DC Yims Notes

Data Communication
YUVAKSHETRA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES

and Optical Fibers
INTRODUCTION
Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more computers
and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows computers
to exchange data. The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using
either cable media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.
Components
COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION
A communication system is made up of the following components:
1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person to

another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile, telephone,
laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone mobile,
workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are the medium
that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by either wired media or
wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be understandable
to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali sends a message to Chetan.
If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.
TYPE OF DATA COMMUNICATION

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can send or receive data from
one device to another. The data communication is divide into three types:
1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that unidirectional

communication in which one device only receives and another device only sends data and
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devices uses their entire capacity in transmission. For example, IoT, entering data using a
keyboard, listing music using a speaker, etc.
2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a
bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive data but not at the
same time. When one device is sending data then another device is only receiving and vice-
versa. For example, walkie-talkie.
3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a
bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive data at the same
time. For example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Communication channels are the medium that connects two or more workstations. Workstations can
be connected by either wired media or wireless media. It is also known as a transmission medium.
The transmission medium or channel is a link that carries messages between two or more devices.
We can group the communication media into two categories:
 Guided media transmission

 Unguided media transmission
Guided Media: In this transmission medium, the physical link is created using wires or cables
between two or more computers or devices, and then the data is transmitted using these cables in
terms of signals. Guided media transmission of the following types:
Twisted pair cable: It is the most common form of wire used in communication. In a twisted-
pair cable, two identical wires are wrapped together in a double helix. The twisting of the wire
reduces the crosstalk. It is known as the leaking of a signal from one wire to another due to which
signal can corrupt and can cause network errors. The twisting protects the wire from internal
crosstalk as well as external forms of signal interference. Types of Twisted Pair Cable :
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It is used in computers and telephones widely. As the name
suggests, there is no external shielding so it does not protects from external interference. It is
cheaper than STP.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It offers greater protection from crosstalk due to shield. Due to
shielding, it protects from external interference. It is heavier and costlier as compare to UTP.
Coaxial Cable: It consists of a solid wire core that is surrounded by one or more foil or wire
shields. The inner core of the coaxial cable carries the signal and the outer shield provides the
ground. It is widely used for television signals and also used by large corporations in building
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security systems. Data transmission of this cable is better but expensive as compared to twisted
pair.
Optical fibers: Optical fiber is an important technology. It transmits large amounts of data at
very high speeds due to which it is widely used in internet cables. It carries data as a light that
travels inside a thin glass fiber. The fiber optic cable is made up of three pieces:
 Core: Core is the piece through which light travels. It is generally created using glass or
plastic.
 Cladding: It is the covering of the core and reflects the light back to the core.
 Sheath: It is the protective covering that protects fiber cable from the environment.
Unguided Media: The unguided transmission media is a transmission mode in which the signals
are propagated from one device to another device wirelessly. Signals can wave through the air,
water, or vacuum. It is generally used to transmit signals in all directions. Unguided Media is further
divided into various parts :
Microwave: Microwave offers communication without the use of cables. Microwave signals
are just like radio and television signals. It is used in long-distance communication.
Microwave transmission consists of a transmitter, receiver, and atmosphere. In microwave
communication, there are parabolic antennas that are mounted on the towers to send a beam
to another antenna. The higher the tower, the greater the range.
Radio wave: When communication is carried out by radio frequencies, then it is termed
radio waves transmission. It offers mobility. It is consists of the transmitter and the receiver.
Both use antennas to radiate and capture the radio signal.
Infrared: It is short-distance communication and can pass through any object. It is generally
used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, etc.
NETWORKS
A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as printers is called
computer network. This interconnection among computers facilitates information sharing among
them. Computers may connect to each other by either wired or wireless media.
Components of Computer Network:
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Major components of a computer network are:
NIC(National interface card)
NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device. The network interface
card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol use this address to identify the
system on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination.
There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.
o Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a connection is
made using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.
o Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.
Hub
Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When computer
requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this request
to all the interconnected computers.
Switches
Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the data to
another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the network, i.e.,
it sends the message to the device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we can say that switch sends the
message directly from source to the destination.
Cables and connectors
Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There are three types of
cables:
o Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or more.
o Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is more
expensive than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission speed.
o Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using light
beams. It provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is more
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Router
Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly used to connect the
distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple computers.
Modem
Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem is not
integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found on the
motherboard.
Uses Of Computer Network
o Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs, printers,
and data among the users on the network without the requirement of the physical location of
the resource and user.
o Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server is a
central computer used to store the information and maintained by the system administrator.
Clients are the machines used to access the information stored in the server remotely.
o Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium among
the users. For example, a company contains more than one computer has an email system
which the employees use for daily communication.
o E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the business over
the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet, i.e., they are
doing their business over the internet.
FEATURES OF COMPUTER NETWORK/NETWORK CRITERIA
A list Of Computer network features is given below.
o Communication speed
o File sharing
o Back up and Roll back is easy
o Software and Hardware sharing
o Security
o Scalability
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o Reliability
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Communication speed
Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and efficient manner. For example,
we can do video conferencing, email messaging, etc. over the internet. Therefore, the computer
network is a great way to share our knowledge and ideas.
File sharing
File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network. Computer network provides us to
share the files with each other.
Back up and Roll back is easy
Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally located. Therefore, it is easy to take the
back up from the main server.
Software and Hardware sharing
We can install the applications on the main server, therefore, the user can access the applications
centrally. So, we do not need to install the software on every machine. Similarly, hardware can also
be shared.
Security
Network allows the security by ensuring that the user has the right to access the certain files and
applications.
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Scalability
Scalability means that we can add the new components on the network. Network must be scalable so
that we can extend the network by adding new devices. But, it decreases the speed of the connection
and data of the transmission speed also decreases, this increases the chances of error occurring. This
problem can be overcome by using the routing or switching devices.
Reliability
Computer network can use the alternative source for the data communication in case of any hardware
failure.
NETWORK PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
Protocols
A protocol is basically a synonym for the rule. In Computer Networks, basically, communication
occurs between entities in different systems. An entity is anything that is capable of sending or
receiving information. Any two entities cannot simply send bitstreams to each other and expect to be
understood. The entities must need to agree on a protocol in order of occurrence of the communication.
A Protocol is a set of rules that mainly govern data communications. The protocol mainly defines what
is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated.
Key elements of a Protocol
The key elements of a protocol are as given below:
 Syntax This term mainly refers to the structure or format of the data which simply means the
order in which data is presented. For example, A simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits
of data to be the address of the sender, then the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver,
and then the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
 Semantics This term mainly refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How does a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and On the basis of interpretation what action is to be taken?
For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the
message?
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 Timing This term mainly refers to two characteristics: At what time the data should be sent
and how fast data can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the
receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and there
will be some data loss.
Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and creative market for the equipment
manufacturers and they also guarantee the national and international interoperability of the data,
telecommunication technology, and process.
Standards are mainly used to provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and
also to other service providers in order to ensure the kind of interconnectivity that is necessary for
today's marketplace and also in international communications.
Data communication standards mainly fall into two categories:-
 de facto (which means "by fact"/ "by convention") Those standards have not been approved
by an organized body but have been adopted as standards through widespread use. These types
of standards are often established originally by the manufacturers who just seek to define the
functionality of their new product or technology.
 de jure (which means "by law" /"by regulation") de jure standards are those standards that
have been legislated by an officially recognized body.
Standard Organizations
Standards are mainly developed through the cooperation of Standard creation committees, government
regulatory agencies, and forums.
Some Standard Creation committees are :
 International Organization of Standardization(ISO)

 American National Standards Institute(ANSI)
 Electronic Industries Association(EIA)
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE)
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TRANSMISSION MODES
o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known
as transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media
provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.
The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:
o Simplex mode
o Half-duplex mode
o Full-duplex mode
Simplex mode
o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction.
o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot send
the data.
o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the two-way
exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the business field as in sales that do not require
any corresponding reply.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but never allows
them to transmit back.
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o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only accept
the data from the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the communication channel
can be utilized during transmission.
Advantage of Simplex mode:

o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel,
so that more data can be transmitted at a time.
Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between devices.
Half-Duplex mode
o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and receive
the data as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error occurs, then
the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one party speaks,
and another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first party listens. Speaking
simultaneously will create the distorted sound which cannot be understood.
Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also can utilize the
entire bandwidth of the communication channel during the transmission of data.
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Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has to wait, this causes
the delay in sending the data at the right time.
Full-duplex mode
o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the
directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one direction,
and another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network. When two people
are communicating with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same
time.
Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.
Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of the communication
channel is divided into two parts.
DIFFERENCES B/W SIMPLEX, HALF-DUPLEX AND FULL-DUPLEX MODE
Basis for Simplex mode Half-duplex mode Full-duplex mode

comparison
Direction of In simplex mode, the In half-duplex mode, In full-duplex mode, the

communication communication is the communication communication is
unidirectional. is bidirectional, but bidirectional.
one at a time.
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Send/Receive A device can only send Both the devices can Both the devices can send
the data but cannot send and receive the and receive the data
receive it or it can only data, but one at a simultaneously.
receive the data but time.
cannot send it.
Performance The performance of The performance of The Full-duplex mode has

half-duplex mode is full-duplex mode is better performance among
better than the simplex better than the half- simplex and half-duplex
mode. duplex mode. mode as it doubles the
utilization of the capacity of
the communication channel.
Example Examples of Simplex Example of half- Example of the Full-duplex

mode are radio, duplex is Walkie- mode is a telephone network.
keyboard, and monitor. Talkies.
LINE CONFIGURATION IN COMPUTER NETWORKS

A network is two or more devices connected through a link. A link is a communication pathway that
transfers data from one device to another. Devices can be a computer, printer, or any other device
that is capable to send and receive data. For visualization purposes, imagine any link as a line drawn
between two points.
For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the
same time. There are two possible types of connections:
1. Point-to-Point Connection
2. Multipoint Connection
Point-to-Point Connection :
1. A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
2. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
3. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends,
but other options such as microwave or satellite links are also possible.
4. Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the easiest and most conventional
networks
topologies.
5. It is also the simplest to establish and understand.
Example: Point-to-Point connection between the remote control and Television for changing the
channels.
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Multipoint Connection :
1. It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection, two or more devices share a single
link.
2. More than two devices share the link that is the capacity of the channel is shared now. With
shared capacity, there can be two possibilities in a Multipoint Line configuration:
Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously, it’s called Spatially shared
line configuration.
Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link, then it’s called Temporally
shared or Time Shared Line configuration.
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NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each
other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.
Bus Topology
o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single
cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the
backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network.
All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been addressed
or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
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o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.

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o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is broadcast
to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access).
CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is maintained,
i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the problems that occur
when two nodes send the messages simultaneously.
o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the collision.
Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the data. Therefore, it works
on "recovery after the collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the collision
by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then the sender waits until
the media becomes idle. This technique effectively reduces the possibility of the collision. It
does not work on "recovery after the collision".
Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing
through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks
that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults.
If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both
the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
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o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are used
to regenerate the signal.
Ring Topology
o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next
node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no termination
point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node
to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it reaches
the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches.
Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the
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o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing
the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost
is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent on
the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults.
If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new
devices increases the communication delay.
Star Topology
o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central
hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server
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o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.

