2. A) Explain the data parallelism and control parallelism with an example for each.

Answer:- Certainly!

Data parallelism and control parallelism are two vital concepts in parallel computing,
each offering distinct ways to harness the power of multiple processing units for
improved performance.

Data parallelism involves distributing data across processors and performing the
same operation on each data element simultaneously. Imagine a scenario where you
need to apply a filter to a large image. By dividing the image into sections and
assigning each section to a different processor, you can concurrently apply the filter
to each section. This approach significantly accelerates the image processing, as all
processors work in parallel, and the final result is obtained faster.

Control parallelism, on the other hand, deals with executing different tasks
concurrently. Consider a video game where characters, animations, and physics
simulations are handled separately. Each character's behavior, animations, and
interactions can be processed by dedicated cores simultaneously. This orchestration
of tasks ensures that the game runs smoothly, characters respond promptly to
actions, and the ovewrall gaming experience remains immersive and enjoyable.

In essence, data parallelism optimizes computation by performing identical

operations on distinct data concurrently, as in image filtering. Control parallelism
enhances efficiency by running diverse tasks in parallel, exemplified by video games
with multiple interactive elements. Both paradigms leverage parallel processing to
enhance performance in various applications, demonstrating the power of parallel
computing.

2. B) Explain PRAM Model with its components.

Answer:- The Parallel Random Access Machine (PRAM) model stands as a
foundational framework for comprehending the efficiency and behavior of parallel
algorithms. Its components encapsulate the fundamental aspects of parallel
computing.

Processors are at the heart of PRAM, representing the computational units that
execute instructions. These instructions are the building blocks of algorithmic
operations, encompassing tasks such as reading and writing to memory. Speaking of
memory, the PRAM model assumes a globally shared memory accessible by all
processors, where each memory location can be read from or written to.

In the realm of concurrency, PRAM reflects the essence of parallelism by envisioning

all processors simultaneously executing their respective instructions in a single time
step. This simultaneous execution encapsulates the idealized nature of parallel
computation.

The PRAM model is categorized into different classes based on memory access
patterns. CREW (Concurrent Read Exclusive Write), EREW (Exclusive Read Exclusive
Write), and CRCW (Concurrent Read Concurrent Write) are classifications that define
the degree of concurrency allowed for memory access.

While PRAM simplifies real-world complexities and lacks consideration for

communication overhead, it serves as a powerful analytical tool for designing and
understanding parallel algorithms. By abstracting away hardware intricacies, the
PRAM model provides a structured way to examine the potential efficiency and
limitations of parallel computation.

3. A) Differentiate between thread and process. Explain the concept of thread with
basic methods in parallel programming language for creation and termination of
threads.
Answer:- Threads and processes are both units of execution in a program, but they
differ in their characteristics and usage.

A thread is the smallest unit of execution within a process. Threads within the same
process share the same memory space and resources, enabling efficient
communication and coordination. Threads allow for parallelism and are suitable for
tasks that can be divided into smaller subtasks, improving performance.

In contrast, a process is a standalone program execution unit, with its own memory
space and resources. Processes are isolated from each other and communicate
through inter-process communication mechanisms.

In parallel programming, threads are created and terminated using methods provided
by the programming language or library. Common methods include:

I) **Creation**: A basic method to create a thread involves defining a function or code

block that represents the thread's tasks. In languages like Java, you can extend the
`Thread` class or implement the `Runnable` interface. In Python, the `threading`
module provides the `Thread` class.

II) **Termination**: Threads can be terminated explicitly using methods like `join()` in
Java or `join()` in Python. This ensures that the main program waits for threads to
complete before continuing.

Threads offer lightweight parallelism within a process, while processes provide

isolation. Understanding their distinctions and employing appropriate creation and
termination methods is crucial for efficient parallel programming.

3. B) Explain the shared memory model and message passing model.

Answer:- The shared memory model and message passing model are two prevalent
paradigms in parallel computing for facilitating communication between processes or
threads.

In the shared memory model, processes or threads communicate by reading and

writing to a common memory space. This memory is accessible to all entities,
enabling direct interaction. Changes made by one process are immediately visible to
others. However, synchronization mechanisms like locks or semaphores are essential
to prevent data races and ensure coherent access.

