Module 4: Computer Networking

1. Computers Communicate,
2. IP address (Static vs. DHCP) ,
3. Computer MAC Address LAN, MAN and WAN,
4. Protocols and Ports
5. Types of Network Devices (Hub, Switch,
Modem, Router, Access point),
6. Internet and Intranet Working
 Computers Communication
• Data Communication: Transferring data over a
transmission medium between two or more
devices, systems, or places is known as data
communication.
OSI:OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONECTION
 • The OSI model is broken up into seven layers. Each layer fulfills an important
role within the networking stack and communicates with other layers by
exchanging protocol data units
1. The Physical Layer
The physical layer is where the raw bit stream is physically transmitted over a
physical medium. The Layer 1 PDU is the “symbol”. This includes translating bits to
electricity, light, or radio signals and controlling the rates at which they are sent
over the chosen medium.
2. The Data Link Layer
The data link layer breaks data to be transmitted into frames for transmission at
the physical layer. It also manages connections between two different nodes,
including setting up the connection, identifying and correcting any bit errors that
occur at the physical layer, and terminating the connection once the session is
complete.
3. The Network Layer
At the network layer, the focus expands from a point-to-point link to include many
interconnected nodes within a network. Network-layer devices operate on packets
and are responsible for routing traffic to its destination based on IP addresses.
4. The Transport Layer
The transport layer is the first of four “host” layers with the rest referred to as
“media” layers. The transport layer PDU is the “segment” or “datagram”. This
layer manages the transmission of data between nodes, including ensuring that
data arrives in the correct sequence and that any errors are corrected. The
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) operates at Layer 4
5.The Session Layer
The session layer manages sessions between nodes and
acts on the “data” PDU. Session management includes
setup, authentication, termination, and reconnections.
6. The Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is primarily responsible for
translating data from network data to the formats
expected by an application. For example, data
encodings and encryption are managed at Layer 6.
7. The Application Layer
The application layer includes protocols designed for
end-users. For example, HTTP is a Layer 7 protocol
designed to transmit data between a web server and a
client.
 Components of Data Communication
• A communication system is made up of the following components:

1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from

one person to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.

2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer,

mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.

3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer,

telephone mobile, workstation, etc.

4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels

are the medium that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be
connected by either wired media or wireless media.

5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should
be understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless.
Therefore, there are some set of rules (protocols) that is followed by every computer
connected to the internet and they are:
• TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for dividing messages into
packets on the source computer and reassembling the received packet at the
destination or recipient computer. It also makes sure that the packets have the
information about the source of the message data, the destination of the message
data, the sequence in which the message data should be re-assembled, and checks if
the message has been sent correctly to the specific destination.
• IP(Internet Protocol): IP is responsible for handling the address of the destination
computer so that each packet is sent to its proper destination.
 Type of data communication
1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we
can say that unidirectional communication in which one
device only receives and another device only sends data and
devices uses their entire capacity in transmission. For
example, IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listing music
using a speaker, etc.
2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication,
or we can say that it is a bidirectional communication in which
both the devices can send and receive data but not at the
same time. When one device is sending data then another
device is only receiving and vice-versa. For example,
walkie-talkie.
3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or
we can say that it is a bidirectional communication in which
both the devices can send and receive data at the same time.
For example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.
 Communication Channels
• Communication channels are the medium that
connects two or more workstations.
• Workstations can be connected by either wired
media or wireless media. It is also known as a
transmission medium.
• The transmission medium or channel is a link that
carries messages between two or more devices.
• We can group the communication media into two
categories:
– Guided media transmission
– Unguided media transmission
• Guided Media: In this transmission medium, the
physical link is created using wires or cables
between two or more computers or devices, and
then the data is transmitted using these cables in
terms of signals.
– Twisted pair cable: It is the most common form of wire
used in communication. In a twisted-pair cable, two
identical wires are wrapped together in a double helix.
The twisting of the wire reduces the crosstalk. It is
known as the leaking of a signal from one wire to
another due to which signal can corrupt and can cause
network errors.
• Types of Twisted Pair Cable :
– Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It is used in computers and
telephones widely. there is no external shielding so it does not
protects from external interference. It is cheaper than STP.
– Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It offers greater protection from
crosstalk due to shield. Due to shielding, it protects from external
interference. It is heavier and costlier as compare to UTP.
• Coaxial Cable: It consists of a solid wire core that is
surrounded by one or more foil or wire shields. The
inner core of the coaxial cable carries the signal and
the outer shield provides the ground.
• Optical fibers: Optical fiber is an important
technology. It transmits large amounts of data at
very high speeds due to which it is widely used in
internet cables. It carries data as a light that travels
inside a thin glass fiber. The fiber optic cable is made
up of three pieces:
1. Core: Core is the piece through which light travels. It is
generally created using glass or plastic.
2. Cladding: It is the covering of the core and reflects the
light back to the core.
3. Sheath: It is the protective covering that protects fiber
cable from the environment.
• Unguided Media: The unguided transmission media is a transmission
mode in which the signals are propagated from one device to another
device wirelessly. Signals can wave through the air, water, or vacuum.

1. Microwave: Microwave offers communication without the use of

cables. Microwave signals are just like radio and television signals.
It is used in long-distance communication. Microwave
transmission consists of a transmitter, receiver, and atmosphere.
In microwave communication, there are parabolic antennas that
are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna.
The higher the tower, the greater the range.