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o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared
to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star
topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network
administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star
topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore
failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on
the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of
the most popular Star topology networks.
Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected
nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is
required.
Tree topology
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o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each other
in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms a
parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband
transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can
say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as
star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will
damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
Mesh topology
o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with
each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
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o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
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o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.

o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a
critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.
Mesh topology is divided into two categories:
o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology
o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the computers
available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are
connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.
Advantages of Mesh topology:
Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the
communication between connected computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other
devices.
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Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and
more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and
manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes
undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the
network.
Hybrid Topology
o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology
and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For
example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another
branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest
of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting
the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of
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o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the
strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid
network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are
different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot
of cabling, network devices, etc.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Signal is an electromagnetic wave that carries information through physical medium. Here the data is
converted into electromagnetic signal either as analog or digital and sent from sender to receiver.
Voltage and current are few time varying quantities that are used to represent data, by varying these
quantities with respect to time data can be transmitted. Similarly, signal is also represented as the
function of the frequency domain rather than time domain.
For communicating between two systems, a message signal is passed through encoder and modulator
to transmit through a medium while it is passed through decoder and demodulator to receive the
message signal at the other end.
To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals.
Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to information that is continuous; digital
data refers to information that has discrete states. For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute,
and second hands gives information in a continuous form; the movements of the hands are continuous.
On the other hand, a digital clock that reports the hours and the minutes will change suddenly from
8:05 to 8:06. Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous values.
When someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air. This can be captured by a microphone
and converted to an analog signal or sampled and converted to a digital signal. Digital data take on
discrete values. For example, data are stored in computer memory in the form of Os and 1s. They can
be converted to a digital signal or modulated into an analog signal for transmission across a medium.
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Data can be analog or digital. Analog data are continuous and take continuous values. Digital data
have discrete states and take discrete values.
Signals are divided into two categories based on their nature.
1. Signal which are Continuous as time varying in nature are analog signals
2. Signal which are discrete are called digital signals.
Analog Signals
Analog signal is a form of electrical energy (voltage, current or electromagnetic power) for which
there is a linear relationship between electrical quantity and the value that the signal represents. The
signal whose amplitude takes any value in a continuous range is called analog signal. Analog Signals
are continuous in nature which vary with respect to time. They can be periodic or non-periodic.
Voltage, current, frequency, pressure, sound, light, temperature are the physical variables that are
measured with respect to their changes with respect to time to obtain information. When voltage versus
time graph is plotted we see curve with continuous values like sine waves. These signals are more
subjected to noise as they travel through the medium, these noises result in information loss in the
signal.
Analog to digital converter converts analog signal to digital signal by a process called sampling and
quantization. Sound waves are converted to sequence of samples by the process Sampling
Examples of analog signals:
Conventional (old) transmitters, transducers convey data in analog mode. The signals include audio
signals transmitted through wires, video signals broadcasted using older technology, radio signals, and
analog watches.
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Digital Signals
The signal, whose amplitude takes only limited values is called Digital signal. Digital signal are
discrete, they contain only distinct values. Digital signals carry binary data i.e. 0 or 1 in form of bits,
it can only contain one value at a period of time. Digital signals are represented as square waves or
clock signals. The minimum value is 0 volts whereas maximum value is 5 volts. Digital signals are
less subjected to noise compared to analog signal. Transmission of digital data in analog channel is
done by process called Modulation. Amplitude modulation is a process in which digital data is
converted to analog signals using single frequency carrier signal. Similarly, FREQUENCY shift
keying uses a constant amplitude carrier signal and two frequencies to differentiate between 1 and 0.
Nowadays usage of digital signals for transmitting information has increased rapidly in every field of
usage as the applications and properties of digital signals are more productive compared to analog
signals.
Examples of digital signals:
 Smart transmitters using various protocols transmit data through analog and digital signals.
 Digital watches.
 Digital video signals.
 CD’s.
 DVD’s.
 Computer.
Difference between Analog and Digital Signals
Analog Signals Digital Signals
Digital signal have two or more states and in

Analog signal is continuous and time varying.
binary form.
Troubleshooting of analog signals are difficult. Troubleshooting of digital signals are easy.
An analog signal is usually in the form of sine An digital signal is usually in the form of square
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wave. wave.
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Easily affected by the noise. These are stable and less prone to noise.
Analog signals use continous values to Digital signals use discrete values to represent the
represent the data. data.
Accuracy of the analog signals may be affected Accuracy of the digital signals are immune from
by noise. the noise.
Analog signals may be affected during data Digital signals are not affacted during data
transmission. transmission.
Analog signals use more power. Digital signals use less power.
Examples: Temperature, Pressure, Flow Examples: Valve Feedback, Motor Start, Trip,
measurements, etc. etc.
Components like resistors, Capacitors, Components like transistors, logic gates, and
Inductors, Diodes are used in analog circuits. micro-controllers are used in Digital circuits.
ENCODING AND MODULATION

Encoding is the process of converting the data or a given sequence of characters, symbols, alphabets
etc., into a specified format, for the secured transmission of data. Decoding is the reverse process of
encoding which is to extract the information from the converted format
Data Signal Approach/Technique
Digital Digital Encoding
Analogue Digital Encoding
Analogue Analogue Modulation
Digital Analogue Modulation

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DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Digital-to-digital encoding is the representation of digital information by a digital signal. When binary
1s and 0s generated by the computer are translated into a sequence of voltage pulses that can be
propagated over a wire, this process is known as digital-to-digital encoding.
Digital-to-digital encoding is divided into three categories:
o Unipolar Encoding
o Polar Encoding
o Bipolar Encoding
Unipolar
o Digital transmission system sends the voltage pulses over the medium link such as wire or
cable.
o In most types of encoding, one voltage level represents 0, and another voltage level represents
1.
o The polarity of each pulse determines whether it is positive or negative.
o This type of encoding is known as Unipolar encoding as it uses only one polarity.
o In Unipolar encoding, the polarity is assigned to the 1 binary state.
o In this, 1s are represented as a positive value and 0s are represented as a zero value.
o In Unipolar Encoding, '1' is considered as a high voltage and '0' is considered as a zero voltage.
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o Unipolar encoding is simpler and inexpensive to implement.

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Polar
o Polar encoding is an encoding scheme that uses two voltage levels: one is positive, and another
is negative.
o By using two voltage levels, an average voltage level is reduced, and the DC component
problem of unipolar encoding scheme is alleviated.
NRZ
o NRZ stands for Non-return zero.
o In NRZ encoding, the level of the signal can be represented either positive or negative.
The two most common methods used in NRZ are:
NRZ-L: In NRZ-L encoding, the level of the signal depends on the type of the bit that it represents.
If a bit is 0 or 1, then their voltages will be positive and negative respectively. Therefore, we can say
that the level of the signal is dependent on the state of the bit.
NRZ-I: NRZ-I is an inversion of the voltage level that represents 1 bit. In the NRZ-I encoding scheme,
a transition occurs between the positive and negative voltage that represents 1 bit. In this scheme, 0
bit represents no change and 1 bit represents a change in voltage level.
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RZ
o RZ stands for Return to zero.
o There must be a signal change for each bit to achieve synchronization. However, to change
with every bit, we need to have three values: positive, negative and zero.
o RZ is an encoding scheme that provides three values, positive voltage represents 1, the negative
voltage represents 0, and zero voltage represents none.
o In the RZ scheme, halfway through each interval, the signal returns to zero.
o In RZ scheme, 1 bit is represented by positive-to-zero and 0 bit is represented by negative-to-
zero.
Disadvantage of RZ:
It performs two signal changes to encode one bit that acquires more bandwidth.
Biphase
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o Biphase is an encoding scheme in which signal changes at the middle of the bit interval but
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Biphase encoding is implemented in two different ways:
Manchester
o It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval but does not return to zero for
synchronization.
o In Manchester encoding, a negative-to-positive transition represents binary 1, and positive-to-
negative transition represents 0.
o Manchester has the same level of synchronization as RZ scheme except that it has two levels
of amplitude.
Differential Manchester
o It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval for synchronization, but the presence or
absence of the transition at the beginning of the interval determines the bit. A transition means
binary 0 and no transition means binary 1.
o In Manchester Encoding scheme, two signal changes represent 0 and one signal change
represent 1.
Bipolar
Bipolar Schemes In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there are three voltage
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levels: positive, negative, and zero. The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage
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level for the other element alternates between positive and negative. AMI and Pseudoternary: Figure
1.16 shows two variations of bipolar encoding: AMI and pseudoternary. A common bipolar encoding
scheme is called bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI). In the term alternate mark inversion, the
word mark comes from telegraphy and means 1. So AMI means alternate 1 inversion. A neutral zero
voltage represents binary 0. Binary Is are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages. A
variation of AMI encoding is called Pseudoternary in which the 1 bit is encoded as a zero voltage and
the 0 bit is escoded as alternating positive) and negative voltages.
The bipolar scheme was developed as an alternative to NRZ. The bipolar scheme has the same signal
rate as NRZ. AMI is commonly used for long-distance communication, but it has a synchronization
problem when a long sequence of Os is present in the data.
ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
When an analog signal is digitalized, that is known as analog-to-digital conversion.Consider a human

address a voice in the structure of an analog signal. We require to digitalize the analog signal that is
smaller inclined to noise. It needed a decrease in the several values in an analog message defined in
the digital flow.
In analog-to-digital conversion, the data involved in a constant waveform is modified into digital
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pulses.
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Methods for Analog-To-Digital Conversion
The various methods for Analog-to-Digital conversion are as follows −
 PAM: pulse amplitude modulation

 PCM: Pulse Code Modulation
PAM
The first phase in analog to digital conversion is known as PAM. PAM represents pulse amplitude
modulation. This method creates an analog signal, samples it, and creates digital pulses sequences
based on sampling. The sampling method used in PAM is more helpful to other manufacturing fields
than data communication. PAM is the infrastructure of an essential analog-to-digital conversion
method known as pulse code modulation (PCM).
In PAM, the initial signal is sampled at the same intervals, as display in the figure. PAM uses a method
known as a sample and hold.
PCM
PCM represents Pulse Code Modulation. The most common technique to change an analog signal
to digital data is called pulse code modulation (PCM). A PCM encoder has the following three
processes:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding
Low pass filter :

The low pass filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input analog signal to
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ensure that the input signal to sampler is free from the unwanted frequency components.This is done
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1. Sampling – The first step in PCM is sampling. Sampling is a process of measuring the amplitude
of a continuous-time signal at discrete instants, converting the continuous signal into a discrete
signal. There are three sampling methods:
(i) Ideal Sampling: In ideal Sampling also known as Instantaneous sampling pulses from the
analog signal are sampled. This is an ideal sampling method and cannot be easily implemented.
(ii) Natural Sampling: Natural Sampling is a practical method of sampling in which pulse have
finite width equal to T.The result is a sequence of samples that retain the shape o f the analog
signal.
(iii) Flat top sampling: In comparison to natural sampling flat top sampling can be easily
obtained. In this sampling technique, the top of the samples remains constant by using a circuit.
This is the most common sampling method used.
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2. Quantization –
The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values between the maximum and
minimum amplitudes of the signal. The set of amplitudes can be infinite with non-integral values
between two limits.
3. Encoding –
The digitization of the analog signal is done by the encoder. After each sample is quantized and
the number of bits per sample is decided, each sample can be changed to an n bit code. Encoding
also minimizes the bandwidth used.
DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERSION
Digital Signal – A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete values; at
any given time it can only take on one of a finite number of values.
Analog Signal – An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature of the
signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity i.e., analogous to another time varying
signal.
The following techniques can be used for Digital to Analog Conversion:
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1. Amplitude Shift keying – Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in which carrier signal is analog
and data to be modulated is digital. The amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect
binary data.
The binary signal when modulated gives a zero value when the binary data represents 0 while
gives the carrier output when data is 1. The frequency and phase of the carrier signal remain
constant.
Advantages of amplitude shift Keying –

 It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
 The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also makes it comparatively
inexpensive.
 It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high bandwidth efficiency.
Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying –
 It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could be lost due to this.
 It has lower power efficiency.
2. Frequency Shift keying – In this modulation the frequency of analog carrier signal is modified
to reflect binary data.
The output of a frequency shift keying modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary high input
and is low in frequency for a binary low input. The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain
constant.
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Advantages of frequency shift Keying –

 Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise problems beset by ASK.
 It has lower chances of an error.
 It provides high signal to noise ratio.
 The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low data rate application.
Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying –
 It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less bandwidth efficiency.
 It has lower power efficiency.
3. Phase Shift keying – In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal is modified to
reflect binary data.The amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remains constant.
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ANALOG TO ANALOG CONVERSION (MODULATION)