In the message passing model, processes communicate by sending and receiving

messages. Each process has its own memory, and communication occurs explicitly
through messages. This approach emphasizes isolation between processes, which
can help avoid unintended interference. However, efficient message passing often
requires careful design to minimize overhead.

Shared memory simplifies communication but demands synchronization care, while

message passing isolates processes but requires explicit communication
management. The choice between models depends on factors like application
characteristics and hardware architecture.

4. Write short notes on the following:

A) Mapping data on processor arrays

Answer:- Mapping data onto processor arrays is a crucial aspect of parallel
computing, particularly in systems like processor grids or arrays, where multiple
processors work in tandem. This process involves distributing data elements across
the processors to enable efficient parallel processing.

The goal of data mapping is to ensure that data is evenly distributed among
processors, minimizing data imbalances and optimizing computational load. Load
balancing is essential to prevent some processors from idling while others are
overwhelmed.

Data mapping strategies vary, including block mapping, cyclic mapping, and random
mapping. Block mapping assigns consecutive data elements to processors, suitable
for tasks with data dependencies. Cyclic mapping spreads data elements in a
round-robin manner, suitable for independent tasks. Random mapping avoids
patterns but can result in load imbalances.

Effective data mapping can significantly enhance parallel performance by reducing

communication overhead and ensuring optimal processor utilization. It demands a
careful analysis of task characteristics, data dependencies, and the underlying
processor architecture to achieve efficient parallel execution.

4. B) Static and dynamic load balancing

Answer:- Static and dynamic load balancing are strategies used in parallel and
distributed computing to distribute computational workloads effectively among
processors, enhancing overall system performance.

Static Load Balancing involves distributing tasks or data to processors before

execution begins. This strategy is suitable when task durations are predictable or
when data distribution patterns are known. While it simplifies scheduling, it might
lead to load imbalances if task durations vary significantly.
Dynamic Load Balancing, on the other hand, adapts workload distribution during
runtime based on real-time information. This approach is ideal for unpredictable
workloads and varying execution times. It may involve redistributing tasks or
migrating data between processors to maintain balance. While dynamic load
balancing can mitigate imbalances, it introduces communication overhead and might
require sophisticated algorithms.

Choosing between static and dynamic load balancing depends on workload

predictability and the level of overhead the system can tolerate. Both approaches aim
to optimize resource utilization, ensuring efficient parallel and distributed
computation.

4. C) UMA multiprocessors
Answer:- Uniform Memory Access (UMA) multiprocessors, also known as Symmetric
Multiprocessors (SMP), are parallel computing architectures where multiple
processors share a single memory space with uniform access times. In UMA systems,
all processors are connected to a common bus or interconnect, providing equal
access to memory locations.

UMA's key feature is its uniform memory latency across all processors. This ensures
that any processor can access any memory location with consistent and predictable
time, promoting efficient load balancing and reducing memory access conflicts.

However, as the number of processors increases, the shared memory bus can
become a bottleneck, leading to performance degradation due to contention. UMA is
well-suited for applications with high memory locality and minimal inter-processor
communication.

UMA multiprocessors offer simplicity in programming since all processors have

identical access to memory, but their scalability is limited due to bus contention.
Modern architectures have evolved towards Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA)
designs, which offer improved scalability by segmenting memory regions, reducing
contention, and optimizing access patterns.

5. A) Write parallel algorithms to solve the matrix multiplication problem.

Answer:- A parallel algorithm for matrix multiplication involves breaking down the
task into smaller subtasks and processing them concurrently using multiple threads
or processes. Each element in the resulting matrix is computed by multiplying
corresponding elements from the input matrices and summing the products. Threads
are assigned to perform these calculations independently, enhancing performance.

In Python, you can create a parallel matrix multiplication algorithm using threading.
The algorithm divides the multiplication into separate tasks for each element in the
resulting matrix. Threads compute these tasks in parallel, improving efficiency.
However, real-world implementation requires addressing challenges like load
balancing, memory access, and thread synchronization. More advanced frameworks
and libraries, such as NumPy or OpenMP, often provide optimized matrix
multiplication functions for better performance on modern hardware.
5. B) Discuss the following in detail :
(i) Enumeration sort
(ii) Odd-even transposition sort

Answer:- **(i) Enumeration Sort:**

Enumeration sort is a basic sorting algorithm that functions by determining the

position of each element in the sorted sequence based on the count of elements that
are smaller or equal to it. The algorithm involves two phases. In the enumeration
phase, each element is compared with all others, and a count is kept of elements that
are less than or equal to it. In the placement phase, the counts are used to position
each element in the sorted sequence.

