Self Organizing Maps – Kohonen Maps

Last Updated : 18 Apr, 2023




Self Organizing Map (or Kohonen Map or SOM) is a type of Artificial Neural Network which is also
inspired by biological models of neural systems from the 1970s. It follows an unsupervised learning approach
and trained its network through a competitive learning algorithm. SOM is used for clustering and mapping (or
dimensionality reduction) techniques to map multidimensional data onto lower
lower-dimensional
dimensional which allows
people to reduce complex problems for easy interpretation. SOM has tw two
o layers, one is the Input layer and the
other one is the Output layer.
The architecture of the Self Organizing Map with two clusters and n input features of any sample is given
below:

How do SOM works?

Let’s say an input data of size (m, n) where m is the number of training examples and n is the number of
features in each example. First, it initializes the weights of size (n, C) where C is the number of clusters. Then
iterating over the input data, for each training example, it updates the winning vect
vectoror (weight vector with the
shortest distance (e.g Euclidean distance) from training example). Weight updation rule is given by :
wij = wij(old) + alpha(t) * (xik - wij(old))
where alpha is a learning rate at time t, j denotes the winning vector, i denotes the ith feature of training example
and k denotes the kth training example from the input data. After training the SOM network, trained weights are
used for clustering new examples. A new example falls in the cluster of winning vectors.
Algorithm
Training:
Step 1: Initialize the weights wij random value may be assumed. Initialize the learning rate α.
Step 2: Calculate squared Euclidean distance.
D(j) = Σ (wij – xi)^2 where i=1 to n and j=1 to m
Step 3: Find index J, when D(j)) is minimum that will be considered as winning index.
Step 4: For each j within a specific neighborhood of j and for all i, calculate the new weight.
wij(new)=wij(old) + α[xi – wij(old)]
Step 5: Update the learning rule by using :
α(t+1) = 0.5 * t
Step 6: Test the Stopping Condition.

Self-Organizing Maps (SOMs) in Neural Networks

A Self-Organizing Map (SOM), introduced by Teuvo Kohonen, is an unsupervised learning algorithm

designed to map high-dimensional data into a lower-dimensional space (typically 2D or 3D) while preserving
the topological relationships between data points.

SOMs are used for clustering, visualization, and feature extraction in datasets where the structure may not be
immediately apparent.

Key Concepts of SOM

1. Topological Preservation
o Similar data points in the input space are mapped to neighboring nodes in the output space.
2. Competitive Learning
o Neurons in the SOM compete for input data during training, and only one (or a few) neurons are
updated, leading to specialization.
3. Neighborhood Function
o Neurons surrounding the "winning neuron" (Best Matching Unit - BMU) are also updated,
maintaining the smoothness of the map.
4. Dimensionality Reduction
o SOMs reduce high-dimensional data into a comprehensible and visualizable format.

SOM Structure

1. Input Layer
o Accepts the high-dimensional input data.
2. Map Layer
o A grid of neurons (e.g., 2D lattice) where each neuron has a weight vector of the same dimension
as the input data.

SOM Algorithm

The SOM training process involves the following steps:

1. Initialization

 Assign random weight vectors to all neurons in the map.

Let the map have NNN neurons, each with a weight vector wi=[wi1,wi2,…,wid]\mathbf{w_i} =
[w_{i1}, w_{i2}, \ldots, w_{id}]wi=[wi1,wi2,…,wid], where ddd is the input vector dimension.

2. Input Selection
  Select an input vector x=[x1,x2,…,xd]\mathbf{x} = [x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_d]x=[x1,x2,…,xd] from the
dataset.

3. Best Matching Unit (BMU) Identification

 Identify the neuron whose weight vector is closest to the input vector using a distance metric (e.g.,
Euclidean distance): BMU=arg min i∣∣x−wi∣∣BMU = \arg \min_{i} || \mathbf{x} - \mathbf{w_i}
||BMU=argimin∣∣x−wi∣∣

4. Neighborhood Function

 Define a neighborhood around the BMU. Commonly used neighborhood functions include Gaussian or
bubble functions.
The neighborhood size shrinks over time: hi,BMU(t)=exp (−∣∣ri−rBMU∣∣22σ(t)2)h_{i,BMU}(t) =
\exp\left(-\frac{||r_i - r_{BMU}||^2}{2\sigma(t)^2}\right)hi,BMU(t)=exp(−2σ(t)2∣∣ri−rBMU∣∣2) where
rir_iri is the location of neuron iii, and σ(t)\sigma(t)σ(t) is the neighborhood radius at time ttt.