Analog Signal: An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature of the
signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity i.e., analogous to another time varying
Signal.
Analog-to-analog conversion, or modulation, is the representation of analog information by an
analog signal. It is a process by virtue of which a characteristic of carrier wave is varied according
to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. This modulation is generally needed when
a bandpass channel is required. Bandpass is a range of frequencies which are transmitted through
a bandpass filter which is a filter allowing specific frequencies to pass preventing signals at
unwanted frequencies.
Analog to Analog conversion can be done in three ways:
1. Amplitude Modulation
2. Frequency Modulation
3. Phase Modulation
AMPLITUDE MODULATION:
The modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied according to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal keeping phase and frequency as constant. The figure below
shows the concept of amplitude modulation:
AM is normally implemented by using a simple multiplier because the amplitude of the carrier signal
needs to be changed according to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
AM bandwidth:
The modulation creates a bandwidth that is twice the bandwidth of the modulating signal and
covers a range centered on the carrier frequency.
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Bandwidth= 2fm
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FREQUENCY MODULATION –
The modulation in which the frequency of the carrier wave is varied according to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal keeping phase and amplitude as constant. The figure below
shows the concept of frequency modulation:
FM is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator as with FSK. The frequency

of the oscillator changes according to the input voltage which is the amplitude of the modulating
signal.
FM bandwidth:
1. The bandwidth of a frequency modulated signal varies with both deviation and modulating
frequency.
If modulating frequency (Mf) 0.5, wide band Fm signal.
2. For a narrow band Fm signal, bandwidth required is twice the maximum frequency of the
modulation, however for a wide band Fm signal the required bandwidth can be very much larger,
with detectable sidebands spreading out over large amounts of the frequency spectrum.
PHASE MODULATION:
The modulation in which the phase of the carrier wave is varied according to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal keeping amplitude and frequency as constant. The figure below
shows the concept of frequency modulation:
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Phase modulation is practically similar to Frequency Modulation, but in Phase modulation frequency
of the carrier signal is not increased. It is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled
oscillator along with a derivative. The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the derivative
of the input voltage which is the amplitude of the modulating signal.
DTE-DCE INTERFACE
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
It includes any unit that functions either as a source of or as a destination for binary digital data.
At physical layer, it can be a terminal, microcomputer, computer, printer, fax, machine or any other
device that generates or consumes digital data. DTEs do not often communicate information but
need an intermediary to be able to communicate.
Data Circuit Terminating Equipment (DCE)
It includes any functional unit that transmit or receives data in form of an analog or digital signal
through a network. At physical layer, a DCE takes data generated by a DTE, converts them to an
appropriate signal, and then introduces signal onto telecommunication link.
Commonly used DCEs at this layer include modems. In any network, a DTE generates digital data
and passes them to a DCE. DCE converts that data to a form acceptable to transmission medium and
sends converted signal to another DCE on network. The second DCE takes signal off line, converts
it to a form usuable by its DTE, and delivers it.
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Difference between DTE and DCE :
Sl.No DTE DCE
DTE stands for Data Termination DCE stands for Data Communication
1 Equipment. Equipment.
It is a device that is an information It is a device used as an interface between a

2 source or an information sink. DTE.
DTE is concerned with source or DCE is concerned with communications

3 destination of data. aspect of data.
It produces data and transfers them to It converts signals to a format appropriate to

a DCE, with essential control transmission medium and introduces it onto
4 characters. network line.
It is connected through help of a DCE DCE network acts as a medium for two DTE
5 network. networks.
Examples of DCE include modem, ISDN

Examples of DTE include computers, adaptors, satellites and network interface
6 printers and routers, etc. cards, etc.
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DTE-DCE Interface Standards

Organizations such as Electronic Industries Association(EIA) and International Telecommunication
Union-Telecommunication Standards Committee(ITU-T) have developed standards that define the
mechanical, electrical and functional of the connection between DTE and DCE . Some EIA standards
are EIA-232, EIA-442, EIA-449. ITU-T standards are called V-series and X-series such as X.21
EIA-232 Standard
• Issued as RS 232 (RS-Recommended Standard) and have been revised many times
• Mechanical specifications by the standard define a 25-wire cable with male and female DB-25 pin
connector attached to either end. DB-25 connector represents a plug with 25 pins or receptacles based
on whether it is male or female connector.
• Electronic specification defines the voltage level and type of signal to be transmitted in either
direction between DTE and DCE
• Functional specifications describes functions of each pin in the connector. As many of the pins were
unused most of the time, DB-9 implementation came into act.
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EIA 449 defines new functions and characteristics for the interface and also a combination of two
connectors was proposed (DB-37 and DB-9) with 46 total pins. The secondary channels of EIA 232
were used rarely and hence the functions of secondary channel was given to DB-9 implementation.
A null modem is a communication method where transmit and receive lines are crosslinked to directly
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X.21 Standard
• Standard designed by ITU-T
• Large portion of circuits in EIA interface is used for control information
• X.21 eliminates control circuits by having additional circuit logic for both DTE and DCE
• The control information is sent as control codes, rather than using separate pins and lines
• Hence, it has fewer pins but need added circuit logic to convert control codes to bit streams
Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines and other electronic
devices to a network are called network devices. These devices transfer data in a fast, secure and
correct way over same or different networks. Network devices may be inter-network or intra-network.
Some devices are installed on the device, like NIC card or RJ45 connector, whereas some are part of
the network, like router, switch, etc. Let us explore some of these devices in greater detail.
MODEM
Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over telephone or cable lines. The
data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line or cable wire can transmit only analog
data.
The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice versa. Modem is a
combination of two devices − modulator and demodulator. The modulator converts digital data
into analog data when the data is being sent by the computer. The demodulator converts analog data
signals into digital data when it is being received by the computer.
Modem can be categorized in several ways like direction in which it can transmit data, type of
connection to the transmission line, transmission mode, etc.
Depending on direction of data transmission, modem can be of these types −
 Simplex − A simplex modem can transfer data in only one direction, from digital device to
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 Half duplex − A half-duplex modem has the capacity to transfer data in both the directions
but only one at a time.
 Full duplex − A full duplex modem can transmit data in both the directions simultaneously.
Types of Modems
The different types of modems used to access the internet at home are as follows −
Telephone modem
A computer is connected through telephone lines to access the network of other computers. It is
cheaper when compared to other modems because it does not have any installation cost and also the
monthly fee of a telephone modem is low. It can be used in any house if a telephone network is
provided.
Given below is the diagram of telephone modem −
Digital subscriber Line
It provides high speed internet connection through telephone lines. It is expensive when compared to
a telephone modem. The DSL is also connected with phone lines similar to telephone modem, but the
difference is in DSL voice communication and internet service is used simultaneously whereas in
telephone modem it is not provided.
Given below is the diagram of digital subscriber line (DSL) −

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Cable modem
Cable Modem is a device that allows high-speed data access via a cable TV (CATV) network. Most
cable modems are currently external devices that connect to the PC through a standard 10 BASE-T
Ethernet card and twisted-pair wiring.
Given below is the diagram of cable modem −
Satellite modem
It is a device that provides internet connection through satellite dishes. It transfers the input bits to
output radio signals and then executes vice versa. It is costlier when compared to all other modems
but provides better reliability to the internet network.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
The transmission medium can be defined as a pathway that can transmit information from a sender to
a receiver. Transmission media are located below the physical layer and are controlled by the physical
layer. Transmission media are also called communication channels.
Transmission media are of two types −
 Guided Transmission Medium

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 Unguided Transmission Medium

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The following chart categorizes transmission media −
Guided Media
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also known as
Bounded media.
Types of Guided media:
Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted pair
cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy,
and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per foot. Increasing
the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.
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Types of Twisted pair:
UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR:
An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the categories of the
unshielded twisted pair cable:
o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance
communication.
Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR
A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the higher
transmission rate.
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

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o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
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o An installation of STP is easy.

o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages
o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.
COAXIAL CABLE
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a
coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made
up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the
inner conductor from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents from
the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
Coaxial cable is of two types:
1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high

speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.
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o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
FIBER OPTIC
o Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to send the data
by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference
from other types of wiring.
o Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Diagrammatic representation of fiber optic cable:
Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:
o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A core
is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core, the more light will be
transmitted into the fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of the
cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause the reflection
within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
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o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose of
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a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre protection.
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Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:
o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared copper.
Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the fibre optic
cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as compared to
copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is immune
to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can withstand
more pull pressure than copper cable.
UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION
o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any physical
medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can flow easily.
Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
RADIO WAVES
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of free
space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the wave
sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
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Applications of Radio waves:
o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages of Radio transmission:
o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
MICROWAVES
Microwaves are of two types:
o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio
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signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.

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o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz to
1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e., the
waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna which is
km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are the
direct sight of each other.
Characteristics of Microwave:
o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-23
GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental conditions and
antenna size.
Advantages of Microwave:
o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of cable
in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:
o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can

catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave transmission.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather
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condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
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o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave transmission.

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SATELLITE MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable and
fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
How Does Satellite work?
The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the signal.
The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
Advantages of Satellite Microwave Communication:
o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre of the
coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal
broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.
Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave Communication:
o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the satellite
has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.
INFRARED
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell phones, TV
remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone resides in the same closed
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area.
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Characteristics of Infrared:
o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication in one room
cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will interfere
with the infrared waves.
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which tends to
deteriorate the quality of analog signal, which means that the signal at the beginning of the medium
is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium. The imperfection causes signal impairment.
Below are the causes of the impairment.
Causes of impairment –
Noise
Noise is the major factor for the transmission distortion as any unwanted signal gets added to the
transmitted signal by which the resulting transmitted signal gets modified and at the receiver side it is
difficult to remove the unwanted noise signal. These noises are various kinds like shot noise, impulse
noise, thermal noise etc.
Noise is diagrammatically represented as follows −

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Distortion
This kind of distortion is mainly appearing in case of composite signals in which a composite signal
has various frequency components in it and each frequency component has some time constraint which
makes a complete signal.
But while transmitting this composite signal, if a certain delay happens between the frequencies
components, then there may be the chance that the frequency component will reach the receiver end
with a different delay constraint from its original which leads to the change in shape of the signal. The
delay happens due to environmental parameters or from the distance between transmitter and receiver
etc.
Distortion is diagrammatically represented as follows −
Attenuation
Attenuation is generally decreased in signal strength, by which the received signal will be difficult to
receive at the receiver end. This attenuation happens due to the majority factor by environment as
environment imposes a lot of resistance and the signal strength decreases as it tries to overcome the
resistance imposed.
The above picture shows that the signal loses power at its travels time.
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Attenuation is diagrammatically represented as follows −

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MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in which multiple signals
coming from multiple sources are combined and transmitted over a single communication/physical
line.
Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input lines to
generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line.
Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the

receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs).
Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.
Concept of Multiplexing
• The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines the
signals to form a composite signal.
• The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates a
signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective destinations.
Advantages of Multiplexing:
• More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.

• The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.
TYPES OF MULTIPLEXING
There are three types of Multiplexing :
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
2. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING:
Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the bandwidth of a

single physical medium is divided into a number of smaller, independent frequency channels.
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In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channels cross-talk, due to the fact that in this type of
multiplexing the bandwidth is divided into frequency channels. In order to prevent the inter-
channel cross talk, unused strips of bandwidth must be placed between each channel. These
unused strips between each channel are known as guard bands.
Advantages of FDM:
• For analogue signals, FDM is utilised.

• The FDM modulation technique is relatively basic and straightforward.
• An FDM may send a large number of signals at the same time.
• It does not need any sort of synchronisation between the transmitter and the recipient.
Disadvantages of FDM:
• When low-speed channels are required, the FDM method is employed.

