridium
 Iridium/Iridium-Rhodium.
 Of the infinite number of thermocouple combinations, the
Instrument Society of America (ISA) recognizes 12 most of these
thermocouple types are known by a single-letter designation; the
most common are J, K, T, S, N and E.

 The compositions of thermocouples are international standards,

but the color codes of their wires are different.

 Often, the standard thermocouple types are referred to by their

trade names.
Because thermocouples measure in wide temperature ranges and
can be relatively rugged, they are very often used in industry.

The following criteria are used in selecting a thermocouple:

1) Temperature range
2) Chemical resistance of the thermocouple or material
3) Abrasion and vibration resistance
4) Installation requirements
There are three laws or rules that apply to thermocouples:
1) Law of intermediate metals
“A third (intermediate) metal wire can be inserted in series with one of
the wires without changing the voltage reading (provided that the two
new junctions are at the same temperature)”.
2) Law of intermediate temperatures
“If identical thermocouples measure the temperature difference between T1 and
T2, and the temperature difference between T2 and T3, then the sum of the
corresponding voltages V1-2 + V2-3 must equal the voltage V1-3 generated by an
identical thermocouple measuring the temperature difference between T1 and T3”.
3) Law of additive voltages
“For a given set of 3 thermocouple wires, A, B, and C, all measuring the same
temperature difference T1 - T2, the voltage measured by wires A and C must equal
the sum of the voltage measured by wires A and B and the voltage measured by
wires B and C”.
Advantages:  Tiny measuring point;
 Wide variety of measuring  Moderate price; and
ranges, including very high  Very simple configuration
limits; (You can even make your
 Many physical sizes and own!)
configurations;
 Fast response times;
 Drawbacks:

 Medium accuracy and sensitivity;

 Linearity is only fair;

 Specific types have to have matching cable (e.g., type K thermocouple has
to have type K cable.); and

 Signal strength is very low and prone to EMI (Electromagnetic

Interference) problems
 Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is a disturbance generated by an external source that
affects an electrical circuit by electromagnetic induction, electrostatic coupling, or conduction.
A change in temperature causes the electrical
resistance of a material to change. The resistance
change is measured to infer the temperature change.

There are two types of thermo-resistive measuring

devices:

1) Resistance temperature detectors (RTD) and

2) Thermistors
Resistance values for conductors at any temperature other than the standard temperature
(usually specified at 20 degree Celsius) on the specific resistance table must be determined
through yet another formula:
A resistance temperature detector is basically either a long, small
diameter metal wire wound in a coil or an etched grid on a substrate,
much like a strain gauge. Platinum is the most common metal used for
RTDs.
Principle of Operation
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) operates on the principle that the electrical
resistance of a metal changes predictably in an essentially linear and repeatable manner
with changes in temperature. RTD have a positive temperature coefficient (resistance
increases with temperature). The resistance of the element at a base temperature is
proportional to the length of the element and the inverse of the cross sectional area.

A typical electrical circuit designed to measure temperature with RTDs actually measures a change in
resistance of the RTD, which is then used to calculate a change in temperature. The resistance of an
RTD increases with increasing temperature, just as the resistance of a strain gauge increases with
increasing strain.
RTD - Assembly
Bridge Circuit Construction
Figure below shows a basic bridge circuit which consists of three known
resistances, R1, R2, and R3 (variable), an unknown variable resistor RX
(RTD), a source of voltage, and a sensitive ammeter.
Resistors R1 and R2 are the ratio arms of the bridge. They ratio the
two variable resistances for current flow through the ammeter. R3
is a variable resistor known as the standard arm that is adjusted to
match the unknown resistor. The sensing ammeter visually
displays the current that is flowing through the bridge circuit.
Analysis of the circuit shows that when R3 is adjusted so that the
ammeter reads zero current, the resistance of both arms of the
bridge circuit is the same. The relationship of the resistance
between the two arms of the bridge can be expressed as
Since the values of R1, R2, and R3 are known values, the only
unknown is Rx. The value of Rx can be calculated for the
bridge during an ammeter zero current condition. Knowing
this resistance value provides a baseline point for calibration
of the instrument attached to the bridge circuit. The
unknown resistance, Rx, is given by
Advantages:
 Linear resistance with temperature
 good stability
 wide range of operating temperature
 Interchangeable over wide temperature range