5. Weight Update

 Update the weight vector of the BMU and its neighbors using:
wi(t+1)=wi(t)+η(t)⋅hi,BMU(t)⋅(x−wi(t))\mathbf{w_i}(t+1) = \mathbf{w_i}(t) + \eta(t) \cdot
h_{i,BMU}(t) \cdot (\mathbf{x} - \mathbf{w_i}(t))wi(t+1)=wi(t)+η(t)⋅hi,BMU(t)⋅(x−wi(t)) where:
o η(t)\eta(t)η(t): Learning rate (decreases over time).
o hi,BMU(t)h_{i,BMU}(t)hi,BMU(t): Neighborhood function.

6. Repeat

 Repeat steps 2–5 for all input vectors and for multiple iterations, reducing σ(t)\sigma(t)σ(t) and
η(t)\eta(t)η(t) over time.

Visualizing the SOM

After training, the SOM provides a structured map where:

 Each neuron represents a cluster of input data points.

 Neurons in proximity represent similar clusters.

Applications of SOM

1. Clustering
o Organizing data into clusters without predefined labels.
2. Data Visualization
o Mapping high-dimensional data into 2D for better interpretation.
3. Pattern Recognition
o Identifying and classifying patterns in data.
4. Dimensionality Reduction
o Simplifying datasets while retaining structure.
5. Anomaly Detection
o Identifying data points that deviate significantly from the norm.
Advantages of SOM

 Topology-preserving mapping.
 Suitable for high-dimensional and unlabeled data.
 Provides intuitive visualizations.

Limitations of SOM

 Sensitive to initialization and hyperparameters.

 Can struggle with very large datasets.
 Interpretation of the resulting map may require domain expertise.

SOMs are a powerful tool in neural networks for unsupervised learning tasks, especially when data exploration
and visualization are critical.

Properties of the feature map

In neural networks, a feature map refers to the output of a convolutional layer or similar operation that
transforms the input data into a set of learned features. Here are some key properties of feature maps:

1. Spatial Dimensions: A feature map typically has width and height dimensions corresponding to the size
of the input data after convolution or pooling operations. It represents the spatial arrangement of features
detected in the input.
2. Depth/Channels: A feature map has depth, representing the number of filters applied in a convolution
layer. Each filter generates one channel, capturing a different aspect of the data (such as edges, textures,
or shapes).
3. Activation: The values in a feature map are often passed through an activation function (like ReLU) that
introduces non-linearity, allowing the model to learn complex patterns.
4. Learned Features: Each feature map captures certain features of the input data. For example, in image
recognition, different feature maps may highlight edges, corners, or textures.
5. Local Receptive Field: The size of the region from the input that contributes to each feature map
element is called the receptive field. It determines how much context each feature map can capture.
6. Pooling: Pooling layers (like max pooling or average pooling) applied to feature maps reduce their
spatial dimensions, retaining important features while making the model more computationally efficient.
7. Depth Control: The depth of the feature map can be adjusted by changing the number of filters used in
the convolution operation, which directly impacts the capacity of the model to learn diverse features.

Computer Simulations

Computer Simulations in Neural Networks involve creating virtual environments or systems to study, design,
and test neural network models. These simulations allow researchers and developers to explore the behavior and
performance of neural networks without the need for physical implementation. Here are the key aspects:
1. Purpose of Computer Simulations:

 Model Testing: Test how neural networks perform on specific datasets or tasks.
 Parameter Tuning: Experiment with hyperparameters like learning rate, number of layers, or activation
functions.
 Behavior Analysis: Understand how a network learns and identifies patterns.
 Scalability and Performance: Simulate large-scale networks to analyze computational requirements.

2. Advantages:

 Cost-Effective: Simulations reduce the need for physical resources like specialized hardware or devices.
 Time-Saving: Networks can be trained and tested in a controlled virtual setup, speeding up development.
 Safety: Useful in scenarios where physical testing is risky, such as robotics or autonomous vehicles.
 Insights: Provides detailed visualizations and logs of internal processes like weight updates and feature
extraction.