• It has an issue of crosstalk.
• This is necessary to use a large number of modulators.
• It needs a channel with a high bandwidth.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING:
Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing wherein FDM, instead of sharing a

portion of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM, time is shared. Each connection occupies
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a portion of time in the link. In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same
frequency (bandwidth) at different times.
TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on analog signals as well. In TDM the
shared channel is divided among its user by means of time slot. Each user can transmit data within
the provided time slot only. Digital signals are divided in frames, equivalent to time slot i.e. frame of
an optimal size which can be transmitted in given time slot.
TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer and De-multiplexer are timely
synchronized and both switch to next channel simultaneously.
When channel A transmits its frame at one end,the De-multiplexer provides media to channel A on
the other end.As soon as the channel A’s time slot expires, this side switches to channel B. On the
other end, the De-multiplexer works in a synchronized manner and provides media to channel B.
Signals from different channels travel the path in interleaved manner.
There are two types of TDM:
• Synchronous TDM
• Asynchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM
o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device.

o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that the
device contains the data or not.
o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are organized in the
form of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular time slot, then the empty slot
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o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and SONET
multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.
Concept of Synchronous TDM
In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each device is allocated with
some time slot. The time slots are transmitted irrespective of whether the sender has data to send or
not.
Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:
• The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also transmitted
which is having no data. In the above figure, the first frame is completely filled, but in the
last two frames, some slots are empty. Therefore, we can say that the capacity of the
channel is not utilized efficiently.
• The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of the input
lines. An alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time Division
Multiplexing.
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Asynchronous TDM
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• An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
• An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case of
Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the data to
send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only
the data from active workstations.
• An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the devices.
• In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the capacity of
the channel.
• Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and creates a
frame that contains only data with no empty slots.
• In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the source of the
data.
• The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many slots in
Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized. This
leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacity of the
channel.
• In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In
Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots where m is
less than n (m<n).
• The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the number of input
lines.
Concept of Asynchronous TDM

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In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending the data, i.e., A and C.
Therefore, the data of A and C are only transmitted through the transmission line.
Frame of above diagram can be represented as:
WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING:
Wavelength Division Multiplexing is used on fiber optics to increase the capacity of a single fiber.
It is an analog multiplexing technique. Optical signals from the different sources are combined to
form a wider band of light with the help of multiplexers. At the receiving end, the demultiplexer
separates the signals to transmit them to their respective destinations.
Light has different wavelength (colors). In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals are
multiplexed into an optical fiber by using different wavelengths. This is an analog multiplexing
technique and is done conceptually in the same manner as FDM but uses light as signals
Advantages of WDM:
• Full-duplex transmission is achievable with the aid of WDM.

• WDM is simple to reconfigure.
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• With the aid of WDM, several signals may be sent at the same time.
• This method is less costly, and system expansion is simple.
• This method is highly secure.
• Because optical fibre is used in WDM, optical components are more dependable and
provide more bandwidth.
Disadvantages of WDM:
• Because optical equipment is used, the cost rises.

• Because of poor bandwidth use, wavelength adjustment might be challenging.
• This technique’s major issue is scalability.
MULTIPLEXING APPLICATIONS
TELEPHONE NETWORK
Telephone Network is used to provide voice communication. Telephone Network uses Circuit
Switching. Originally, the entire network was referred to as a plain old telephone system (POTS)
which uses analog signals. With the advancement of technology, i.e. in the computer era, there
comes a feature to carry data in addition to voice. Today’s network is both analogous and digital.
Major Components of Telephone Network: There are three major components of the telephone
network:
1. Local loops
2. Trunks
3. Switching Offices
There are various levels of switching offices such as end offices, tandem offices, and regional
offices. The entire telephone network is as shown in the following figure:
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Local Loops: Local Loops are the twisted pair cables that are used to connect a subscriber telephone
to the nearest end office or local central office. For voice purposes, its bandwidth is 4000 Hz. It is
very interesting to examine the telephone number that is associated with each local loop. The office
is defined by the first three digits and the local loop number is defined by the next four digits defines.
Trunks: It is a type of transmission medium used to handle the communication between offices.
Through multiplexing, trunks can handle hundreds or thousands of connections. Mainly
transmission is performed through optical fibers or satellite links.
Switching Offices: As there is a permanent physical link between any two subscribers. To avoid
this, the telephone company uses switches that are located in switching offices. A switch is able to
connect various loops or trunks and allows a connection between different subscribes.
Advantages of Telephone Network:

• It is a circuit-switched network.
• There is no transmission delay as any receiver can be selected.
• It is cheap in price because it is a widely spread network.
Disadvantages of Telephone Network:
• It requires a large time for connection.
• It has a low transmission speed.
Applications of Telephone Network:
• It helps to connect people.
• It is used by business organizations to advertise their products.
• It is also used around the world for recreational purposes.
CELLULAR SYSTEM
Cellular telephony is designed to provide communications between two moving units, called mobile
stations (MSs), or between one mobile unit and one stationary unit, often called a land unit. A service
provider must be able to locate and track a caller, assign a channel to the call, and transfer the channel
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from base station to base station as the caller moves out of range. To make this tracking possible, each
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cellular service area is divided into small regions called cells. Each cell contains an antenna and is
controlled by a solar or AC powered network station, called the base station (BS). Each base station,
in tum, is controlled by a switching office, called a mobile switching center (MSC). The MSC
coordinates communication between all the base stations and the telephone central office. It is a
computerized center that is responsible for connecting calls, recording call information, and billing
Cell size is not fixed and can be increased or decreased depending on the population of the area. The
typical radius of a cell is 1 to 12 mi. High-density areas require more, geographically smaller cells to
meet traffic demands than do low-density areas. Once determined, cell size is optimized to prevent the
interference of adjacent cell signals. The transmission power of each cell is kept low to prevent its
signal from interfering with those of other cells.
Frequency-Reuse Principle
In general, neighboring cells cannot use the same set of frequencies for communication because it may
create interference for the users located near the cell boundaries. However, the set of frequencies
available is limited, and frequencies need to be reused. A frequency reuse pattern is a configuration
ofN cells, N being the reuse factor, in which each cell uses a unique set of frequencies. When the
pattern is repeated, the frequencies can be reused. There are several different patterns.
The numbers in the cells define the pattern. The cells with the same number in a pattern can use the
same set of frequencies. We call these cells the reusing cells. As Figure 16.2 shows, in a pattern with
reuse factor 4, only one cell separates the cells using the same set of frequencies. In the pattern with
reuse factor 7, two cells separate the reusing cells.
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Transmitting
To place a call from a mobile station, the caller enters a code of 7 or 10 digits (a phone number) and
presses the send button. The mobile station then scans the band, seeking a setup channel with a strong
signal, and sends the data (phone number) to the closest base station using that channel. The base
station relays the data to the MSC. The MSCsends the data on to the telephone central office. If the
called party is available, a connection is made and the result is relayed back to the MSC. At this point,
the MSC assigns an unused voice channel to the call, and a connection is established. The mobile
station automatically adjusts its tuning to the new channel, and communication can begin.
Receiving
When a mobile phone is called, the telephone central office sends the number to the MSC. The MSC
searches for the location of the mobile station by sending query signals to each cell in a process called
paging. Once the mobile station is found, the MSC transmits a ringing signal and, when the mobile
station answers, assigns a voice channel to the call, allowing voice communication to begin.
Handoff
It may happen that, during a conversation, the mobile station moves from one cell to another. When it
does, the signal may become weak. To solve this problem, the MSC monitors the level of the signal
every few seconds. If the strength of the signal diminishes, the MSC seeks a new cell that can better
accommodate the communication. The MSC then changes the channel carrying the call (hands the
signal off from the old channel to a new one). Hard Handoff Early systems used a hard handoff. In a
hard handoff, a mobile station only communicates with one base station. When the MS moves from
one cell to another, communication must first be broken with the previous base station before
communication can be established with the new one. This may create a rough transition. Soft Handoff
New systems use a soft handoff. In this case, a mobile station can communicate with two base stations
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at the same time. This means that, during handoff, a mobile station may continue with the new base
station before breaking off from the old one.
Roaming
One feature of cellular telephony is called roaming. Roaming means, in principle, that a user can have
access to communication or can be reached where there is coverage. A service provider usually has
limited coverage. Neighbouring service providers can provide extended coverage through a roaming
contract. The situation is similar to snail mail between countries. The charge for delivery of a letter
between two countries can be divided upon agreement by the two countries.
Advantages
Higher capacity: Frequency can be reused when one transmitter is far away from another or outside
the interference range.
• Less transmission power: A receiver or mobile handheld devices far away from a base station needs
more power than the current few Watts. Hence the small cell transmission reduces this need.
• Local interference only: With small cells, mobile stations and base stations have to deal with ‘local’
interference only unlike long distance interference.
• Robustness: Cellular systems are decentralized, hence, if one antenna fails, this only influences
communication within a small area.
Disadvantages:
• Infrastructure needed: Need many antennas, switches , location registers.
• Handover needed: Handover to another cell or base station is needed when changing from one cell
to another.
• Frequency planning: To avoid interference frequencies have to be distributed carefully.
MOBILE COMMUNICATION-GSM
The Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) is a European standard that was developed to
provide a common second-generation technology for all Europe. The aim was to replace a number of
incompatible first-generation technologies. Bands GSM uses two bands for duplex communication.
Each band is 25 MHz in width, shifted toward 900 MHz, as shown in Figure 16.7. Each band is divided
into 124 channels of 200 kHz separated by guard bands.
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It is the most successful digital mobile telecommunication system As a part of building fully digital
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system, the groupe spéciale mobile (GSM) was founded in 1982, later named as global system for
mobile communications (GSM) The primary goal of GSM was to provide a mobile phone system that
allows users to roam throughout Europe and provides voice services compatible to ISDN and other
PSTN systems. A GSM system that has been introduced in several European countries for railroad
systems is GSM- Rail. This system uses separate frequencies and other services not available in the
public GSM system. It gives 19 exclusive channels for railroad operators for voice and data traffic.
GSM Mobile services
GSM permits the integration of different voice and data services and the interworking with existing
networks. GSM has defined three different categories of services: bearer, tele, and supplementary
services. A mobile station (MS) is connected to the GSM public land mobile network (PLMN) via the
Um interface. This network is connected to transit networks like ISDN or PSTN. There might be an
additional network, the source/destination network, before another terminal TE is connected.
Within the mobile station MS, the mobile termination (MT) performs all network specific tasks
making the MS independent and unaware of network details. R, S, U, Um are all interfaces.
Bearer services
Bearer services allow transparent and non-transparent, synchronous or asynchronous data
transmission. Transparent bearer services only use the functions of the physical layer (layer 1) to
transmit data. The delay and performance is constant if there is no error in transmission. Transmission
quality can be achieved through forward error correction (FEC), which detects and corrects error in
received data through extra bits(redundant bits).Transparent bearer services do not try to recover lost
data. Non-transparent bearer services use protocols of layers two and three to implement error
correction and flow control. These services use the transparent bearer services along with radio link
protocol (RLP). This protocol includes special mechanisms to retransmit error prone data.
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Using transparent and non-transparent services, GSM specifies several bearer services for
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interworking with PSTN, ISDN, and packet switched public data networks (PSPDN)
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Tele services
GSM mainly focuses on voice-oriented tele services that include encrypted voice transmission. GSM
provides the service of emergency number. Another service is the short message service (SMS), which
allows messages of size 160 characters. Enhanced message service (EMS), offers a larger message
size (760 characters), supported animated pictures, small images and ring tones. Multimedia message
service (MMS) supported larger pictures (GIF, JPG), short video clips etc. Another non-voice tele
service is group 3 fax, where fax data is transmitted as digital data over analog telephone network.
Supplementary services
These services offer various enhancements for the standard telephony service, and may vary from
provider to provider.
Typical services are user identification, call redirection, or forwarding of ongoing calls. Standard
ISDN features such as closed user groups and multiparty communication may be available. Closed
user groups are of special interest to companies because they allow company-specific GSM sub-
network to which only members of the group have access.
System architecture
A GSM system consists of three subsystems, the radio sub system (RSS), the network and switching
subsystem (NSS), and the operation subsystem (OSS).
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Um (air or radio interface) – Interface between MS and BTS Abis – Interface linking BSC and BTS
A – Interface that provides communication between BSS and MSC O – OMC monitors all other
entities through O interface
Radio subsystem (RSS)
Contains all radio specific devices which are the mobile stations (MS) and the base station subsystem
(BSS).
Base station subsystem (BSS): A GSM network has many BSSs, each controlled by a base station
controller (BSC). BSS contains several BTSs. The BSS functions include coding/decoding of voice
and data rate adaptation to/from the wireless network etc.
Base transceiver station (BTS): Contains radio equipment such as antennas, amplifiers etc. A BTS can
form a radio cell and is connected to MS.
Base station controller (BSC): The BSC controls BTSs. It reserves radio frequencies and handles the
handover of device from one BTS to another within the BSS.
Mobile station (MS): The MS comprises all user equipment and software needed for communication
with a GSM network. An MS consists of user independent hard- and software and of the subscriber
identity module (SIM), which stores all user-specific data that is relevant to GSM. MS is identified
through international mobile equipment identity (IMEI) and is used for theft protection.
SIM card contains many identifiers and tables, such as card-type, serial number, a list of subscribed
services, a personal identity number (PIN), a PIN unblocking key (PUK), an authentication key Ki,
and the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI).
The MS stores dynamic information while logged onto the GSM system, such as location information.
Typical MSs like mobile phones include cameras, fingerprint sensors, calendars, address books,
games, and Internet browsers.
Network and switching subsystem (NSS)
Connects the wireless network with standard public networks, performs handovers between different
BSSs, supports roaming of users between different providers in different countries.
Mobile services switching center (MSC): MSCs are high-performance digital ISDN switches. They
set up connections to other MSCs and to the BSCs. An MSC manages several BSCs in a geographical
region. An MSC handles all signaling needed for connection setup, connection release and handover
of connections to other MSCs. A Gateway MSC (GMSC) has additional connections to other fixed
networks, such as PSTN and ISDN. Using Inter Working Functions (IWF), an MSC can also connect
to public data networks (PDN) Home location register (HLR): It is the database in a GSM system that
stores all user-based information. This comprises static information, such as the mobile subscriber
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ISDN number (MSISDN) and the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) that is stored
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permanently. Dynamic information like the current location of MS, VLR and MSC is also stored.
Visitor location register (VLR): Dynamic database which temporarily stores all important information
needed for the MS users currently in the location that is associated to the MSC (IMSI, MSISDN, HLR
address). If a new MS comes into the location associated with VLR, it copies all relevant information
for this user from the HLR.
Operation subsystem (OSS)