However, enumeration sort's time complexity is O(n^2), making it inefficient for larger
datasets. Its primary advantage lies in its simplicity and minimal memory
requirements, but for practical applications, more advanced sorting algorithms like
quicksort or mergesort are preferred due to their superior performance.

**(ii) Odd-Even Transposition Sort:**

Odd-even transposition sort is a parallel sorting algorithm well-suited for distributed

computing environments. It works by repeatedly comparing and swapping adjacent
elements. During odd-even phases, odd-indexed elements are compared and
swapped if necessary. Similarly, even-indexed elements are adjusted during even-odd
phases. This process continues until the list is sorted.

Although odd-even transposition sort has a time complexity of O(n^2), its parallel
nature allows it to capitalize on multiple processors' capabilities. However, its
efficiency is still limited compared to more advanced parallel sorting algorithms. It
serves as a practical example of how parallelism can be harnessed for sorting tasks,
particularly in parallel computing environments.

6. A) Explain the Benes network. Show the interconnection of Benes network for the
following permutations:

P=0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
23401675
Answer:- The Benes network is a versatile interconnection network used for sorting,
permuting data, and routing in parallel computing systems. It consists of stages of
switch blocks that systematically reorganize data according to a given permutation.
Each switch block has inputs and outputs that can be configured to route data
effectively.

For the permutation P = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 with the specified reordering 2 3 4 0 1 6 7 5, the

Benes network's interconnection is as follows:
- In the first stage, the switches correspond to the identity permutation.
- In the second stage, the switches align with the specified reordering.
- Subsequent stages follow, ultimately resulting in the permutation 6 7 5 0 1 2 3 4.

The Benes network's structured layout and deterministic routing make it valuable for
parallel algorithms and distributed systems, allowing for efficient data reordering and
communication.

6. B) Explain pipeline processing with its architecture and an example.

Answer:- Pipeline processing is a technique used to enhance the throughput and
efficiency of data processing by dividing a task into multiple stages. Each stage
performs a specific operation on the data, and the stages are executed concurrently,
allowing for continuous processing of new input while the previous input moves
through the pipeline. It's commonly used in scenarios where tasks have a sequence
of well-defined and independent steps.

The architecture of pipeline processing involves several stages connected in a linear

fashion. Each stage processes a portion of the input and passes it to the next stage.
The pipeline stages operate concurrently, improving the overall throughput.

Example: Video Encoding Pipeline

Consider a video encoding pipeline with stages: video decoding, color correction,
compression, and storage. As a new video is fed into the pipeline, it undergoes these
stages concurrently. While one video is being color-corrected, the next video is being
decoded, and so on. This pipelining ensures continuous data flow, optimizing
resource utilization and increasing throughput.

In this way, pipeline processing accelerates tasks by enabling parallel execution of

distinct stages, boosting efficiency in various domains like manufacturing,
computing, and multimedia processing.

7. A) The string matching problem is to find all occurrences of a particular substring.

called the pattern, in another string, called the text. Design a parallel algorithm to
solve the string matching problem.
Answer:- A parallel algorithm for the string matching problem can be devised using
the concept of data parallelism. The text is divided into smaller segments, and
multiple processors simultaneously search for occurrences of the pattern within
these segments. Once the search is complete, the results from each processor are
combined to identify all occurrences of the pattern in the text.

The algorithm's steps involve:

I). Dividing the text into segments and distributing them among processors.
Ii). Each processor searches its assigned segment for the pattern using a string
matching algorithm like the Knuth-Morris-Pratt (KMP) algorithm.
Iii). Processors return the positions of occurrences found within their segments.
Iv) The results are collected and merged to provide a comprehensive list of pattern
occurrences.

This approach leverages parallel processing to significantly speed up the string

matching process, particularly for large texts and patterns. However, the efficiency of
the algorithm relies on proper load balancing and effective communication
mechanisms to aggregate results accurately.