3. Tools for Simulations:

 Frameworks: Tools like TensorFlow, PyTorch, Keras, and CNTK allow creating and simulating neural networks
easily.
 Cloud Simulations: Services like Google Colab or AWS simulate complex neural networks on powerful cloud
GPUs.
 Visualization Tools: Platforms like TensorBoard visualize training progress, loss curves, and feature maps.

4. Applications:

 AI Development: Testing AI for natural language processing, image recognition, or game-playing strategies.
 Research: Simulating neural networks for academic purposes, such as studying how learning algorithms evolve.
 Optimization: Experimenting with various neural architectures to find the most efficient design.

5. Limitations:

 Simplifications: Simulations may not fully capture real-world complexities.

 Computational Cost: Large-scale simulations require significant computing power.
 Dependency on Data: The effectiveness depends on the quality and relevance of the simulated dataset.

Example:

In autonomous driving, a neural network can be trained in a simulation environment to recognize pedestrians,
vehicles, and traffic signs. This ensures the model is robust before being deployed in a real car
Learning Vector Quantization (LVQ) is a supervised machine learning algorithm that combines ideas from
neural networks and vector quantization. It is primarily used for classification tasks and works by finding
prototypes (representative vectors) for each class in the data. Here's an overview:

Key Features of LVQ:

1. Prototype-Based Representation:
o Instead of storing all training data, LVQ represents each class with a few prototype vectors.
o These prototypes act as reference points for classifying new input data.
2. Supervised Learning:
o Unlike unsupervised methods like k-means, LVQ requires labeled data to guide the placement of
prototypes.
3. Distance-Based Classification:
o The classification of an input vector is based on the prototype it is closest to, typically using the
Euclidean distance.

How LVQ Works:

1. Initialization:
o Choose the number of prototypes for each class.
o Initialize these prototypes randomly or by selecting representative samples from the training data.
2. Training:
o For each input sample:
1. Find the nearest prototype to the input.
2. Adjust the prototype's position:
 If the prototype belongs to the correct class, move it closer to the input.
 If the prototype belongs to the wrong class, move it farther from the input.
o This adjustment uses a learning rate and is repeated for several epochs.
3. Classification:
o After training, classify a new input by assigning it the class of the nearest prototype.

Advantages:

 Simple and Intuitive: Easy to understand and implement.

 Efficient: Reduces storage and computation since only a few prototypes are stored.
 Handles Nonlinear Boundaries: Can approximate complex decision boundaries using multiple prototypes per
class.

Disadvantages:

 Prototype Initialization: Poor initialization can lead to suboptimal results.

 Sensitive to Parameters: The learning rate and number of prototypes significantly impact performance.
 Not Suitable for Large Datasets: It may struggle with very large or high-dimensional data.
Applications:

 Pattern recognition tasks (e.g., speech and handwriting recognition).

 Medical diagnosis (e.g., classifying diseases based on symptoms).
 Data compression and clustering.

Example:

In a handwriting recognition task, prototypes might represent typical shapes of each letter. During training,
these prototypes adjust their positions to better represent the letter shapes in the dataset, making it easier to
classify new handwritten inputs.

Adaptive Pattern Classification

Adaptive Pattern Classification in neural networks refers to the ability of a neural network to learn, recognize,
and adapt to patterns in data by updating its parameters (weights and biases) during the training process. This
concept is a cornerstone of neural networks and allows them to generalize across different types of data for
tasks like classification, recognition, and prediction.

Key Characteristics of Adaptive Pattern Classification:

1. Adaptivity:
o Neural networks adapt their parameters through iterative learning algorithms like backpropagation.
o This adaptation enables the network to improve its pattern recognition performance over time.
2. Generalization:
o The network learns to classify unseen patterns (test data) by generalizing from the training data.
3. Nonlinear Mapping:
o Neural networks can model complex and nonlinear relationships between input patterns and their
corresponding classes.
4. Layered Processing:
o Multiple layers in the network (input, hidden, output) allow hierarchical feature extraction, enhancing
pattern classification capability.
5. Error-Driven Learning:
o The network minimizes a loss function (e.g., mean squared error, cross-entropy) by adjusting weights,
making its classification decisions more accurate.

Steps in Adaptive Pattern Classification:

1. Data Preprocessing:
o Normalize or scale the input data for better network performance.
o Split the data into training, validation, and test sets.
2. Feature Extraction:
o The network learns important features of input patterns through its hidden layers.
 3. Model Training:
o Use algorithms like stochastic gradient descent (SGD) or Adam for weight updates.
o Apply supervised learning to adjust weights based on labeled data.
4. Pattern Classification:
o After training, the network assigns class labels to input patterns based on its learned decision
boundaries.
5. Performance Evaluation:
o Measure classification accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score to evaluate the model.