Contains the necessary functions for network operation and maintenance. Operation and maintenance
center (OMC): The OMC monitors and controls all other network entities which includes traffic
monitoring, subscriber and security management, accounting and billing.
Authentication centre (AuC): Protects user identity and data transmission. The AuC contains the
algorithms for authentication and keys for encryption. It generates the values needed for user
authentication in the HLR.
Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR is a database for all IMEIs. The EIR has a blacklist of
stolen (or locked) devices. It also contains a list of valid IMEIs (white list), and a list of malfunctioning
devices (gray list).
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DATA LINK CONTROLS
Data Link Control is the service provided by the Data Link Layer to provide reliable data transfer over
the physical medium. For example, In the half-duplex transmission mode, one device can only transmit
the data at a time. If both the devices at the end of the links transmit the data simultaneously, they will
collide and leads to the loss of the information. The Data link layer provides the coordination among
the devices so that no collision occurs.
The Data link layer provides three functions:
➢ Line discipline
➢ Flow Control
➢ Error Control
LINE DISCIPLINE
Line Discipline is a functionality of the Data link layer that provides the coordination among the
link systems. It determines which device can send, and when it can send the data.
Line Discipline can be achieved in two ways:
➢ ENQ/ACK
➢ Poll/select
END/ACK
END/ACK stands for Enquiry/Acknowledgement is used when there is no wrong receiver available
on the link and having a dedicated path between the two devices so that the device capable of receiving
the transmission is the intended one. END/ACK coordinates which device will start the transmission
and whether the recipient is ready or not.
Working of END/ACK
The transmitter transmits the frame called an Enquiry (ENQ) asking whether the receiver is available
to receive the data or not.
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The receiver responses either with the positive acknowledgement (ACK) or with the negative
acknowledgement (NACK) where positive acknowledgement means that the receiver is ready to
receive the transmission and negative acknowledgement means that the receiver is unable to accept
the transmission.
Following are the responses of the receiver:
• If the response to the ENQ is positive, the sender will transmit its data, and once all of its data
has been transmitted, the device finishes its transmission with an EOT (END-of-Transmission)
frame.
• If the response to the ENQ is negative, then the sender disconnects and restarts the transmission
at another time.
• If the response is neither negative nor positive, the sender assumes that the ENQ frame was
lost during the transmission and makes three attempts to establish a link before giving up.
POLL/SELECT
The Poll/Select method of line discipline works with those topologies where one device is designated
as a primary station, and other devices are secondary stations.
Working of Poll/Select
• In this, the primary device and multiple secondary devices consist of a single transmission line,
and all the exchanges are made through the primary device even though the destination is a
secondary device.
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• The primary device has control over the communication link, and the secondary device follows
the instructions of the primary device.
• The primary device determines which device is allowed to use the communication channel.
Therefore, we can say that it is an initiator of the session.
• If the primary device wants to receive the data from the secondary device, it asks the secondary
device that they anything to send, this process is known as polling.
• If the primary device wants to send some data to the secondary device, then it tells the target
secondary to get ready to receive the data, this process is known as selecting.
SELECT
• The select mode is used when the primary device has something to send.
• When the primary device wants to send some data, then it alerts the secondary device for the
upcoming transmission by transmitting a Select (SEL) frame, one field of the frame includes
the address of the intended secondary device.
• When the secondary device receives the SEL frame, it sends an acknowledgement that
indicates the secondary ready status.
• If the secondary device is ready to accept the data, then the primary device sends two or more
data frames to the intended secondary device. Once the data has been transmitted, the
secondary sends an acknowledgement specifies that the data has been received.
POLL
• The Poll mode is used when the primary device wants to receive some data from the secondary
device.
• When a primary device wants to receive the data, then it asks each device whether it has
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• Firstly, the primary asks (poll) the first secondary device, if it responds with the NACK
(Negative Acknowledgement) means that it has nothing to send. Now, it approaches the second
secondary device, it responds with the ACK means that it has the data to send. The secondary
device can send more than one frame one after another or sometimes it may be required to send
ACK before sending each one, depending on the type of the protocol being used.
FLOW CONTROL
• It is a set of procedures that tells the sender how much data it can transmit before the data
overwhelms the receiver.
• The receiving device has limited speed and limited memory to store the data. Therefore, the
receiving device must be able to inform the sending device to stop the transmission temporarily
before the limits are reached.
• It requires a buffer, a block of memory for storing the information until they are processed.
Two methods have been developed to control the flow of data:
➢ Stop-and-wait
➢ Sliding window
Stop-and-wait
• In the Stop-and-wait method, the sender waits for an acknowledgement after every frame it
sends.
• When acknowledgement is received, then only next frame is sent. The process of alternately
sending and waiting of a frame continues until the sender transmits the EOT (End of
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transmission) frame.
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Advantage of Stop-and-wait
The Stop-and-wait method is simple as each frame is checked and acknowledged before the next frame
is sent.
Disadvantage of Stop-and-wait
Stop-and-wait technique is inefficient to use as each frame must travel across all the way to the
receiver, and an acknowledgement travels all the way before the next frame is sent. Each frame sent
and received uses the entire time needed to traverse the link.
Sliding Window
• The Sliding Window is a method of flow control in which a sender can transmit the several
frames before getting an acknowledgement.
• In Sliding Window Control, multiple frames can be sent one after the another due to which
capacity of the communication channel can be utilized efficiently.
• A single ACK acknowledge multiple frames.
• Sliding Window refers to imaginary boxes at both the sender and receiver end.
• The window can hold the frames at either end, and it provides the upper limit on the number
of frames that can be transmitted before the acknowledgement.
• Frames can be acknowledged even when the window is not completely filled.
• The window has a specific size in which they are numbered as modulo-n means that they are
numbered from 0 to n-1. For example, if n = 8, the frames are numbered from
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1........
• The size of the window is represented as n-1. Therefore, maximum n-1 frames can be sent
before acknowledgement.
• When the receiver sends the ACK, it includes the number of the next frame that it wants to
receive. For example, to acknowledge the string of frames ending with frame number 4, the
receiver will send the ACK containing the number 5. When the sender sees the ACK with the
number 5, it got to know that the frames from 0 through 4 have been received.
Sender Window
• At the beginning of a transmission, the sender window contains n-1 frames, and when they are
sent out, the left boundary moves inward shrinking the size of the window. For example, if the
size of the window is w if three frames are sent out, then the number of frames left out in the
sender window is w-3.
• Once the ACK has arrived, then the sender window expands to the number which will be equal
to the number of frames acknowledged by ACK.
• For example, the size of the window is 7, and if frames 0 through 4 have been sent out and no
acknowledgement has arrived, then the sender window contains only two frames, i.e., 5 and 6.
Now, if ACK has arrived with a number 4 which means that 0 through 3 frames have arrived
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undamaged and the sender window is expanded to include the next four frames. Therefore, the
sender window contains six frames (5,6,7,0,1,2).
Receiver Window
• At the beginning of transmission, the receiver window does not contain n frames, but it
contains n-1 spaces for frames.
• When the new frame arrives, the size of the window shrinks.
• The receiver window does not represent the number of frames received, but it represents the
number of frames that can be received before an ACK is sent. For example, the size of the
window is w, if three frames are received then the number of spaces available in the window
is (w-3).
• Once the acknowledgement is sent, the receiver window expands by the number equal to the
number of frames acknowledged.
• Suppose the size of the window is 7 means that the receiver window contains seven spaces for
seven frames. If the one frame is received, then the receiver window shrinks and moving the
boundary from 0 to 1. In this way, window shrinks one by one, so window now contains the
six spaces. If frames from 0 through 4 have sent, then the window contains two spaces before
an acknowledgement is sent.
ERROR CONTROL
Error Control is a technique of error detection and retransmission.