Disadvantages:
 Small resistance change with temperature
 responses may be slower subject to self
heating
 transmitter or three to four wire leads
required for lead resistance compensation
 external circuit power required
Thermistors are temperature sensitive semiconductors that exhibit a large
change in resistance over a relatively small range of temperature.
There are two main types of thermistors,
1. Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)
2. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC).
NTC thermistors exhibit the characteristic of resistance falling with
increasing temperature. These are most commonly used for temperature
measurement.
 A thermistor is similar to an RTD, but a semiconductor
material is used instead of a metal.
 A thermistor is a solid state device and has larger
sensitivity than a RTD.
 Unlike RTD's, the temperature- resistance characteristic
of a thermistor is non-linear, and cannot be
characterized by a single coefficient.
 Furthermore, unlike RTDs, the resistance of a thermistor
decreases with increasing temperature. A typical thermistor circuit
 Thermistors cannot be used to measure high
temperatures compared to RTDs. In fact, the maximum
temperature of operation is sometimes only 100 or
200°C.
 From the circuit diagram, it is clear that this is a
simple voltage divider. Rs is a fixed (supply) resistor.
Rs and the supply voltage, Vs, can be adjusted to
obtain the desired range of output voltage Vo for a
given range of temperature. A typical thermistor circuit

Advantages: Large resistance change with temperature, rapid response

time, good stability, High resistance eliminates difficulties caused by lead
resistance, Low cost and interchangeable.
Disadvantages: Non-linear, limited operating temperature range, may be
subjected to inaccuracy due to overheating, current source required .
The above figure depicts voltage/resistance versus temperature curve in a
single plot to compare thermistor, RTD and thermocouple (TC) as shown.
Two types of radiative measuring devices are

1) Optical pyrometer and

2) Infrared pyrometer
 The device actually tracks and measures the amount of heat that is radiated from an object.
 The thermal heat radiates from the object to the optical system present inside the pyrometer.
 The optical system makes the thermal radiation into a better focus and passes it to the detector.
 The output of the detector will be related to the input thermal radiation.
 The biggest advantage of this device is that, unlike a Resistance Temperature Detector
(RTD) and Thermocouple, there is no direct contact between the pyrometer and the object
whose temperature is to be found out.
 The radiation from the source is emitted and the
optical objective lens captures it.

 The lens helps in focusing the thermal radiation on

to the reference bulb.

 The observer watches the process through the eye

piece and corrects it in such a manner that the
reference lamp filament has a sharp focus and the
filament is super-imposed on the temperature
source image.

 The observer starts changing the rheostat values and

the current in the reference lamp changes. This in
turn, changes its intensity.
This change in current can be observed in three
different ways.

 1. The filament is dark. That is, cooler than the

temperature source.

 2. Filamenet is bright. That is, hotter than the

temperature source.

 3. Filament disappears. Thus, there is equal

brightness between the filament and temperature
source. At this time, the current that flows in the
reference lamp is measured, as its value is a
measure of the temperature of the radiated light in
the temperature source, when calibrated.
 5.This device can not only be used to measure the
Advantages temperature, but can also be used to see the heat
1.Simple assembling of the device enables easy
produced by the object/source. Thus, optical
use of it.
pyrometers can be used to measure and view
2.Provides a very high accuracy with +/-5 degree wavelengths less than or equal to 0.65 microns.
Celsius. But, a Radiation Pyrometer can be used for high
heat applications and can measure wavelengths
3.There is no need of any direct body contact between 0.70 microns to 20 microns.
between the optical pyrometer and the object.
Thus, it can be used in a wide variety of Disadvantages
applications. 1.As the measurement is based on the light
intensity, the device can be used only in
4.As long as the size of the object, whose applications with a minimum temperature of 700
temperature is to measured fits with the size of degree Celsius.
the optical pyrometer, the distance between both
of them is not at all a problem. Thus, the device 2.The device is not useful for obtaining
can be used for remote sensing. continuous values of temperatures at small
intervals.
 An infrared thermometer is a device that measures the infrared radiation – a type of
electromagnetic radiation below the visible spectrum of light - emitted by an object.

 The most basic design of infrared thermometers consists of a lens to focus the infrared
thermal radiation onto a detector, which converts the radiant energy into an electric
signal. This configuration facilitates temperature measurement from a distance, without
the need for contact with the object to be measured.

 The device is useful for measuring temperature under circumstances where thermocouples or
other probe type sensors cannot be used.