Advantages:

 Dynamic Learning: Neural networks can learn and adapt to new data.
 Handles Complex Patterns: Suitable for tasks involving high-dimensional and nonlinear patterns.
 Scalable: Can be extended to larger datasets and deeper architectures.

Disadvantages:

 Training Complexity: Requires significant computational resources and time for large models.
 Overfitting: Networks may overfit to the training data if not properly regularized.
 Data Dependency: Performance relies heavily on the quality and quantity of labeled data.

Applications:

 Image Recognition: Classifying images into categories (e.g., identifying cats vs. dogs).
 Speech and Audio Processing: Recognizing spoken words or musical genres.
 Medical Diagnosis: Classifying diseases based on patient data.
 Financial Forecasting: Predicting market trends and classifying risks.

Example: In a digit recognition task (e.g., MNIST), an adaptive pattern classification neural network learns to
distinguish handwritten digits by adapting its parameters to represent features like edges, curves, and shapes.
After training, it can accurately classify new digit images.

Neuro Dynamics in Neural Networks

Neuro dynamics refers to the study of how neural networks evolve over time as dynamic systems. It involves
understanding how the states of neurons or nodes change based on interactions and inputs, leading to pattern
formation, stability, or complex behaviors in the network.
Key Concepts in Neuro Dynamics

1. Dynamical Systems in Neural Networks

A dynamical system is a mathematical framework to describe how the state of a system evolves over time
based on certain rules or equations. In the context of neural networks:

 Each neuron's state (e.g., activation level) evolves according to its inputs, weights, and biases.
 The system's behavior can be described using differential equations (for continuous-time networks) or
difference equations (for discrete-time networks).

Mathematical Formulation:

 Continuous: dxdt=f(x,t)\frac{dx}{dt} = f(x, t)dtdx=f(x,t)

 Discrete: xt+1=f(xt)x_{t+1} = f(x_t)xt+1=f(xt) Here, xxx represents the state of the system (e.g., neuron
activations), and f(x)f(x)f(x) defines the update rule.

2. Stability of Equilibrium States

Equilibrium states are states where the system does not change over time (i.e., the system reaches a steady
state).

 Stable Equilibrium: If small perturbations to the state return to the equilibrium, it is considered stable.
o Example: A ball resting at the bottom of a bowl.
 Unstable Equilibrium: If small perturbations move the state away from the equilibrium, it is considered
unstable.
o Example: A ball balanced at the peak of a hill.

Mathematical Condition for Stability:

 A system is stable if the eigenvalues of the Jacobian matrix of f(x)f(x)f(x) have negative real parts (for continuous
systems) or magnitude less than 1 (for discrete systems).

3. Attractors

Attractors are states or sets of states toward which the system evolves over time.

 Point Attractors: Single stable equilibrium states.

o Example: Fixed points in Hopfield networks for memory storage.
 Limit Cycles: Periodic or oscillatory attractors.
o Example: Rhythmic neural activity like in walking or breathing.
 Chaotic Attractors: Complex, non-repeating patterns.
o Example: Irregular neural spiking or chaotic brain activity.

Attractors help neural networks model natural phenomena such as memory (point attractors) or oscillations in
biological systems (limit cycles).
4. Neuro Dynamical Models

Neuro dynamical models use the principles of dynamical systems to describe and simulate the behavior of
neurons and networks.

1. Hopfield Networks:
o A recurrent neural network where neurons update asynchronously.
o Designed to minimize an energy function.
o States evolve toward stable equilibria, useful for associative memory and optimization tasks.
2. Continuous-Time Recurrent Neural Networks (CTRNNs):
o Described by differential equations:
o τdtdui=−ui+j∑wijf(uj)+Ii
3.  ui: State of neuron iii
4.  wijw_{ij}wij: Weight from neuron jjj to iii
5.  f(uj)f(u_j)f(uj): Activation function
6.  IiI_iIi: Input to neuron iii
o Used in modeling time-dependent processes like motor control.
7. Winner-Take-All Networks:
o Networks where one neuron or group dominates the activity, inhibiting others.
o Models competitive dynamics and decision-making.
8. Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs):
o Simulate more biologically plausible neural activity.
o Neurons communicate via discrete spikes, governed by dynamical rules.