7. B) Design a parallel version of merge sort for a multicomputer. Write a program

implementing your parallel algorithm
Answer:- A parallel version of merge sort for a multicomputer can be achieved by
dividing the input array into segments, distributing them across available processors,
and performing parallel merge sort on each segment. Subsequently, merging of
sorted segments is performed in parallel to yield the final sorted array.

Here's a simplified Python program implementing the parallel merge sort algorithm
using the `multiprocessing` module:

```python
import multiprocessing

def merge(left, right):

merged = []
i, j = 0, 0
while i < len(left) and j < len(right):
if left[i] < right[j]:
merged.append(left[i])
i += 1
else:
merged.append(right[j])
j += 1
merged.extend(left[i:])
merged.extend(right[j:])
return merged

def parallel_merge_sort(arr):
if len(arr) <= 1:
return arr
mid = len(arr) // 2
left = arr[:mid]
right = arr[mid:]

with multiprocessing.Pool() as pool:

left = pool.apply(parallel_merge_sort, (left,))
right = pool.apply(parallel_merge_sort, (right,))

return merge(left, right)

# Example usage
input_array = [3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5, 3, 5]
sorted_array = parallel_merge_sort(input_array)
print(sorted_array)
```
This program utilizes the `multiprocessing` module to divide and conquer the sorting
process, enabling parallelization across multiple processors in a multicomputer
environment.

8. A) What is a parallel virtual machine? Explain the compile and running process of a
parallel virtual machine program.
Answer:- A Parallel Virtual Machine (PVM) is a software system that enables the
execution of parallel programs across multiple interconnected computers. It provides
a framework for distributed computing, allowing processes or tasks to communicate
and synchronize with each other to achieve parallelism.

The process of compiling and running a PVM program involves the following steps:

A). **Compilation**:
- The source code of the PVM program is written using programming languages like
C, Fortran, or Python.
- Compiler-specific flags or directives are often used to indicate parallelism or
PVM-specific calls.
- The program is compiled using the standard compiler for the chosen programming
language.

B). **Execution**:
- PVM must be installed and configured on each participating computer in the
network.
- The compiled program is executed on each machine independently, creating
parallel tasks.
- PVM tasks communicate and coordinate using PVM functions or libraries, often
involving message passing.
- Results from different tasks are collected, and the program's parallel execution is
managed by the PVM runtime.

In summary, a PVM program is developed using standard programming languages,

and its execution is orchestrated by the PVM system, enabling parallel execution
across interconnected computers.

8. B) Define the structural classification based on different computer organizations.

Answer:- Structural classification is a categorization of computer organizations based
on the underlying architecture and components used to design a computer system. It
helps in understanding the organization of various hardware components that
constitute a computer. The primary structural classifications include:

A). **Single Accumulator Organization**: In this organization, there is a single register

(accumulator) that stores intermediate results of arithmetic and logic operations. The
accumulator is involved in most operations, simplifying the control unit.
B). **General Register Organization**: Here, the CPU has multiple registers that are
not limited to a single accumulator. These registers are used to store data and
intermediate results, improving efficiency and enabling more complex operations.

C). **Stack Organization**: In this architecture, a stack is used to store operands and
addresses for operations. Operations are performed on the top elements of the stack,
making it suitable for arithmetic expressions and subroutine calls.

D). **Memory-Register Organization**: This classification involves a combination of

registers and memory. Instructions are fetched from memory and operands can be in
registers or memory, providing flexibility.

E). **Memory-Memory Organization**: This architecture uses memory for both

instructions and data. The CPU fetches instructions from memory and operands are
stored in memory locations, which allows for more complex addressing modes.

These structural classifications influence the organization of control units, data paths,
and memory hierarchies within a computer system. Different computer organizations
are chosen based on factors like performance, cost, and application requirements.

9. Write short notes on the following

A) Synchronous and Asynchronous Message Passing.
Answer:- **Synchronous Message Passing:**
Synchronous message passing is a communication paradigm where the
sender of a message is blocked until the receiver acknowledges the receipt of
the message. This implies a strict synchronization between the sender and
receiver. The sender waits until the receiver is ready to process the message,
ensuring that messages are exchanged in a coordinated manner. While this
approach guarantees ordered and synchronized communication, it can lead to
potential performance bottlenecks, as sender-receiver pairs must wait for each
other, which can slow down overall system efficiency.