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Categories of Error Control:
STOP-AND-WAIT ARQ
Stop-and-wait ARQ is a technique used to retransmit the data in case of damaged or lost frames. This
technique works on the principle that the sender will not transmit the next frame until it receives the
acknowledgement of the last transmitted frame.
Four features are required for the retransmission:
• The sending device keeps a copy of the last transmitted frame until the acknowledgement is
received. Keeping the copy allows the sender to retransmit the data if the frame is not received
correctly.
• Both the data frames and the ACK frames are numbered alternately 0 and 1 so that they can be
identified individually. Suppose data 1 frame acknowledges the data 0 frame means that the
data 0 frame has been arrived correctly and expects to receive data 1 frame.
• If an error occurs in the last transmitted frame, then the receiver sends the NAK frame which
is not numbered. On receiving the NAK frame, sender retransmits the data.
• It works with the timer. If the acknowledgement is not received within the allotted time, then
the sender assumes that the frame is lost during the transmission, so it will retransmit the frame.
Two possibilities of the retransmission:
• Damaged Frame: When the receiver receives a damaged frame, i.e., the frame contains an
error, then it returns the NAK frame. For example, when the data 0 frame is sent, and then the
receiver sends the ACK 1 frame means that the data 0 has arrived correctly, and transmits the
data 1 frame. The sender transmits the next frame: data 1. It reaches undamaged, and the
receiver returns ACK 0. The sender transmits the next frame: data 0. The receiver reports an
error and returns the NAK frame. The sender retransmits the data 0 frame.
• Lost Frame: Sender is equipped with the timer and starts when the frame is transmitted.
Sometimes the frame has not arrived at the receiving end so that it can be acknowledged neither
positively nor negatively. The sender waits for acknowledgement until the timer goes off. If
the timer goes off, it retransmits the last transmitted frame.
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SLIDING WINDOW ARQ
Sliding Window ARQ is a technique used for continuous transmission error control.
Three Features used for retransmission:
o In this case, the sender keeps the copies of all the transmitted frames until they have been
acknowledged. Suppose the frames from 0 through 4 have been transmitted, and the last
acknowledgement was for frame 2, the sender has to keep the copies of frames 3 and 4 until
they receive correctly.
o The receiver can send either NAK or ACK depending on the conditions. The NAK frame tells
the sender that the data have been received damaged. Since the sliding window is a continuous
transmission mechanism, both ACK and NAK must be numbered for the identification of a
frame. The ACK frame consists of a number that represents the next frame which the receiver
expects to receive. The NAK frame consists of a number that represents the damaged frame.
o The sliding window ARQ is equipped with the timer to handle the lost acknowledgements.
Suppose then n-1 frames have been sent before receiving any acknowledgement. The sender
waits for the acknowledgement, so it starts the timer and waits before sending any more. If the
allotted time runs out, the sender retransmits one or all the frames depending upon the protocol
used.
Two protocols used in sliding window ARQ:
o Go-Back-n ARQ: In Go-Back-N ARQ protocol, if one frame is lost or damaged, then it
retransmits all the frames after which it does not receive the positive ACK.
Three possibilities can occur for retransmission:
o Damaged Frame: When the frame is damaged, then the receiver sends a NAK frame.
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In the above figure, three frames have been transmitted before an error discovered in the third frame.
In this case, ACK 2 has been returned saying that the frames 0,1 have been received successfully
without any error. The receiver discovers the error in data 2 frame, so it returns the NAK 2 frame. The
frame 3 is also discarded as it is transmitted after the damaged frame. Therefore, the sender retransmits
the frames 2,3.
• Lost Data Frame: In Sliding window protocols, data frames are sent sequentially. If any of
the frames is lost, then the next frame arrive at the receiver is out of sequence. The receiver
checks the sequence number of each of the frame, discovers the frame that has been skipped,
and returns the NAK for the missing frame. The sending device retransmits the frame indicated
by NAK as well as the frames transmitted after the lost frame.
• Lost Acknowledgement: The sender can send as many frames as the windows allow before
waiting for any acknowledgement. Once the limit of the window is reached, the sender has no
more frames to send; it must wait for the acknowledgement. If the acknowledgement is lost,
then the sender could wait forever. To avoid such situation, the sender is equipped with the
timer that starts counting whenever the window capacity is reached. If the acknowledgement
has not been received within the time limit, then the sender retransmits the frame since the last
ACK.
Selective-Reject ARQ
• Selective-Reject ARQ technique is more efficient than Go-Back-n ARQ.

• In this technique, only those frames are retransmitted for which negative acknowledgement
(NAK) has been received.
• The receiver storage buffer keeps all the damaged frames on hold until the frame in error is
correctly received.
• The receiver must have an appropriate logic for reinserting the frames in a correct order.
• The sender must consist of a searching mechanism that selects only the requested frame for
retransmission.
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DATA LINK PROTOCOLS
A protocol in data communication is the set of specifications used to implement one or more layers of
the OSI model. Datalink protocols are sets of specifications used to implement the info datalink layer
to this end, they contain rules for line discipline, flow control, and error handling, among others.
Datalink protocols can be divided into two subgroups: -
➢ Asynchronous protocols
➢ synchronous protocols
Asynchronous protocols treat each character during a bitstream independently. synchronous protocols
take the entire bitstream and chop it into characters of equal size.
ASYNCHRONOUS PROTOCOLS
Many synchronous datalink protocols have been developed over the last several decades, one of which
is these protocols are employed mainly in modems. Due to its inherent slowness stemming from the
required additions of start and stop bits and extended space between frames, asynchronous
transmission at this level is being replaced by higher speed synchronous mechanisms. Asynchronous
protocols, used primarily in modems, feature start and stop bits and variable length gaps between
characters. In asynchronous transmission a clock is not required, instead it uses start and stop bits.
Data flows in a half-duplex mode, 1 byte or a character at a time, and in a continuous stream of bytes.
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Asynchronous protocols aren’t complex and are inexpensive to implement. asynchronous transmission
a data unit is transmitted with no timing coordination between the sender and receiver. A receiver
doesn’t get to know exactly when a knowledge unit is shipped it only must recognize the beginning
and the end of the unit. This is accomplished by using extra bits start and stop bits to frame into the
data unit.
There are 5 types of Asynchronous protocols in Datalink protocols
➢ XMODEM
➢ YMODEM
➢ ZMODEM
➢ BLAST
➢ KERMIT
XMODEM
It is a half duplex stop & wait protocol. It is used for telephone line communication between PCs. The
sender sends a frame to receiver & waits for ACK frame. The receiver can send one cancel signal
(CAN) to abort the transmission.
The various fields of frame are:

• SOH: It is start of header. It is 1 byte field.
• Header: It contains the sequence number. It is 2 bytes in length.

• Data: This field holds 128 bytes of data.
• CRC: It is Cyclic Redundancy Check. This field checks the errors in data field.
YMODEM
YMODEM is a type of Datalink protocol that is similar to XMODEM, with the subsequent major
differences:
• The data unit is 1024 bytes.

• Two CANs are sent to abort a transmission.
• ITU-T CRC-16 is used for error checking.
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• Multiple files can be sent simultaneously.

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ZMODEM
ZMODEM is a newer protocol combining features of both XMODEM and YMODEM.
BLAST
Blocked asynchronous transmission (BLAST) is more powerful than XMODEM. It is a full-duplex

with sliding window flow control. It allows the transmission of data and binary files.
KERMIT
It is a terminal program as well as file transfer protocol. It is similar in operation to XMODEM, except
that sender has to wait for a negative acknowledgement (NAK) before it starts transmission
SYNCHRONOUS PROTOCOLS
The speed of synchronous transmission makes it the better choice, over the synchronous transmission,
For LAN, MAN, and WAN technology. In synchronous transmission, the sender and receiver should
have synchronized clocks and data can flow in a full-duplex mode also, in the form of blocks or frames.
Each block of characters is labelled with the synchronization characters so that sender knows where
the new byte starts since there is no gap between the data.
Protocols governing synchronous transmission are often divided into two classes:
➢ Character-Oriented Protocols
➢ Bit-Oriented Protocols
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CHARACTER-ORIENTED PROTOCOLS
character-oriented protocols (also called byte-oriented protocols) interpret a transmission frame or

packet as a succession of characters, each usually composed of one byte (eight bits). All control
information is within sort of an existing character encoding system.
BIT-ORIENTED PROTOCOLS
Bit-oriented protocols interpret a transfer frame or packet as a succession of individual bits, made
meaningful by their placement in the frame and by their just a position with other bits.
Control information during a bit-oriented protocol is often one or multiple bits depending on the
information embodied in the pattern.
LANS (LOCAL AREA NETWORKS)

LAN is a data communication system that allows a number of independent devices to communicate
directly with each other in a limited geographic area.
LANs are dominated by four architectures:

➢ Ethernet,
➢ Token Bus
➢ Token Ring
➢ Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
Ethernet, Token Bus and Token Ring are standards of the IEEE and are part of its Project 802. FDDI
is an ANSI standard.
ETHERNET (IEEE 802.3)

Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. It was first standardized
in 1980s by IEEE 802.3 standard. IEEE 802.3 defines the physical layer and the medium access control
(MAC) sub-layer of the data link layer for wired Ethernet networks. Ethernet is classified into two
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categories: classic Ethernet and switched Ethernet.

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Classic Ethernet is the original form of Ethernet that provides data rates between 3 to 10 Mbps. The
varieties are commonly referred as 10BASE-X. Here, 10 is the maximum throughput, i.e. 10 Mbps,
BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and X is the type of medium used. Most varieties of
classic Ethernet have become obsolete in present communication scenario.
A switched Ethernet uses switches to connect to the stations in the LAN. It replaces the repeaters used
in classic Ethernet and allows full bandwidth utilization.
IEEE 802.3 Popular Versions

There are a number of versions of IEEE 802.3 protocol. The most popular ones are -
• IEEE 802.3: This was the original standard given for 10BASE-5. It used a thick single coaxial
cable into which a connection can be tapped by drilling into the cable to the core. Here, 10 is
the maximum throughput, i.e. 10 Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and 5
refers to the maximum segment length of 500m.
• IEEE 802.3a: This gave the standard for thin coax (10BASE-2), which is a thinner variety
where the segments of coaxial cables are connected by BNC connectors. The 2 refers to the
maximum segment length of about 200m (185m to be precise).
• IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for twisted pair (10BASE-T) that uses unshielded twisted
pair (UTP) copper wires as physical layer medium. The further variations were given by IEEE
802.3u for 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4 and 100BASE-FX.
• IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for Ethernet over Fiber (10BASE-F) that uses fiber optic
cables as medium of transmission.
Frame Format of Classic Ethernet and IEEE 802.3

The main fields of a frame of classic Ethernet are -
• Preamble: It is the starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for transmission.
In case of classic Ethernet it is an 8 byte field and in case of IEEE 802.3 it is of 7 bytes.
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• Start of Frame Delimiter: It is a 1 byte field in a IEEE 802.3 frame that contains an
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Data Communication
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• Destination Address: It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of destination

stations.
• Source Address: It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the sending
station.
• Length: It a 7 bytes field that stores the number of bytes in the data field.
• Data: This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The maximum
size of data field is 1500 bytes.
• Padding: This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum requirement of
46 bytes.
• CRC: CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error detection
information.
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TOKEN BUS (IEEE 802.4)

Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) is a standard for implementing token ring over the virtual ring in LANs. The
physical media has a bus or a tree topology and uses coaxial cables. A virtual ring is created with the
nodes/stations and the token is passed from one node to the next in a sequence along this virtual ring.
Each node knows the address of its preceding station and its succeeding station. A station can only
transmit data when it has the token. The working principle of the token bus is similar to Token Ring.
Token Passing Mechanism in Token Bus

A token is a small message that circulates among the stations of a computer network providing
permission to the stations for transmission. If a station has data to transmit when it receives a token, it
sends the data and then passes the token to the next station; otherwise, it simply passes the token to
the next station. This is depicted in the following diagram
Frame Format of Token Bus

The frame format is given by the following diagram −
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The fields of a token bus frame are −
• Preamble: 1 byte for synchronization.

• Start Delimiter: 1 byte that marks the beginning of the frame.
• Frame Control: 1 byte that specifies whether this is a data frame or control frame.
• Destination Address: 2-6 bytes that specifies address of destination station.
• Source Address: 2-6 bytes that specifies address of source station.
• Payload: A variable length field that carries the data from the network layer.
• Checksum: 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection.
• End Delimiter: 1 byte that marks the end of the frame.
TOKEN RING (IEEE 802.5)
Token ring (IEEE 802.5) is a communication protocol in a local area network (LAN) where all stations
are connected in a ring topology and pass one or more tokens for channel acquisition. A token is a
special frame of 3 bytes that circulates along the ring of stations. A station can send data frames only
if it holds a token. The tokens are released on successful receipt of the data frame.
Token Passing Mechanism in Token Ring

If a station has a frame to transmit when it receives a token, it sends the frame and then passes the
token to the next station; otherwise it simply passes the token to the next station. Passing the token
means receiving the token from the preceding station and transmitting to the successor station. The
data flow is unidirectional in the direction of the token passing. In order that tokens are not circulated
infinitely, they are removed from the network once their purpose is completed. This is shown in the
following diagram
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Differences between Token Ring and Token Bus
Token Ring Token Bus
The token is passed over the physical ring The token is passed along the virtual ring of
formed by the stations and the coaxial cable stations connected to a LAN.
network.
The stations are connected by ring topology, or The underlying topology that connects the
sometimes star topology. stations is either bus or tree topology.
It is defined by IEEE 802.5 standard. It is defined by IEEE 802.4 standard.
The maximum time for a token to reach a It is not feasible to calculate the time for token
station can be calculated here. transfer.
FIBER DISTRIBUTED DATA INTERFACE (FDDI)

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a set of ANSI and ISO standards for transmission of data
in local area network (LAN) over fiber optic cables. It is applicable in large LANs that can extend up
to 200 kilometers in diameter.
Features
• FDDI uses optical fiber as its physical medium.
• It operates in the physical and medium access control (MAC layer) of the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) network model.
• It provides high data rate of 100 Mbps and can support thousands of users.
• It is used in LANs up to 200 kilometers for long distance voice and multimedia
communication.
• It uses ring based token passing mechanism and is derived from IEEE 802.4 token bus
standard.
• It contains two token rings, a primary ring for data and token transmission and a
secondary ring that provides backup if the primary ring fails.
• FDDI technology can also be used as a backbone for a wide area network (WAN).
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The following diagram shows FDDI −
Frame Format
The frame format of FDDI is similar to that of token bus as shown in the following diagram −
The fields of an FDDI frame are −
• Preamble: 1 byte for synchronization.