Applications of Neuro Dynamics

 Memory Models: Hopfield networks use point attractors to store and retrieve patterns.
 Oscillatory Behavior: Limit cycle attractors simulate brain rhythms.
 Decision-Making: Winner-take-all networks model competitive decision processes.
 Biological Processes: Spiking neural networks mimic real neuronal activity.

Visual Representation

Imagine a landscape where the state of the neural network is represented by a ball moving on the surface:

 Stable equilibrium states are valleys where the ball settles.

 Unstable equilibrium states are peaks where the ball cannot stay.
 Attractors are regions (valleys or cycles) where the ball is naturally drawn over time.

By understanding neuro dynamics, researchers can design neural networks that are stable, robust, and capable of
modeling complex patterns like those observed in real-world systems or biological brains.

Manipulation of Attractors as a Recurrent Network Paradigm

In the context of recurrent neural networks (RNNs), the manipulation of attractors refers to altering or
designing the dynamics of a network so that its state-space behavior is guided toward specific desired patterns
or outputs. Attractors are stable states or regions in the state space of a dynamical system where the system
tends to settle, making them crucial in understanding and controlling RNN behavior.

This paradigm focuses on shaping the attractor landscape of the network for specific applications, such as
associative memory, pattern recognition, and solving optimization problems.

Key Concepts

1. Attractors in Dynamical Systems

o Point Attractors: The system converges to a single fixed state (e.g., a Hopfield network
recalling a stored pattern).
o Limit Cycles: The system cycles through a sequence of states (useful for periodic tasks).
o Strange Attractors: The system exhibits chaotic behavior within a bounded region.
2. Manipulation
o The process of adjusting the network's weights, biases, or dynamics to define, refine, or redirect
attractors in the state space.

How It Works in Recurrent Networks

1. State Space and Dynamics

o A recurrent network's state space represents all possible states the network can occupy.
o Dynamics are governed by rules (e.g., activation functions, weight matrices) that determine how
the state evolves over time.
2. Creating and Manipulating Attractors
o Adjusting weights or energy functions shapes the attractor landscape, dictating where the
system will stabilize.
3. Training the Network
o Training methods like Hebbian learning or gradient descent can define attractors corresponding
to specific input patterns.
o For example, in a Hopfield network, Hebbian learning stores patterns as attractors in the
network.
4. Noise and Robustness
o The manipulation also involves ensuring that attractors remain robust under noise or
perturbations, making the system reliable.

Applications

1. Associative Memory
o Networks like Hopfield networks use point attractors to store and retrieve patterns. Partial or
noisy inputs evolve toward the nearest stored pattern.
2. Pattern Recognition
o Patterns or features are encoded as attractors. The system identifies patterns by evolving its state
toward the nearest attractor.
 3. Optimization Problems
o Attractors represent optimal solutions. The network's dynamics guide the system toward these
solutions (e.g., traveling salesman problem).
4. Dynamic Systems Modeling
o Limit cycles and strange attractors are used to model periodic or chaotic phenomena, such as
weather or biological rhythms.

Advantages

1. Efficient Memory Storage

o Patterns are stored as stable points, and the system is robust to noisy inputs.
2. Nonlinear Problem Solving
o The attractor landscape handles nonlinear, high-dimensional problems effectively.
3. Flexibility
o By manipulating attractors, the network can be adapted for diverse applications.

Challenges

1. Complexity of Dynamics
o Manipulating attractors in high-dimensional systems can be computationally intensive.
2. Unintended Attractors
o Improper training may lead to spurious attractors, causing errors in retrieval or convergence.
3. Stability vs. Flexibility
o Designing a network with attractors that are both stable and flexible for varying inputs is non-
trivial.

Conclusion

The manipulation of attractors paradigm leverages the inherent dynamics of recurrent neural networks to
achieve tasks like memory recall, pattern recognition, and optimization. By carefully designing the network's
weight structure and energy landscape, it is possible to encode specific behaviors and ensure robust
performance in a variety of real-world applications.