**Asynchronous Message Passing:**

Asynchronous message passing is a communication paradigm where the
sender of a message continues its execution immediately after sending the
message, without waiting for an acknowledgment from the receiver. This
approach allows for more parallelism and flexibility, as sender and receiver are
decoupled in terms of timing. Asynchronous communication is suitable for
scenarios where processes can proceed independently, and waiting for
acknowledgments is not essential. However, it may introduce complexities
related to message delivery order and potential race conditions.

Both synchronous and asynchronous message passing have their merits and
trade-offs, and the choice between them depends on the requirements of the
application, the nature of communication, and the desired level of
synchronization.

9. B) Design Issues in interconnection Networks

Answer:- Designing interconnection networks for parallel and distributed computing
systems involves various critical issues that impact performance, scalability, and
efficiency.

**Topology Selection:** Choosing an appropriate network topology (like mesh, torus,

or hypercube) affects communication latency, fault tolerance, and scalability. Each
topology has trade-offs in terms of cost and performance.

**Routing Algorithms:** Deciding on routing methods impacts the efficiency of data

transfer. Deterministic and adaptive routing algorithms need to be chosen based on
network topology and traffic patterns.

**Network Interfaces:** Designing efficient network interfaces that support various

communication protocols, buffer management, and error handling is crucial for
high-performance communication.

**Flow Control:** Managing data flow to prevent congestion and deadlock is essential.
Flow control mechanisms, such as credit-based or virtual channel-based, must be
selected and tailored to network needs.

**Fault Tolerance:** Integrating fault tolerance mechanisms, like redundancy and error
detection, is important to maintain system reliability.

**Scalability:** Ensuring the network scales seamlessly as the system size increases
requires careful design of addressing schemes, routing, and buffering.

**Topology Mapping:** Placing processes or tasks on processing nodes to minimize

communication distance and contention influences overall system performance.

**Performance Metrics:** Defining and optimizing performance metrics, such as

latency, throughput, and bandwidth, guides network design decisions.

**Power Efficiency:** Minimizing power consumption and heat generation in

interconnect components is increasingly important in modern systems.

Balancing these design issues is essential to create interconnection networks that

effectively meet the demands of parallel and distributed computing, leading to
systems that are both performant and scalable.

9. C) Amdahl's Law
Answer:- Amdahl's Law is a fundamental principle in parallel computing that
quantifies the potential speedup achievable through parallelization. It states that the
speedup of a program is limited by the portion of the code that cannot be parallelized.

The law is expressed as: Speedup = 1 / [(1 - P) + (P / N)], where P is the proportion of
the program that can be parallelized, and N is the number of processors.
Amdahl's Law highlights the diminishing returns of adding more processors to a task
when a significant portion of the code remains sequential. It underscores the
importance of optimizing the non-parallelizable section to achieve substantial
speedup. For example, if 20% of a program is sequential, no matter how many
processors are used, the maximum speedup achievable will always be limited by that
20%.

Amdahl's Law underscores the need for a balanced approach to parallelization,

considering both parallelizable portions and sequential bottlenecks to maximize the
benefits of parallel computing.

9. D) Asymptotic Analysis
Answer:- Asymptotic analysis is a mathematical technique used in computer science
to analyze the behavior of algorithms as input sizes grow towards infinity. It focuses
on understanding an algorithm's efficiency in terms of its worst-case, best-case, and
average-case performance. Rather than dealing with specific inputs, asymptotic
analysis provides insights into the overall trend of an algorithm's time and space
complexity.

Common notations used in asymptotic analysis are Big O, Big Omega, and Big Theta.
Big O notation, often referred to as upper bound, describes the worst-case behavior
of an algorithm. Big Omega represents the lower bound, indicating the best-case
scenario. Big Theta provides a tight bound by capturing both upper and lower limits.

Asymptotic analysis is essential for comparing and contrasting algorithms' efficiency

and scalability, enabling developers to make informed choices when selecting
appropriate algorithms for specific tasks. It abstracts from constant factors and
smaller input sizes, offering a high-level view of algorithm performance that is
particularly valuable for large-scale applications.