 There are many types of infrared temperature sensing devices available today, including
configurations designed for flexible and portable handheld use as well as for mounting in a
fixed position to serve a specific purpose.
Infrared thermometers work based on black body radiation, According to
which any material with a temperature above absolute zero has molecules
moving within it. The higher the temperature, the faster the molecules
move. The molecules emit infrared radiation as they move, and emit more
radiation, including visible light, as they get hotter. This is why a heated
metal emits a red or white glow. Infrared thermometers detect and
measure this radiation.
Infrared light can be focused, reflected or absorbed like visible light.
Infrared thermometers employ a lens to focus infrared light from an object
onto a detector known as a thermopile. The function of the thermopile is to
absorb infrared radiation and convert it to heat. The thermopile gets hotter
as it absorbs more and more infrared energy. The excess heat is converted
into electricity, which is transmitted to a detector which determines the
temperature of the object.
The major applications of infrared thermometers are given below:
 Heating and air conditioning – Detection insulation breakdown, heat
loss and gain and furnace and duct leakage
 Industrial/Electrical – Monitoring motor/engine cooling systems
performance, boiler operations, steam systems and detection of hot
spots in electrical systems and panels
 Food safety – Checking equipment performance, sanitation and
process temperature conditions, and scanning refrigerated display
cases, trucks, storage areas and cooling systems
 Agriculture – Monitoring plant temperatures for stress.
• Manometer: a pressure
measuring instrument, usually
limited to measuring pressures Units
near to atmospheric. The term
manometer is often used to
refer specifically to liquid
column of hydrostatic
instruments.
 Zero reference
Absolute pressure is zero referenced against
a “perfect vacuum” (it-the value-is equal to
gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure).
Gauge pressure is zero referenced against
ambient air pressure; it-the value-is equal to
absolute pressure minus atmospheric
pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted;
often expressed as “inches of vacuum” or
some such. Examples?
Differential pressure is the difference in
pressure between two points. Examples of
uses?
Hydraulic System
 Different pressure terms in fluid science are:

 Static pressure

 Dynamic pressure

 Total pressure/Stagnation Pressure

 The term static pressure is identical to the term pressure, and can be
identified for every point in a fluid flow field.

 The concepts of total pressure and dynamic pressure arise from Bernoulli's
equation and are significant in the study of all fluid flows.
The term (hydro)static pressure is sometimes used in fluid statics to refer to the pressure of
a fluid at a nominated depth in the fluid. In fluid statics the fluid is stationary everywhere
and the concepts of dynamic pressure and total pressure are not applicable
1.Liquid Column Instrument:
I. Simple Manometer
II. Inclined Manameter
III. Micromanometer
IV. Differential manometer
V. Inverted differential manometer
The pressure P1 at lower liquid surface is given by:

P1 = P2 + hgρ
 Inclined Manometer
difference in pressure

Inverted Differential Manometer

Differential Manometer
(Advantage)
While it can be adapted to measure very small pressure differences, it can not be used
conveniently for large pressure differences - although it is possible to connect a number of
manometers in series and to use mercury as the manometric fluid to improve the range.

A manometer does not have to be calibrated against any standard; the pressure difference
can be calculated from first principles.

(limitation)
Some liquids are unsuitable for use because they do not form well-defined meniscus.
Surface tension can also cause errors due to capillary rise; this can be avoided if the
diameters of the tubes are sufficiently large - preferably not less than 15 mm diameter.

A major disadvantage of the manometer is its slow response, which makes it unsuitable for
measuring fluctuating pressures.

It is essential that the pipes connecting the manometer to the pipe or vessel containing the
liquid under pressure should be filled with this liquid and there should be no air bubbles
in the liquid.(important point to be kept in mind)
 2. Mechanical Deformation Instruments/
Elastic Pressure Transducers

Commonly Mechanical Deformation Elements

It covers ranges from 0-15 psig to 0-100,000 psig, as well as vacuum from 0 to 30 inches of mercury.
 Bourdon tube Pressure Gauge
The Bourdon tube dial gauge has a Bourdon tube of
elliptical cross-section that is bent to form a circular
arc. When pressure is applied to the inside of the tube
the tube tends to straighten out. This is amplified
mechanically using gears and levers to operate a
pointer Bourdon tube dial gauges operate at pressures
up to about 1.5 GPa

The ratio between major and minor axes decides the sensitivity of the Bourdon tube.
Materials of the Bourdon tube is Phosphor bronze, Beryllium bronze or Beryllium Copper.
 The diaphragm dial gauge
It is similar to a Bourdon tube dial gauge except that
the moving element is a diaphragm. Its movement is Hair-spring

transmitted through a connecting rod to an amplifying

lever and gears which rotate a mechanical pointer.

Screwed
Diaphragm connection

Diaphragm dial gauge

 The diaphragm dial gauge
Corrugated designs help in providing a linear deflection and also increase the member
strength. The total amount of deflection for a given pressure differential is known by
the following factors:

 Number and depth of corrugation

 Number of capsules

 Capsule diameter

 Shell thickness

 Material characteristics

Materials used for the metal diaphragms are the same as those used for Bourdon
Tube.
 Deadweight Pressure Gauge
It is the most accurate instrument available for the pressure measurement. Repeatable
readings with error 0.1% and 0.05% of measured pressure are obtainable. The device
does not require recalibration unless the components have excessive wear of weights.
DWT (Dead Weight Tester) is based on the principle of Pascal's law.
In DWT system, silicon oil is used within the closed boundaries of the Piston
cylinder arrangement, piping, pressurisation chamber and in the head on
which the gauge to be tested/ calibrated is fixed. The oil is taken in to the
pressurisation chamber from oil bowl and all the air entrapped is vented off.
This is because of the reason that air is compressible and hence do not allow
pressure to be exerted equally in all the areas and there by create error in the
test results. Once the system is full with air free oil, pressure is gradually
increased from the pressurization chamber. Oil pressure starts increasing in
all the areas including piston cylinder arrangement over which the dead
weights are mounted.

As the force increases gradually and equals the amount of down ward force being exerted by the dead
weights, the total system gains the state of equilibrium and just at that moment, the dead weights starts
getting lifted up. At this condition, the amount of force operating in the entire system is same. The sum of
pressure values stamped on weights lifted is operating on the pressure gauge element also, which is under
test/ to be calibrated. Necessary corrections are made in the zero/ span adjustments in gauges/ Pressure
transmitters. Above sequence is repeated for all the values at 0%, 25%,50%,75% and 100% to check for
linearity and repeatability. This is how the DWTs are working.
A McLeod gauge is a scientific instrument used to measure very
low pressures, down to 10−6 Torr.

The design of a McLeod gauge is somewhat similar to a that of a mercury-

column manometer

McLeod gauges operate by taking in a sample volume of gas from a

vacuum chamber, then compressing it by tilting and infilling with
mercury. The pressure in this smaller volume is then measured by a
mercury manometer, and knowing the compression ratio (the ratio of the
initial and final volumes), the pressure of the original vacuum can be
determined by applying Boyle's law.
This method is fairly accurate for non-condensible gases, such as oxygen
and nitrogen.

The McLeod gauge has the advantage that it is simple to use and that its
calibration is nearly the same for all non-condensable gases. The device
can be manually operated and the scale read visually, or the process can
be automated in various ways.
Working:

The basic principle is called the multiple compression technique.

The gauge is used to compress a small quantity of low pressure gas to

produce a readable large pressure. Bulb B of the gauge is attached to
capillary aa’. The mercury level in the gauge is lowered up to l1 by
lowering the reservoir, thereby allowing a little process fluid to enter B.
By raising the reservoir, the gas is now compressed in the capillary aa’ till
mercury rises to the zero mark in the side tube and capillary bb’. The
capillary bb’ is required to avoid any error due to capillary.

The McLeod gauge is independent of gas composition. If, however, the gas
contains condensable material and during compression it condenses, the
reading of the gauge is faulty. The gauge is not capable of continuous
reading and the scale is of square law type.
Different Types of Measurement Systems

 Pressure measurement,
 Temperature measurement,
 Velocity measurement,
 Force and torque measurements
 Velocity measurement
The electronic equipment to measure fluid velocity, pressure
and wave height commonly consists of:
 electromagnetic velocity sensors,
 acoustic velocity sensors (point sensors and profilers),
 optical sediment concentration point sensors,
 acoustic sediment concentration point sensors and
profilers,
 Electro-Magnetic Velocitymeter (EMV)
 Acoustic Doppler Velocitymeter (ADV)
 Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP, UVP)
 Phased Array Doppler Sonar (PADS)
 Coherent Doppler Velocity Profiler (CDVP) and
 Cross-Correlation Velocity Profiler (CCVP)
 Force and Torque measurements

 What is Force?
In physics, force is a quantitative description of an interaction that causes a
change in an object’s motion.
Force is a vector quantity, with both direction and magnitude. It is defined as
Mass x Acceleration = Force.
The SI unit of force is the newton (N); defined as the unit of force which would
give to a mass of one kilogram an acceleration of 1 meter per second squared.
There are a lot of force types including tension, compression, shearing, bending,
and friction.
 What is Torque?
Torque is a measure of how much a force acting on an object
causes that object to rotate.
Torque is defined as Force (F) x Distance (r) = Torque.
The distance (r) is from the pivot point to the point where the
force acts.
The SI units of torque is a Newton-meter (N.m).
 Force measurement sensor

 What is a Strain Gauge?

A Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with
applied force; It converts force, pressure, tension, weight,
etc., into a change in electrical resistance which can then be
measured.

Figure : Strain Gauge.

 Torque measurement sensor
 By definition, torque
measurement sensor is a type of
transducer, specifically a torque
transducer that converts a torque
measurement (reaction, dynamic
or rotary) into another physical
variable, in this case, into an
electrical signal that can be
measured, converted and
standardized.
Response of measuring systems

 The measurement systems and the instruments may be classified based

upon the functions they perform. There are four main functions performed
by them: indicating, signal processing, recording and control.