Hopfield
The Hopfield Neural Networks, invented by Dr John J. Hopfield consists of one layer of ‘n’ fully connected
recurrent neurons. It is generally used in performing auto-association and optimization tasks. It is calculated
using a converging interactive process and it generates a different response than our normal neural nets.
Discrete Hopfield Network
It is a fully interconnected neural network where each unit is connected to every other unit. It behaves in a
discrete manner, i.e. it gives finite distinct output, generally of two types:
 Binary (0/1)
 Bipolar (-1/1)
The weights associated with this network are symmetric in nature and have the following properties.
1. wij=wji2. wii=0 1. wij=wji2. wii=0
Structure & Architecture of Hopfield Network
 Each neuron has an inverting and a non
non-inverting output.
 Being fully connected, the output of each neuron is an input to all other neurons but not the self.
The below figure shows a sample representation of a Discrete Hopfield Neural Network architecture having the
following elements.

Discrete Hopfield Network Architecture

[ x1 , x2 , ... , xn ] -> Input to the n given neurons.

[ y1 , y2 , ... , yn ] -> Output obtained from the n given neurons
Wij -> weight associatedd with the connection between the ith and the jth neuron.

The Hopfield model is a type of recurrent neural network designed for associative memory. It stores patterns
and retrieves them based on partial or noisy input, acting like a content
content-addressable
addressable memory
mem system.

To make the training algorithm simple and clear:

What is the Goal of Hopfield Training?

1. Store a set of patterns (e.g., images, binary sequences).

2. Ensure the network can recognize and recall the stored patterns, even if given incomplete or noisy
versions.

Step-by-Step
Step Training Algorithm for Hopfield Model

Step 1: Understand the Basics

  The Hopfield network is made of neurons, each connected to every other neuron.
 Each neuron can take a value of +1 or -1 (binary states).

Step 2: Define the Patterns to Be Stored

 Decide on the patterns you want the network to remember.

For example: P1=[+1,−1,+1,−1]P_1 = [+1, -1, +1, -1]P1=[+1,−1,+1,−1] P2=[−1,+1,−1,+1]P_2 = [-1, +1,
-1, +1]P2=[−1,+1,−1,+1]

Step 3: Initialize Weights

 The connection between two neurons iii and jjj has a weight wijw_{ij}wij.
 Start with all weights as 0: wij=0for all i,jw_{ij} = 0 \quad \text{for all } i, jwij=0for all i,j

Step 4: Calculate Weights Using Hebbian Learning

 For each pattern PkP_kPk, update the weights as:

wij=wij+1N⋅Pki⋅Pkjw_{ij} = w_{ij} + \frac{1}{N} \cdot P_{ki} \cdot P_{kj}wij=wij+N1⋅Pki⋅Pkj

where:

o PkiP_{ki}Pki and PkjP_{kj}Pkj: States of neurons iii and jjj in pattern PkP_kPk.
o NNN: Number of neurons.
 Repeat this process for all patterns, summing the contributions.
Key Rules:
o Do not allow self-connections: wii=0w_{ii} = 0wii=0.

Step 5: Store the Weights

 After processing all patterns, the final weights represent the memory of the network.

Example

If you want to store P1=[+1,−1]P_1 = [+1, -1]P1=[+1,−1] and P2=[−1,+1]P_2 = [-1, +1]P2=[−1,+1]:

1. For P1P_1P1:

w11=0,w12=(+1)(−1),w21=(−1)(+1),w22=0w_{11} = 0, \quad w_{12} = (+1)(-1), \quad w_{21} = (-

1)(+1), \quad w_{22} = 0w11=0,w12=(+1)(−1),w21=(−1)(+1),w22=0

2. For P2P_2P2:
Update the same weights with contributions from P2P_2P2.

Step-by-Step Recall Process

 1. Present a noisy or partial input.
Example: X=[+1,0]X = [+1, 0]X=[+1,0] (where 0 is unknown).
2. Update each neuron based on others using:

si=sign(∑j≠iwij⋅xj)s_i = \text{sign} \left( \sum_{j \neq i} w_{ij} \cdot x_j \right)si=signj=i∑wij⋅xj

o sis_isi: New state of neuron iii.

o xjx_jxj: Current state of neuron jjj.
3. Repeat until the states stop changing (stable state).
4. The stable state will match one of the stored patterns.

Why is It Simple?

 You just sum products and adjust weights.

 During recall, neurons "communicate" with each other using simple math.

Real-Life Analogy

Imagine Hopfield like a memory board:

 Training is like pinning down memories by adjusting connections (weights).

 Recall is like asking the board: "What do you remember closest to this?"

This simple design makes the Hopfield model intuitive and efficient for small datasets.