• Start Delimiter: 1 byte that marks the beginning of the frame.
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• Frame Control: 1 byte that specifies whether this is a data frame or control frame.
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• Destination Address: 2-6 bytes that specifies address of destination station.

• Source Address: 2-6 bytes that specifies address of source station.
• Payload: A variable length field that carries the data from the network layer.
• Checksum: 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection.
• End Delimiter: 1 byte that marks the end of the frame.
SWITCHING / NETWORK SWITCHING

Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading towards the
destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a port or goes out it
is called egress. A communication system may include number of switches and nodes. At broad level,
switching can be divided into two major categories:
• Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous

handshaking is required and acknowledgements are optional.
• Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there is
a need to pre-establish circuit along the path between both endpoints. Data is then
forwarded on that circuit. After the transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for future
use or can be turned down immediately.
Classification Of Switching Techniques
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
• Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and
receiver.
• In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path
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• Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.

• A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
• In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a
request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure
the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path
transfers the data.
• Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
• Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
• Circuit establishment
• Data transfer
• Circuit Disconnect
Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:
Space Division Switches:

• Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single transmission path
is accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate set of crosspoints.
• Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar switch is a
metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be enabled or disabled by a control unit.
• The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx crossbar switch
using FPGAs.
• Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking switches.
Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:
• Crossbar Switch
• Multistage Switch
Crossbar Switch
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The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The crossbar switch has
n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.
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Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:
The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased. Therefore, it becomes very
expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is to use a multistage switch.
Multistage Switch
• Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller units and then
interconnecting them.
• It reduces the number of cross points.
• If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
• In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.

• It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
• Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data transmission.
• It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data can be
transmitted.
• It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for each
connection.
• It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred, then the
capacity of the path is wasted.
• In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred even if the
channel is free.
MESSAGE SWITCHING
• Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a complete

unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
• In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between the
sender and receiver.
• The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a dynamic
routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the information
available in the message.
• Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most efficient
routes.
• Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This type
of network is known as store and forward network.
• Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
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Advantages Of Message Switching
• Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the efficiency of
using available bandwidth.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the nodes.
• Message priority can be used to manage the network.
• The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it supports
the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching
• The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to store the
messages until the message is forwarded.
• The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the message
switching technique.
PACKET SWITCHING
• The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it is
divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
• The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique
number to identify their order at the receiving end.
• Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination
address and sequence number.
• Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
• All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
• If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
• If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be sent.
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Approaches of Packet Switching:
There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
Datagram Packet switching:

• It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered as
an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the destination and switch
uses this information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
• The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
• In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
• Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
• Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach
Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach
Node takes routing decisions to forward the Node does not take any routing decision.
packets.
Congestion cannot occur as all the packets Congestion can occur when the node is busy, and it does
travel in different directions. not allow other packets to pass through.
It is more flexible as all the packets are It is not very flexible.

treated as an independent entity.
virtual circuit switching

• Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
• In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the messages
are sent.
• Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender and
receiver.
• In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
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Data Communication
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Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:
• In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
• Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between the sender and
receiver.
• When a route is established, data will be transferred.
• After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that the message
has been received.
• If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the termination.
Advantages of Packet Switching:
• Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require massive

secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can
say that the packet switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
• Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the Packet
Switching technique provides reliable communication.
• Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any established path
prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same communication channel
simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth very efficiently.
Disadvantages of Packet Switching:
• Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require low delay
and high-quality services.
• The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires high
implementation cost.
• If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost packets. It can
also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.
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Data Communication
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INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK (ISDN)
These are a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video,
data, and other network services over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone
network. Before Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), the telephone system was seen as a
way to transmit voice, with some special services available for data. The main feature of ISDN is
that it can integrate speech and data on the same lines, which were not available in the classic
telephone system.
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also provides access to packet-switched
networks that allows digital transmission of voice and data. This results in potentially better voice
or data quality than an analog phone can provide. It provides a packet-switched connection for data
in increments of 64 kilobit/s. It provided a maximum of 128 kbit/s bandwidth in both upstream and
downstream directions. A greater data rate was achieved through channel bonding. Generally, ISDN
B-channels of three or four BRIs (six to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded.
In the context of the OSI model, ISDN is employed as the network in data-link and physical layers
but commonly ISDN is often limited to usage to Q.931 and related protocols. These protocols
introduced in 1986 are a set of signaling protocols establishing and breaking circuit-switched
connections, and for advanced calling features for the user. ISDN provides simultaneous voice,
video, and text transmission between individual desktop videoconferencing systems and group
videoconferencing systems.
ISDN INTERFACES:
The following are the interfaces of ISDN:
Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
There are two data-bearing channels (‘B’ channels) and one signaling channel (‘D’ channel) in BRI
to initiate connections. The B channels operate at a maximum of 64 Kbps while the D channel
operates at a maximum of 16 Kbps. The two channels are independent of each other. For example,
one channel is used as a TCP/IP connection to a location while the other channel is used t o send a
fax to a remote location. In iSeries ISDN supports a basic rate interface (BRl).
The basic rate interface (BRl) specifies a digital pipe consisting of two B channels of 64 Kbps each
and one D channel of 16 Kbps. This equals a speed of 144 Kbps. In addition, the BRl service itself
requires an operating overhead of 48 Kbps. Therefore a digital pipe of 192 Kbps is required.
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Data Communication
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Primary Rate Interface (PRI)
Primary Rate Interface service consists of a D channel and either 23 or 30 B channels depending on
the country you are in. PRI is not supported on the iSeries. A digital pipe with 23 B channels and
one 64 Kbps D channel is present in the usual Primary Rate Interface (PRI). Twenty-three B channels
of 64 Kbps each and one D channel of 64 Kbps equals 1.536 Mbps. The PRI service uses 8 Kbps of
overhead also. Therefore PRI requires a digital pipe of 1.544 Mbps.
Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN)
Narrowband ISDN has been designed to operate over the current communications infrastructure,
which is heavily dependent on the copper cable however B-ISDN relies mainly on the evolution of
fiber optics. According to CCITT B-ISDN is best described as ‘a service requiring transmission
channels capable of supporting rates greater than the primary rate.
ISDN SERVICES:
ISDN provides a fully integrated digital service to users. These services fall into 3 categories- bearer
services, teleservices, and supplementary services.
• Bearer Services
Transfer of information (voice, data, and video) between users without the network manipulating
the content of that information is provided by the bearer network. There is no need for the network
to process the information and therefore does not change the content. Bearer services belong to the
first three layers of the OSI model. They are well defined in the ISDN standard. They can be provided
using circuit-switched, packet-switched, frame-switched, or cell-switched networks.
• Teleservices
In this, the network may change or process the contents of the data. These services correspond to
layers 4-7 of the OSI model. Teleservices rely on the facilities of the bearer services and are designed
to accommodate complex user needs. The user need not be aware of the details of the process.
Teleservices include telephony, teletex, telefax, videotex, telex, and teleconferencing. Though the
ISDN defines these services by name yet they have not yet become standards.
• Supplementary Service
Additional functionality to the bearer services and teleservices are provided by supplementary
services. Reverse charging, call waiting, and message handling are examples of supplementary
services which are all familiar with today’s telephone company services.
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Data Communication
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Principle of ISDN:
The ISDN works based on the standards defined by ITU-T (formerly CCITT). The
Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) coordinates standards for telecommunications
on behalf of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and is based in Geneva, Switzerland.
The various principles of ISDN as per ITU-T recommendation are:
➢ To support switched and non-switched applications

➢ To support voice and non-voice applications
➢ Reliance on 64-kbps connections
➢ Intelligence in the network
➢ Layered protocol architecture
➢ Variety of configurations
Advantages of ISDN:
➢ ISDN channels have a reliable connection.
➢ ISDN is used to facilitate the user with multiple digital channels.
➢ It has faster data transfer rate.
Disadvantages of ISDN:
➢ ISDN lines costlier than the other telephone system.

➢ It requires specialized digital devices.
➢ It is less flexible.
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Data Communication
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OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION
An optical Fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent Fiber that acts as a waveguide, or "light pipe", to
transmit light between the two ends of the Fiber. Optical fibers are widely used in Fiber-optic
communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data
rates) than other forms of communication. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel
along them with less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic interference.
Historical Development Optical Fiber Communication
Simple systems such as signal fires, reflecting mirrors and, more recently, signaling lamps have
provided successful for communication using visible optical waves or light. Moreover, as early as
1880 Alexander Graham Bell reported the transmission of speech using a light beam. The photophone
proposed by Bell modulated sunlight with a diaphragm giving speech transmission over a distance.
Lack of sunlight source, weather conditions, need for line-of-sight arrangement limited the scope.
A renewed interest in optical communication was stimulated in the early 1960s with the invention of
the laser. However, the previously mentioned constraints of light transmission in the atmosphere
tended to restrict these systems to short-distance applications. The invention of the laser instigated a
tremendous research effort into the study of optical components to achieve reliable information
transfer using a light wave carrier. The proposals for optical communication via dielectric waveguides
or optical fiber fabricated from glass to avoid degradation of the optical signal by the atmosphere were
made almost simultaneously in 1966 by Kao and Hockham and Werts. Such systems were viewed as
a replacement for coaxial cable or carrier transmission systems.
Semiconductor optical sources (i.e., injection lasers and light-emitting diodes) and detectors (i.e.,
photodiodes and to a lesser extent phototransistors) compatible in size with optical fibers were
designed and fabricated to enable successful implementation of the optical fiber system.
High-performance, reliable optical fiber communication systems and networks are now widely
deployed within the worldwide telecommunication network and in many more localized
communication application areas.
First generation
i) The first generation of light wave systems uses GaAs semiconductor laser and operating region
was near 0.8 μm. Other specifications of this generation are as under:
ii) Bit rate: 45 Mb/s
iii) Repeater spacing: 10 km
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Data Communication
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i) Bit rate: 100 Mb/s to 1.7 Gb/s

ii) Repeater spacing: 50 km
iii) Operation wavelength: 1.3 μm
iv) Semiconductor: In GaAsP
Third generation
i) Bit rate: 10 Gb/s
ii) Repeater spacing: 100 km
iii) Operating wavelength: 1.55 μm
WORKING PRINCIPLE
A fundamental optical parameter one should have an idea about, while studying fiber optics
is Refractive index. By definition, “The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to that in matter is the
index of refraction n of the material.” It is represented as −
$$n = \frac{c}{v}$$
Where,
c = the speed of light in free space = 3 × 108 m/s
v = the speed of light in di-electric or non-conducting material
Generally, for a travelling light ray, reflection takes place when n2 < n1 . The bent of light ray at the
interface is the result of difference in the speed of light in two materials that have different refractive
indices. The relationship between these angles at the interface can be termed as Snell’s law. It is
represented as −
$$n_1sin\phi _1 = n_2sin\phi _2$$
Where,
$\phi _1$ is the angle of incidence
$\phi _2$ is the refracted angle
n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of two materials
For an optically dense material, if the reflection takes place within the same material, then such a
phenomenon is called as internal reflection. The incident angle and refracted angle are shown in the
2
following figure.
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Data Communication
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If the angle of incidence $\phi _1$ is much larger, then the refracted angle $\phi _2$ at a point becomes
Π/2 . Further refraction is not possible beyond this point. Hence, such a point is called as Critical
angle $\phi _c$. When the incident angle $\phi _1$ is greater than the critical angle, the condition
for total internal reflection is satisfied.
The following figure shows these terms clearly.
A light ray, if passed into a glass, at such condition, it is totally reflected back into the glass with no
light escaping from the surface of the glass.
Parts of a Fiber
The most commonly used optical fiber is single solid di-electric cylinder of radius a and index of
refraction n1. The following figure explains the parts of an optical fiber.
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Data Communication
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This cylinder is known as the Core of the fiber. A solid di-electric material surrounds the core, which
is called as Cladding. Cladding has a refractive index n2 which is less than n1.
Cladding helps in −
• Reducing scattering losses.