2. Radio wave: When communication is carried out by radio

frequencies, then it is termed radio waves transmission. It offers
mobility. It is consists of the transmitter and the receiver. Both
use antennas to radiate and capture the radio signal.

3. Infrared: It is short-distance communication and can pass through

any object. It is generally used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, etc.
 IP address
• An Internet Protocol (IP) address is the unique identifying
number assigned to every device connected to the internet.
• An IP address definition is a numeric label assigned to
devices that use the internet to communicate. Computers
that communicate over the internet or via local networks
share information to a specific location using IP addresses.
• There are 4 types of IP address
1. A public IP address, or external-facing IP address
2. A private IP address, or internal-facing IP address
3. Static IP address
4. Dynamic IP address
 Public IP address

• A public IP address, or external-facing IP

address, applies to the main device, people
use to connect their business or home
internet network to their internet service
provider (ISP).
• In most cases, this will be the router. All
devices that connect to a router communicate
with other IP addresses using the router’s IP
address.
 Private IP address
• A private IP address, or internal-facing IP address, is
assigned by an office or home intranet (or local area
network) to devices, or by the internet service provider
(ISP).
• The home/office router manages the private IP addresses
to the devices that connect to it from within that local
network. Network devices are thus mapped from their
private IP addresses to public IP addresses by the router.
• Private IP addresses are reused across multiple networks,
thus preserving valuable IPv4 address space and
extending addressability beyond the simple limit of IPv4
addressing (2^32).
• In the IPv6 addressing scheme, every possible device has
its own unique identifier assigned by the ISP or primary
network organization, which has a unique prefix. Private
addressing is possible in IPv6, and when it's used it's
called Unique Local Addressing (ULA).
• How does an IP address work?
• An IP address works in helping your device,
– whatever you are accessing the internet on,
– To find whatever data or content is located to allow for
retrieval.
• Common tasks for an IP address include both the
identification of a host or a network, or identifying the
location of a device.
• The host portion of an IP address identifies a specific
device on a network, while the network portion
identifies the network
• An IP address is not random.
• The creation of an IP address has the basis of math.
• The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
allocates the IP address and its creation. The full range of
IP addresses can go from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.
 Static IP
• All public and private addresses are defined as
static or dynamic.
• An IP address that a person manually configures
and fixes to their device’s network is referred to
as a static IP address.
• A static IP address cannot be changed
automatically.
• An internet service provider may assign a static IP
address to a user account. The same IP address
will be assigned to that user for every session.
 Dynamic IP address
• A dynamic IP address is automatically assigned to a
network when a router is set up.
• The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP) assigns the distribution of this dynamic set of
IP addresses.
• The DHCP can be the router that provides IP addresses
to networks across a home or an organization.
• Each time a user logs into the network, a fresh IP
address is assigned from the pool of available
(currently unassigned) IP addresses.
• A user may randomly cycle through several IP
addresses across multiple sessions.
 Difference between a Static and
Dynamic IP address
• The difference between a Static and Dynamic
IP address lies in how long the assigned
address remains the same.
• A Static IP address is a fixed address that is
manually assigned to a device for a long
period of time
• A Dynamic IP address changes frequently,
usually each time the device is restarted, and
is automatically assigned.
Static IP Address Dynamic IP Address

While it is provided by DHCP (Dynamic Host

It is provided by ISP (Internet Service Provider).
Configuration Protocol).

Static IP address does not change any time, it

means if a static ip address is provided then it While dynamic IP address change any time.
can’t be changed or modified.

While in dynamic IP address, there is low amount

Static IP address is less secure.
of risk than static ip address’s risk.

Static IP address is difficult to designate. While dynamic IP address is easy to designate.

The device designed by static IP address can be But the device designed by dynamic IP address
traced. can’t be traced.

Static IP address is more stable than dynamic IP While dynamic IP address is less stable than static
address. IP address.

The cost to maintain the static IP address is higher While the maintaining cost of dynamic IP address
than dynamic ip address. is less than static IP address.

It is used where computational data is less While it is used where data is more confidential
confidential. and needs more security.

Simplifies the troubleshooting as the IP is always While dynamic IP increases the complexity of
the same. diagnosing the network issues.
 IPv4 Address Format

• IPv4 addresses are based on the binary system, consisting

of 32 binary digits (bits).
• Each IPv4 address is a 32-bit number, divided into four
segments known as octets or bytes. Each octet contains 8
bits, making up the full 32-bit address.
• The term "octet" comes from the fact that each group
contains exactly 8 bits.
• In their more human-readable form, these octets are
separated by periods, a format known as dotted decimal
notation.
• Each octet can have a decimal value ranging from 0 to 255,
derived from the fact that an 8-bit binary number can
represent 256 different values (2^8=256).
 Binary Representation
• Although IPv4 addresses are usually seen in decimal
form for human readability, they are processed in
binary form by computers. Each octet is converted to
an 8-bit binary number. For instance, the address
192.168. 43.1 in binary looks like this:
• 192: 11000000
• 168: 10101000
• 43: 00101011
• 241: 1111001
• So, 192.168. 43. 241 in binary is: 11000000.10101000.
00101011. 1111001
 Significance of Each Bit
• When broken down, each bit within an IPv4 address provides
information that helps identify the network and the specific
device on that network, as well as guide routing decisions
and enable subnetting for network management.
1. Network and Host: The bits are used to determine the
network part and the host part of the address. Depending
on the subnet mask, some bits represent the network, and
the remaining bits represent the host within that network.
2. Routing: Routers use the binary form of IP addresses to
make routing decisions. The network portion helps
determine the destination network, while the host portion
identifies the specific device within that network.
3. Subnetting: The binary representation allows for the
creation of subnets. By manipulating bits (using subnet
masks), large networks can be divided into smaller, more
manageable sub-networks.
 IPv4 Address Classes
• IPv4 addresses are divided into 5 classes (A, B, C, D, E).
1. Class A
• Usage:
– Class A IP addresses are typically used by very large
organizations due to their extensive address space. Examples
include major corporations, and government entities that
require a substantial number of IP addresses to accommodate
an extensive network.
• IP Range: 1.0.0.0 to 127.0.0.0
• Default Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0 (N-H-H-H)
• This subnet mask indicates that the first 8 bits (1 byte) of
the address are used for the network portion, while the
remaining 24 bits (3 bytes) are used for the host portion.
• Only 126 are available as two networks are reserved for
specific cases.
2. Class B
• Usage:
– Class B IP addresses are commonly utilized by medium to
large-sized organizations, such as educational
institutions, mid-sized companies, and regional internet
service providers (ISPs).
– These entities benefit from the substantial address space
provided by Class B addresses, enabling them to support
a considerable number of devices while maintaining
efficient network performance.
• IP Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0
• Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0 (N-N-H-H)
• This subnet mask designates the first 16 bits (1 byte)
of the address for the network portion and the
remaining 16 bits (1 byte) for the host portion.
3. Class C
• Usage:
– Class C IP addresses are commonly utilized for smaller-scale
networks due to their ability to support a moderate number
of hosts per network while offering a vast number of
networks.
– They are frequently deployed where multiple smaller
networks are necessary, such as office environments,
educational institutions with multiple departments, and
residential networks.
• IP Range:192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0
• Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0. (N-N-N-H)
• This subnet mask designates the first 24 (3 bytes) bits of
the address for the network portion and the remaining 8
bits (1 byte) for the host portion.
4. Class D
• Usage:
– Class D addresses are reserved for multicast communication, where a single
packet can be sent to multiple recipients simultaneously.
– This type of communication is commonly used for streaming multimedia
content, video conferencing, online gaming, and other applications where
data needs to be distributed to multiple recipients across various networks.
• IP Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255.
• These addresses are designated specifically for multicast group
communication.
• Not Assigned to Individual Devices or Networks: Unlike Class A, B, and
C addresses, Class D addresses are not assigned to individual devices or
networks. Instead, they are used to identify multicast groups. Multicast
addresses are not routable in the same way as unicast addresses, and
routers handle them differently to facilitate multicast communication
across networks.
• Not Limited by Network or Host Numbers: Since Class D addresses are
not assigned to individual networks or hosts, there is no concept of the
number of networks or hosts associated with Class D addresses.
Instead, these addresses are used for specialized communication
purposes and are not subject to the same constraints as unicast
addresses.
5. Class E
• Usage:
– Despite being part of the IPv4 address space, Class E
addresses are not employed in standard networking
configurations or deployments, nor are they
allocated for use in public or private networks.
– Instead, they are reserved as a dedicated space for
research and development where network
administrators, researchers, and developers can
utilize a controlled environment to experiment with
new networking concepts or to test emerging
technologies.
• IP Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.
 • Special IP Address Ranges
– In addition to the standard classes of IP addresses, there
are special IP address ranges that serve unique
purposes.
1. Loopback Addresses
– Usage: Loopback addresses are used for internal testing
and running diagnostics on a local machine. When you
ping a loopback address, you are essentially verifying
that the IP stack is properly configured and that the
network interface is operational.
– IP Range: 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
– Specific IP Address: 127.0.0.1
– While the entire 127.0.0.0/8 range is designated for
loopback, 127.0.0.1 is the most commonly used IP
address - this is often referred to as "localhost."
2. Private IP Addresses
• Usage: Private IP addresses are reserved for use
within private networks, allowing organizations to
set up internal networks that are isolated from
the public internet.
• IP Range: Class A, B, and C IP addresses each have
their own range of private addresses:

– Class A Private Range: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255

– Class B Private Range: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
– Class C Private Range: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
3. APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing)
• Usage: APIPA, or Automatic Private IP
Addressing, is a feature that assigns an IP
address automatically from the 169.254.0.0/16
range when a device fails to obtain an IP
address from a DHCP server.
• It provides a fallback mechanism that allows
the device to still communicate with other
devices on the same local network segment.
• IP Range: 169.254.0.0/16
 Numerical on subnet mask

Number of of subnet=2^subnet bits

Host per subnet=2^host bit-2
 Computer MAC Address
• To communicate or transfer data from one
computer to another, we need an address.
• In computer networks, various types of
addresses are introduced; each works at a
different layer.
• A MAC address, which stands for Media
Access Control Address, is a physical address
that works at the Data Link Layer.
What is MAC (Media Access Control) Address?
• MAC Addresses are unique 48-bit hardware
numbers of a computer that are embedded into a
network card (known as a Network Interface Card)
during manufacturing.
• The MAC Address is also known as the Physical
Address of a network device.
• In the IEEE 802 standard, the data link layer is
divided into two sublayers:
– Logical Link Control (LLC) Sublayer
– Media Access Control (MAC) Sublayer
The MAC address is used by the Media Access Control (MAC)
sublayer of the Data-Link Layer. MAC Address is worldwide
unique since millions of network devices exist
• a MAC Address is a 12-digit hexadecimal number
(48-bit binary number), which is mostly represented
by Colon-Hexadecimal notation.
• The First 6 digits (say 00:40:96) of the MAC Address
identify the manufacturer, called the OUI
(Organizational Unique Identifier). IEEE Registration
Authority Committee assigns these MAC prefixes to its
registered vendors.
• The rightmost six digits represent Network Interface Controller,
which is assigned by the manufacturer.
• As discussed above, the MAC address is represented by
Colon-Hexadecimal notation. But this is just a conversion, not
mandatory. MAC address can be represented using any of the
following formats:
 Types of MAC Address
1. Unicast:
– A Unicast-addressed frame is only sent out to the interface leading to a
specific NIC.
– If the LSB (least significant bit) of the first octet of an address is set to
zero, the frame is meant to reach only one receiving NIC. The MAC
Address of the source machine is always Unicast.
2. Multicast:
• The multicast address allows the source to send a frame to a group of
devices.
• In Layer-2 (Ethernet) Multicast address, the LSB (least significant bit) of
the first octet of an address is set to one.
• IEEE has allocated the address block 01-00-5E-xx-xx-xx (01-80-C2-00-00-00
to 01-00-5E-FF-FF-FF) for group addresses for use by standard protocols.
• 3. Broadcast: Similar to Network Layer, Broadcast is also possible on
the underlying layer( Data Link Layer).
• Ethernet frames with ones in all bits of the destination address
(FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF) are referred to as the broadcast addresses.
• Frames that are destined with MAC address FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF will
reach every computer belonging to that LAN segment.
 Reason to Have Both IP and MAC
Addresses.
• The reason for having both IP and MAC addresses
lies in the way the Internet works, specifically in the
structure of the OSI Model.
• This model is a conceptual framework that
describes how data is sent and received over a
network. It’s divided into seven layers, each
performing specific functions.
• Layer 2 uses MAC addresses and is responsible for
packet delivery from hop to hop .
• Layer 3 uses IP addresses and is responsible for
packet delivery from end to end .
 Reason to Have Both IP and MAC
Addresses.
• Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) uses a MAC (Media Access
Control) address. These are unique identifiers assigned
to network interfaces for communications at the data
link layer. The primary function of MAC addresses is to
manage how data is transported from one network node
to another on a direct, physical basis – this is also
referred to as “hop to hop” delivery.
• On the other hand, Layer 3 ( Network Layer ) uses an IP
(Internet Protocol) address. These IP addresses are used
to identify devices on a network and to route traffic
between networks. The IP addresses ensure that the
data gets from its original source reaches its final
destination and it is also called “end-to-end” delivery of
data.
 Reason to Have Both IP and MAC
Addresses.
• When a computer sends data, it first wraps it in an IP
header, which includes the source and destination IP
addresses.
• This IP header, along with the data, is then encapsulated
in a MAC header, which includes the source and
destination MAC addresses for the current “hop” in the
path.
• As the data travels from one router to the next, the MAC
address header is stripped off and a new one is
generated for the next hop.
 Reason to Have Both IP and MAC
Addresses.
• However, the IP header, which was generated by
the original computer, remains intact until it
reaches the final destination.
• This process illustrates how the IP header manages
the “end to end” delivery, while the MAC headers
handle the “hop to hop” delivery.
• So, Both IP and MAC addresses are essential for the
functioning of the Internet.
• While MAC addresses facilitate the direct, physical
transfer of data between network nodes, IP
addresses ensure that the data reaches its final
destination.
 Types of area networks – LAN, MAN
and WAN
• The Network allows computers to connect and
communicate with different computers via any medium.
LAN, MAN, and WAN are the three major types of
networks designed to operate over the area they cover.
• One of the major differences is the geographical area
they cover, i.e. LAN covers the smallest
area, MAN covers an area larger than LAN
and WAN comprises the largest of all.
• There are other types of Computer Networks also, like :
– PAN (Personal Area Network)
– SAN (Storage Area Network)
– EPN (Enterprise Private Network)
– VPN (Virtual Private Network)
 Personal Area Network (PAN)-

• PAN is a personal area network having an

interconnection of personal technology devices to
communicate over a short distance.
• It covers only less than 10 meters or 33 feet of
area. PAN has fewer users as compared to other
networks such as LAN, WAN, etc.
• PAN typically uses some form of wireless
technology.
• PAN involves the transmission of data between
information devices such as smartphones, personal
computers, tablet computers, etc.
Advantages:
• Allows for easy communication between personal devices in close
proximity.
• Can be set up easily and quickly.
• Uses wireless technology, which eliminates the need for wires and
cables.
• PANs are designed to be energy efficient, which means that devices
can communicate with each other without draining their batteries
quickly.
• PANs are typically secured using encryption and authentication
protocols, which helps to prevent unauthorized access to data and
resources.
Disadvantages:
• Limited coverage area.
• May not be suitable for large-scale data transfer or communication.
PANs typically have limited bandwidth, which means that they may
not be able to handle large amounts of data or high-speed
communication.
• May experience interference from other wireless devices.
 Local Area Network (LAN) –
• LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices
in such a way that personal computers and
workstations can share data, tools, and programs.
• The group of computers and devices are connected
together by a switch, or stack of switches, using a
private addressing scheme as defined by the TCP/IP
protocol.
• Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN,
connecting them to the larger WAN.
• Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of
computers linked is limited.
• the connections must be high-speed and relatively
inexpensive hardware (Such as hubs, network
adapters, and Ethernet cables).
• LANs cover a smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a
few kilometers) and are privately owned.
• One can use it for an office building, home, hospital,
school, etc.
• LAN is easy to design and maintain.
• A Communication medium used for LAN has twisted-pair
cables and coaxial cables. It covers a short distance, and
so the error and noise are minimized.

• Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range.

Today, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.
• Propagation delay is very short in a LAN. The smallest LAN
may only use two computers, while larger LANs can
accommodate thousands of computers.
• LAN has a range up to 2km. A LAN typically relies mostly
on wired connections for increased speed and security,
but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN.
Advantages:
• Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speed
communication.
• Easy to set up and manage.
• Can be used to share peripheral devices such as
printers and scanners.
• Provides increased security and fault tolerance
compared to WANs.
Disadvantages:
• Limited geographical coverage.
• Limited scalability and may require significant
infrastructure upgrades to accommodate growth.
• May experience congestion and network
performance issues with increased usage.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –
• MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area
than that covered by a LAN and a smaller area as compared
to WAN. MAN has a range of 5-50km.
• It connects two or more computers that are apart but reside
in the same or different cities. It covers a large geographical
area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider).
• MAN is designed for customers who need high-speed
connectivity. Speeds of MAN range in terms of Mbps. It’s
hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.
• Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are
Modem and Wire/Cable.
Advantages:
• Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger
geographical area than LAN.
• Can be used as an ISP for multiple customers.
• Offers higher data transfer rates than WAN in
some cases.
Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
• May experience congestion and network
performance issues with increased usage.
• May have limited fault tolerance and security
compared to LANs.
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
• WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over
a large geographical area, although it might be confined within the
bounds of a state or country.
• WAN has a range of above 50 km.
• A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LANs via
telephone lines and radio waves and may be limited to an enterprise
(a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public.
• The technology is high-speed and relatively expensive.
• WAN is difficult to design and maintain.
• Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a WAN is less and there is
more congestion in the network.
• A Communication medium used for WAN is PSTN(Public Switched
Telephone Network) or Satellite Link. Due to long-distance
transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
• Devices used for the transmission of data through WAN are Optic
wires, Microwaves, and Satellites.
• There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point
WAN.
1. A switched WAN network is used to connect multiple end nodes through a common
WAN network,

2. point-to-point WAN is one which consists of a two end nodes connected by a leased
line
 Types of Network Devices (Hub,
Switch, Modem, Router, Access point)
• Network devices are physical devices that allow
hardware on a computer network to communicate
and interact with each other.
• Network devices like hubs, repeaters, bridges,
switches, routers, gateways, they help to manage and
direct data flow in a network.
• They ensure efficient communication between
connected devices by controlling data transfer,
boosting signals, and linking different networks.
• Each device serves a specific role, from simple data
forwarding to complex routing between networks.
 Types of Network Devices (Hub,
Switch, Modem, Router, Access point)
Hub
• Hub in networking plays a vital role in data transmission and broadcasting.
• A hub is a hardware device used at the physical layer to connect multiple
devices in the network.
• Hubs are widely used to connect LANs. A hub has multiple ports. Unlike a
switch, a hub cannot filter the data, i.e. it cannot identify the destination of
the packet, So it broadcasts or sends the message to each port.
• A hub is a multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which
connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent
to all connected devices.
• In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub
remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best
path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
.
 Types of Network Hubs
Networks hubs are classified into three types:
1. Active Hub: They have a power supply for regenerating, and
amplifying the signals. When a port sends weak signaled data, the
hub regenerates the signal and strengthens it, then send it further
to all other ports. Active hubs are expensive in costs as compared
to passive hubs.
2. Passive Hub: Passive hubs are simply used to connect signals from
different network cables as they do not have any computerized
element. They simply connect the wires of different devices in
the star topology. Passive hubs do not do any processing or signal
regeneration and that’s why do not require electricity the most
they can do is they can copy or repeat the signal. It can’t clean the
message, and it can’t amplify or strengthen the signal.
3. Intelligent Hub: Intelligent hubs as the name suggests are smarter
than active and passive hubs. The intelligent hub comprises a
special monitoring unit named a Management Information Base
(MIB). This is software that helps in analysing and troubleshooting
network problems. Intelligent hubs work similarly to active hubs
but with some management features. Like it can monitor the
traffic of the network and the configuration of a port.
 Types of Network Devices (Hub,
Switch, Modem, Router, Access point)
Switch
• Switches in computer networks are devices that connect
multiple devices (like computers, and printers) within a
network.
• They manage data traffic efficiently by directing data only to
the devices that need it, enhancing network performance.
• Unlike hubs, switches operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of
the OSI model, making decisions based on MAC addresses.
• They are crucial for creating reliable and fast local area
networks (LANs).
• Switches are the connectivity points of an Ethernet network.
These are small devices that can receive data from multiple
input ports and send it to the specific output port that takes
data to its intended destination in the network.
 Types of Network Devices (Hub,
Switch, Modem, Router, Access point)
Characteristics of a Switch
• In a switch, two important things to know are its “poles” and “throws.”
A pole is where an electrical contact is made, and a throw is how many
different contacts each pole can connect to. The number of poles and
throws tells you how the switch works and what it can connect to in a
circuit.
• In switches, you often find two standard types: Single, which has one
contact point or one connection, and Double, which has two contact
points or two connections. These terms describe how switches are built
and what they can do in electronic devices.
• If a switch has more than two poles or throws, we usually just state the
number directly. For example, a switch with three poles and six throws
is called a “3P6T” switch.
• Momentary switches, like push buttons, make contact only while they
are pressed. They’re used for brief actions or as long as you hold the
button.
• Latched switches, on the other hand, maintain their contact position
until they are switched to the other position.
 Types of Network Devices (Hub,
Switch, Modem, Router, Access point)
• Types of Switch
1. Unmanaged Switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play
design and do not offer advanced configuration options. They are
suitable for small networks or for use as an expansion to a larger
network.
2. Managed Switches: These switches offer advanced configuration
options such as VLANs, QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable
for larger, more complex networks and allow for centralized
management.
3. Smart Switches: These switches have features similar to managed
switches but are typically easier to set up and manage. They are
suitable for small- to medium-sized networks.
4. Layer 2 Switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of
the OSI model and are responsible for forwarding data between
devices on the same network segment.
5. Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the
OSI model and can route data between different network segments.
They are more advanced than Layer 2 switches and are often used in
larger, more complex networks.
 Types of Network Devices (Hub,
Switch, Modem, Router, Access point)
6. PoE Switches: These switches have Power
over Ethernet capabilities, which allows them to supply
power to network devices over the same cable that
carries data.
7. Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit
Ethernet speeds, which are faster than traditional
Ethernet speeds.
8. Rack-Mounted Switches: These switches are designed to
be mounted in a server rack and are suitable for use in
data centers or other large networks.
9. Desktop Switches: These switches are designed for use
on a desktop or in a small office environment and are
typically smaller in size than rack-mounted switches.
10. Modular Switches: These switches have modular design,
which allows for easy expansion or customization. They
are suitable for large networks and data centers.
 Types of Network Devices (Hub,
Switch, Modem, Router, Access point)
Modem
• Modem stands for Modulator/Demodulator. The modem is
defined as a networking device that is used to connect devices
connected in the network to the internet.
• The main function of a modem is to convert the analog
signals that come from telephone wire into a digital form. In
digital form, these converted signals are stored in the form of 0s
and 1s.
• The modem can perform both the task of modulation and
demodulation simultaneously.
• Modems are majorly used to transfer digital data in personal
systems.
• The modem is also known as a signal translator as it translates
one signal into another signal by modulating the digital
signal into an analog signal for transmission and then
demodulates receiving analog signals into digital signals.
 Types of Network Devices (Hub,
Switch, Modem, Router, Access point)
Working of Modem
• The two main components of a modem are modulation and demodulation. Where the
modem can perform both tasks simultaneously. The step-by-step working of the modem
is given below:

Step 1: Data Generation: When data needs to be transmitted it is first generated.

Therefore computer system generated the data which is in digital form of 0s and 1s.
Step 2: Modulation: Modulation is defined as a process of converting digital data signals
of the computer into analog data signals so that these signals can travel on the internet.
The digital data is encoded onto a carrier wave.
• Step 3: Transmission: The resultant of modulation that is modulated data is
transmitted over the communication line to the modem that is receiving it.
• Step 4: Demodulation: Demodulation is defined as a process in which
analog data signals from the internet are converted into digital data signals
so they can be understood by computer systems. In the process of
demodulation the digital data from the carrier wave is decoded.
• Step 5: Decoding: The resultant of demodulation that is demodulated data
is being sent to the computer systems for their further use.

Types of Modems
There are four main types of modems:
1. DSL Modem: Uses regular phone lines to connect to the internet but it is
slower compared to other types.
2. Cable Modem: Sends data through TV cables, providing faster internet
than DSL.
3. Wireless Modem: Connects devices to the internet using Wi-Fi relying on
nearby Wi-Fi signals.
4. Cellular Modem: Connects to the internet using mobile data from a
cellular network not Wi-Fi or fixed cables.
 Types of Network Devices (Hub,
Switch, Modem, Router, Access point)
Router
• A Router is a networking device that forwards
data packets between computer networks. One or
more packet-switched networks or sub networks
can be connected using a router.
• By sending data packets to their intended IP
addresses, it manages traffic between different
networks and permits several devices to share
an Internet connection.
 Types of Network Devices (Hub,
Switch, Modem, Router, Access point)
• How Does Router Work?
• A router determines a packet’s future path by examining the
destination IP address of the header and comparing it to the
routing database.
• The list of routing tables outlines how to send the data to a
specific network location.
• They use a set of rules to determine the most effective way to
transmit the data to the specified IP address.
• To enable communication between other devices and the
internet, routers utilize a modem, such as a cable, fiber, or DSL
modem.
• Most routers include many ports that can connect a variety of
devices to the internet simultaneously.
• In order to decide where to deliver data and where
traffic is coming from, it needs routing tables.
• A routing table primarily specifies the router’s
default path. As a result, it might not determine the
optimum path to forward the data for a particular
packet.
• For instance, the office router directs all networks to
its internet service provider through a single default
channel.
• Static and dynamic tables come in two varieties in
the router.
• The dynamic routing tables are automatically
updated by dynamic routers based on network
activity, whereas the static routing tables are
configured manually.
 Types of Network Devices (Hub,
Switch, Modem, Router, Access point)
Types of Router
There are several types of routers. Some of them are mentioned below:
1. Broadband Routers: These are one of the important kinds of routers. It is used to do
different types of things. it is used to connect computers or it is also used to connect
to the internet.
2. Wireless routers: These routers are used to create a wireless signal in your office or
home.
3. Wired Routers: Wired Router is used to connects multiple wired devices using a
Ethernet cable, It takes the transmission data from the modem and distribute it to a
further network, it is widely used in schools and small offices.
4. Edge Routers: As the name indicates, these are located at the edges usually
connected to an Internet Service Provider, and distribute packets across multiple
packets.
5. Core Routers: Core routers distribute packets within the same network. The main
task is to carry heavy data transfers.
6. Virtual Router: They are implemented using a software on the virtual machine , and
they are more flexible and scalable.
7. Portable Routers: They are used to create private Wi-Fi and hence designed for easy
portability.
 Types of Network Devices (Hub,
Switch, Modem, Router, Access point)
Access Point
• An access point in networking is a device that
allows wireless devices, like smartphones and
laptops, to connect to a wired network.
• It creates a Wi-Fi network that lets wireless
devices communicate with the internet or other
devices on the network.
• Access points are used to extend the range of a
network or provide Wi-Fi in areas that do not have
it.
• They are commonly found in homes, offices, and
public places to provide wireless internet access.
 • Bridge and Repeater are two important connectivity devices in
computer network. Both devices ensure seamless communication
between the segments of a network. These devices are a type of
network extender, but they operate at different layers in the OSI
and serve different purposes.
• Bridge is a network device, which operates at the second layer
i.e. data link layer of the ISO-OSI model. It connects the two
networks together that uses the same protocol. Bridges are
relatively easy to configure and focuses on MAC addresses.

• A repeater is a network device that amplifies and retransmits incoming

signals to receivers in a computer network. Also known as signal
boosters, repeaters are used to:

1. Increase network coverage: Repeaters can extend the distance

networks can travel over a network cable.
2. Ensure reliable communication: Repeaters can help maintain signal
integrity and consistent communication across networks.
3. Connect networks: Repeaters can connect networks, such as two small LAN
networks or a small LAN to a larger LAN network.
4. Restore weak signals: Repeaters can restore damaged or weak signals.
5. Provide access to inaccessible nodes: Repeaters can provide access to
inaccessible nodes.
 Protocols
• A network protocol is a set of rules that govern how data is
transmitted and processed between devices on a network.
• Protocols act as a common language for devices, allowing
them to communicate with each other even if they have
different software, hardware, or internal processes.
• Protocols are essential for using the internet and digital
communications. They include functions such as:
1. Segmentation and reassembly: Breaking messages into
segments and then reassembling them
2. Encapsulation: Wrapping information packets
3. Connection control: Managing connections
4. Ordered delivery: Ensuring packets are delivered in order
5. Flow control: Managing the flow of data
6. Error control: Detecting and correcting errors that may occur
during transmission
 TCP/IP
• The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer
networking. It stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of
the Internet.
• This model defines how data is transmitted over networks,
ensuring reliable communication between devices.
• It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer,
the Transport Layer, and the Application Layer.
• Each layer has specific functions that help manage different
aspects of network communication, making it essential for
understanding and working with modern networks.
• TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of
Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is based on standard
protocols. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI
model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the
OSI model.
 TCP/IP
• What Does TCP/IP Do?
• The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a
computer from one device to another.
• The main condition of this process is to make data
reliable and accurate so that the receiver will
receive the same information which is sent by the
sender.
• To ensure that, each message reaches its final
destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its
data into packets and combines them at the other
end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the
data while transferring from one end to another
end.
 TCP/IP
• Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Network Access Layer
1. Network Access Layer
• It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This
layer is responsible for generating the data and requesting connections.
It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on the
behalf of the receiver.
2. Internet or Network Layer
• This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the
protocols which are responsible for the logical transmission of data over
the entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as
follows:
1. IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets
from the source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in
the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most
websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4
addresses is limited in number when compared to the number of users.
2. ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated
within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information
about network problems.
3. ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types:
Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
3. Transport Layer
• The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt
acknowledgments and retransmit missing packets to ensure
that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end
communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport
layer protocols at this level (UDP).
1. TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as
though they were physically connected by a circuit. TCP
transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character
transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point that
establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte
order, and an ending point that closes the connection make up
this transmission.
2. UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the
other transport layer protocol. Connections between receiving
and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that
transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP
because it eliminates the processes of establishing and validating
connections.
4. Application Layer
• This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model.
It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free
delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from
the complexities of data. The three main protocols present in
this layer are:
1. HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It
is used by the World Wide Web to manage communications
between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for
HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket
Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out
forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
2. SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations
software similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is because
of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a
secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
3. NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to
synchronize the clocks on our computer to one standard time
source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Features of TCP/IP
• Some of the most prominent features of Transmission control protocol are mentioned
below.
1. Segment Numbering System: TCP keeps track of the segments being transmitted or
received by assigning numbers to each and every single one of them. A specific Byte
Number is assigned to data bytes that are to be transferred while segments are
assigned sequence numbers. Acknowledgment Numbers are assigned to received
segments.
2. Connection Oriented: It means sender and receiver are connected to each other till
the completion of the process. The order of the data is maintained i.e. order remains
same before and after transmission.
3. Full Duplex: In TCP data can be transmitted from receiver to the sender or vice –
versa at the same time. It increases efficiency of data flow between sender and
receiver.
4. Flow Control: Flow control limits the rate at which a sender transfers data. This is
done to ensure reliable delivery. The receiver continually hints to the sender on how
much data can be received (using a sliding window).
5. Error Control: TCP implements an error control mechanism for reliable data transfer.
Error control is byte-oriented. Segments are checked for error detection. Error
Control includes – Corrupted Segment & Lost Segment Management, Out-of-order
segments, Duplicate segments, etc.
6. Congestion Control: TCP takes into account the level of congestion in the network.
Congestion level is determined by the amount of data sent by a sender.
 A PORT
What is a port?
• A port is a virtual point where network
connections start and end. Ports are
software-based and managed by a computer's
operating system.
• Each port is associated with a specific process or
service. Ports allow computers to easily
differentiate between different kinds of traffic:
emails go to a different port than webpages, for
instance, even though both reach a computer
over the same Internet connection.
• How do ports make network connections more
efficient?
• Vastly different types of data flow to and from a
computer over the same network connection. The use of
ports helps computers understand what to do with the
data they receive.
• Suppose Bob transfers an MP3 audio recording to Alice
using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). If Alice's computer
passed the MP3 file data to Alice's email application, the
email application would not know how to interpret it.
But because Bob's file transfer uses the port designated
for FTP (port 21), Alice's computer is able to receive and
store the file.
• Meanwhile, Alice's computer can simultaneously load
HTTP webpages using port 80, even though both the
webpage files and the MP3 sound file flow to Alice's
computer over the same WiFi connection.
What are the different port numbers?
• There are 65,535 possible port numbers, although not all are in
common use. Some of the most commonly used ports, along with
their associated networking protocol, are:

1. Ports 20 and 21: File Transfer Protocol (FTP). FTP is for transferring
files between a client and a server.
2. Port 22: Secure Shell (SSH). SSH is one of many tunneling protocols
that create secure network connections.
3. Port 25: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). SMTP is used
for email.
4. Port 53: Domain Name System (DNS). DNS is an essential process
for the modern Internet; it matches human-readable domain
names to machine-readable IP addresses, enabling users to load
websites and applications without memorizing a long list of IP
addresses.
5. Port 80: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). HTTP is the protocol
that makes the World Wide Web possible.
6. Port 123: Network Time Protocol (NTP). NTP allows computer
clocks to sync with each other, a process that is essential
for encryption.
 7. Port 179: Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). BGP is essential
for establishing efficient routes between the large networks
that make up the Internet (these large networks are
called autonomous systems). Autonomous systems use BGP
to broadcast which IP addresses they control.
8. Port 443: HTTP Secure (HTTPS). HTTPS is the secure and
encrypted version of HTTP. All HTTPS web traffic goes to port
443. Network services that use HTTPS for encryption, such
as DNS over HTTPS, also connect at this port.
9. Port 500: Internet Security Association and Key
Management Protocol (ISAKMP), which is part of the process
of setting up secure IPsec connections.
10. Port 587: Modern, secure SMTP that uses encryption.
11. Port 3389: Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP). RDP enables
users to remotely connect to their desktop computers from
another device.
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) maintains
the full list of port numbers and protocols assigned to them.
 Internet and Intranet Working

• What is the Internet?

– The Internet is used to connect the different networks
of computers simultaneously. It is a public network
therefore anyone can access the internet. On
the internet, there are multiple users and it provides
unlimited information to the users.
• What is an Intranet?
– Intranet is the type of internet that is used privately. It
is a private network therefore anyone can’t access the
intranet. On the intranet, there is a limited number of
users and it provides a piece of limited information to
its users.
How Does the Internet Work?
• The actual working of the internet takes place with the
help of clients and servers.
• Here the client is a laptop that is directly connected to the
internet and servers are the computers connected
indirectly to the Internet and they are having all the
websites stored in those large computers.
• These servers are connected to the internet with the help
of ISP (Internet Service Providers) and will be identified
with the IP address.
• Each website has its Domain name as it is difficult for any
person to always remember the long numbers or strings.
So, whenever you search for any domain name in the
search bar of the browser the request will be sent to the
server and that server will try to find the IP address from
the Domain name because it cannot understand the
domain name.
• After getting the IP address the server will try to
search the IP address of the Domain name in a
Huge phone directory that in networking is
known as a DNS server (Domain Name Server).
• So after getting the IP address, the browser will
pass on the further request to the respective
server and now the server will process the
request to display the content of the website
which the client wants.
• Working of Intranet
– An intranet is a network confined to a company,
school, or organization that works like the Internet.
Let us understand more about the working of the
intranet with the help of a diagram, as shown below:
• Here in this diagram, a company or an organization has
created its private network or intranet for its work(intranet
network is under the circle).
• The company or organization has many employees(in this
diagram, we have considered 3). So, for their access, they
have PC 1, PC 2, and PC 3(In the real world there are many
employees as per the requirements of an organization).
• Also, they have their server for files or data to store, and to
protect this private network, there is a Firewall.
• This firewall protects and gives security to the
intranet server and its data from getting leaked to any
unwanted user.
• So, a user who has access to the intranet can only access this
network. So, no one from the outside world can access this
network.
• Also, an intranet user can access the internet but a person
using the internet cannot access the intranet network.
Thank you