• Adds mechanical strength to the fiber.
• Protects the core from absorbing unwanted surface contaminants.
TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS
Depending upon the material composition of the core, there are two types of fibers used commonly.
They are −
• Step-index fiber − The refractive index of the core is uniform throughout and
undergoes an abrupt change (or step) at the cladding boundary.
• Graded-index fiber − The core refractive index is made to vary as a function of the
radial distance from the center of the fiber.
Both of these are further divided into −
• Single-mode fiber − These are excited with laser.

• Multi-mode fiber − These are excited with LED
In single mode, light ray propagates only through a single path and multimode allows multiple modes
of light to propagate through the core. The core of single mode fiber is much smaller but that of
multimode is comparatively large.
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Data Communication
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Based on the refractive index distribution of core a fiber can be of step-index or graded index
form. In a step index fiber, density of core is constant from center to edges and only differs at
the cladding. Multimode step-index fibers trap light with many different entrance angles, each
mode in a step-index multimode fiber is associated with a different entrance angle. Each mode
therefore, travels along a different path through the fiber. Different propagating modes have
different velocities. In a graded index fiber, density is highest at center of core and lowers
towards edges. The index of refraction decreases as the radial distance from the center of the
core increases. As a result, the light travels faster near the edge of the core than near the center.
Different modes therefore travel in curved paths with nearly equal travel times.
Single Mode Fiber
Single mode fibers are constructed by letting dimensions of the core diameter be a few
wavelengths and by having small index differences between core and cladding.
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Data Communication
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Each SM fiber has a cut-off wavelength associated with it. It is the wavelength above which a
particular fiber becomes single-mode.
The cut-off wavelength is given by :
where,
𝝀c indicates the theoretical cut-off wavelength
a is the radius of core
n1 is the refractive index of the core
Vc is the normalized frequency
Δ is the relative refractive index difference between the core and cladding
As we have discussed, modes describe the allowed direction a light wave or ray passes while
satisfying the conditions for total internal reflection. Each mode maintains the distribution of the
electromagnetic field in the x-y plane (modal-field distribution) as it propagates in the z-direction.
The Mode Field Diameter(MFD) is a parameter to predict the performance characteristic of a fiber,
based on the geometric distribution of light in the propagating mode.
It is determined from mode-field distribution of fundamental fiber mode, and is a function of
optical source wavelength, core radius and refractive index profile of fiber. MFD is used to predict
fiber properties such as splice loss, bending loss, cut-off wavelength and waveguide dispersion.
Standard technique to find MFD is using Petermann II equation :
where,
E(r) denotes field distribution of LP01 mode
r is the radius
W0 is width of electric field distribution
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Data Communication
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OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIONS
The communication system of fiber optics is well understood by studying the parts and sections of it.
The major elements of an optical fiber communication system are shown in the following figure.
The basic components are light signal transmitter, the optical fiber, and the photo detecting receiver.
The additional elements such as fiber and cable splicers and connectors, regenerators, beam splitters,
and optical amplifiers are employed to improve the performance of the communication system.
Functional Advantages
The functional advantages of optical fibers are −
• The transmission bandwidth of the fiber optic cables is higher than the metal cables.
• The amount of data transmission is higher in fiber optic cables.
• The power loss is very low and hence helpful in long-distance transmissions.
• Fiber optic cables provide high security and cannot be tapped.
• Fiber optic cables are the most secure way for data transmission.
• Fiber optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference.
• These are not affected by electrical noise.
Physical Advantages
The physical advantages of fiber optic cables are −

7
• The capacity of these cables is much higher than copper wire cables.
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Data Communication
and Optical Fibers
• Though the capacity is higher, the size of the cable doesn’t increase like it does in copper
wire cabling system.
• The space occupied by these cables is much less.
• The weight of these FOC cables is much lighter than the copper ones.
• Since these cables are di-electric, no spark hazards are present.
• These cables are more corrosion resistant than copper cables, as they are bent easily and
are flexible.
• The raw material for the manufacture of fiber optic cables is glass, which is cheaper
than copper.
• Fiber optic cables last longer than copper cables.
Disadvantages
Although fiber optics offer many advantages, they have the following drawbacks −
• Though fiber optic cables last longer, the installation cost is high.
• The number of repeaters are to be increased with distance.
• They are fragile if not enclosed in a plastic sheath. Hence, more protection is needed
than copper ones.
Applications of Fiber Optics
The optical fibers have many applications. Some of them are as follows −
• Used in telephone systems

• Used in sub-marine cable networks
• Used in data link for computer networks, CATV Systems
• Used in CCTV surveillance cameras
• Used for connecting fire, police, and other emergency services.
• Used in hospitals, schools, and traffic management systems.
• They have many industrial uses and also used for in heavy duty constructions.
OPTICAL SOURCES AND DETECTORS

The optical source is often considered to be the active component in an optical fiber communication
system. Its fundamental function is to convert electrical energy in the form of a current into optical
energy (light) in an efficient manner which allows the light output to be effectively launched or
coupled into the optical fiber.
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Data Communication
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LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)

Light emitters are a key element in any fiber optic system. This component converts the electrical
signal into a corresponding light signal that can be injected into the fiber. The light emitter is an
important element because it is often the most costly element in the system, and its characteristics
often strongly influence the final performance limits of a given link.
LEDs are complex semiconductors that convert an electrical current into light. The conversion process
is fairly efficient in that it generates little heat compared to incandescent lights. LEDs are of interest
for fiber optics because of five inherent characteristics:
1. They are small.
2. They possess high radiance (i.e., They emit lots of light in a small area).
3. The emitting area is small, comparable to the dimensions of optical fibers.
4. They have a very long life, offering high reliability.
5. They can be modulated (turned off and on) at high speeds.
Characteristics
Several key characteristics of LEDs determine their usefulness in a given application. These are:
Peak Wavelength: This is the wavelength at which the source emits the most power. It should be
matched to the wavelengths that are transmitted with the least attenuation through optical fiber. The
most common peak wavelength are 780, 850, and 1310 nm.
Spectral Width: Ideally, all the light emitted from an LED would be at the peak wavelength, but in
practice the light is emitted in a range of wavelengths centered at the peak wavelength. This range is
called the spectral width of the source.
Emission Pattern: The pattern of emitted light affects the amount of light that can be coupled into the
optical fiber. The size of the emitting region should be similar to the diameter of the fiber core.
Power: The best results are usually achieved by coupling as much of a source’s power into the fiber
as possible. The key requirement is that the output power of the source be strong enough to provide
sufficient power to the detector at the receiving end, considering fiber attenuation, coupling losses and
other system constraints. In general, LEDs are less powerful than lasers.
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Data Communication
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Speed: A source should turn on and off fast enough to meet the bandwidth limits of the system. The
speed is given according to a source’s Rise or fall time, the time required to go from 10% to 90% of
peak power. LEDs have slower rise and fall times than lasers.
LED Types
There are two basic types of LED structures: edge emitters and surface emitters.
LED Structures
Edge emitters are more complex and expensive devices, but offer high output power levels and high
speed performance. The output power is high because the emitting spot is very small, typically 30-50
µm, allowing good coupling efficiency to similarly sized optical fibers. Edge emitters also have
relatively narrow emission spectra. The full-width, half-maximum (FWHM) is typically about 7% of
the central wavelength. Another variant of the edge emitter is the superradiant LED. These devices are
a cross between a conventional LED and a laser. They usually have a very high power density and
possess some internal optical gain like a laser, but the optical output is still incoherent, unlike a laser.
Superradiant LEDs have very narrow emission spectra, typically 1-2% of the central wavelength and
offer power levels rivaling a laser diode. These devices are popular for fiber optic gyroscope
applications.
The second type of LED is the surface emitter. Surface emitters have a comparatively simple structure,
are relatively inexpensive, offer low-to-moderate output power levels, and are capable of low-to-
moderate operating speeds. The total LED chip optical output power is as high or higher than the edge-
emitting LED, but the emitting area is large, causing poor coupling efficiency to the optical fiber.
Adding to the coupling efficiency deficit is the fact that surface-emitting LEDs are almost perfect
Lambertian emitters. This means that they emit light in all directions. Thus very little of the total light
goes in the required direction for injection into an optical fiber.
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Data Communication
and Optical Fibers
LASER DIODE
The terms stand for LASER full form Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It
can produce coherent radiation in the visible or in an infrared spectrum when current passes through
it. It can be used in optical fiber systems, compact disk players and also some remote-control devices.
Here this post gives information about the advantages and disadvantages of LASER diode to know
more about it.
Advantages of LASER diode:

• Simple economic design
• It has low power as compared to other types of laser diodes
• Better modulation capability
• The laser diode has a high coupling efficiency
• It can be used at high temperatures
• It gives high optical power and In this diode cheaper device to produce laser output
• It has a smaller size as compared to other types of laser diodes
• Production of light can be precisely controlled
• Laser diode to transmit optical output powers between the range of about 5 and 10 mW
• Low spectral width (3.5 nm)
• Compact and it is easily manufactured in arrays and the delivered system not as
expensive as hard tissue laser diode
• Ability to maintain the intrinsic layer characteristics over long time periods
Disadvantages of LASER diode:
• It produces a more divergent laser beam and
• They require big and costly optics for a large source of size
• It has a critical heating problem and Hight drive current to drive the large laser for
pellets
• A speckle pattern appears as two coherent types of light beams to added or subtracts
their electric field depending upon their relative phases at the end of the fiber optic
device
• Poorly absorb in hard tissue and hydroxyapatite and Current
produces unfavorable thermal characteristics.
11
• Necessitates the use of cooling and power stabilization.

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Data Communication

YUVAKSHETRA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES

1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person to

TYPE OF DATA COMMUNICATION

1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that unidirectional

 Guided media transmission

Major components of a computer network are:

NIC(National interface card)

Cables and connectors

expensive as compared to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.

Uses Of Computer Network

FEATURES OF COMPUTER NETWORK/NETWORK CRITERIA

A list Of Computer network features is given below.

Back up and Roll back is easy

Software and Hardware sharing

NETWORK PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

Key elements of a Protocol

The key elements of a protocol are as given below:

Data communication standards mainly fall into two categories:-

Some Standard Creation committees are :

 International Organization of Standardization(ISO)

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

Advantage of Simplex mode:

Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

DIFFERENCES B/W SIMPLEX, HALF-DUPLEX AND FULL-DUPLEX MODE

Basis for Simplex mode Half-duplex mode Full-duplex mode

Direction of In simplex mode, the In half-duplex mode, In full-duplex mode, the

Performance The performance of The performance of The Full-duplex mode has

Example Examples of Simplex Example of half- Example of the Full-duplex

LINE CONFIGURATION IN COMPUTER NETWORKS

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.

o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.

Advantages of Bus topology:

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

Working of Token passing

o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

are known as clients.

o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.

Advantages of Star topology

Disadvantages of Star topology

Advantages of Tree topology

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology