SURVEYING

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Introduction, linear and angular
measurements
Surveying is the technique of determining the
relative position of different features on, above or
beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or
indirect measurements and finally representing them
on a sheet of paper known as plan or map.
During a survey, surveyors use various tools to do
their job successfully and accurately, such as total
stations, GPS receivers, prisms, 3D scanners, radio
communicators, digital levels, dumpy level and
surveying software etc

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primary divisions of surveying
Primary Divisions of Surveying
Surveying may primarily be divided into two divisions:
Plane surveying.
The surveys in which earth surface is assumed as plane and
the curvature of the earth is ignored, are known as Plane
surveys.
Geodetic surveying.
The surveys in which curvature of the- earth is taken into
account and higher degree of accuracy in linear and angular
observations, is achieved, are known as Geodetic surveys.

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 Objectives of Surveying
Objectives of Surveying
To determine the relative position of any objects or
points of the earth.
To determine the distance and angle between
different objects.
To prepare a map or plan to represent an area on a
horizontal plan.
To develop methods through the knowledge of
modern science and the technology and use them in
the field.
To solve measurement problems in an optimal way.

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 principles of surveying
The main principle of surveying whether plane or geodetic is
to work from the whole to part. To achieve this in actual
practice, sufficient number of primary control points are es-
tablished with higher precision in and around the area to be
detailed surveyed. Minor control points in between primary
control stations, are then established with less precision
method. The details are surveyed with the help of these
minor control points, adopting any one of the methods of
surveying. The main idea of surveying from the whole to the
part, is to prevent accumulation of errors and to localize the
minor errors in the frame work of the control points.

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•The metric chain and tape accessories for chain survey
ranging a line

•Measuring along slope corrections to measurements

chain triangulation problems in chaining obstacles to
chaining Chain survey cross staff survey

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METRIC CHAIN AND TAPE
 Metric chains come in lengths of 5
m, 10 m, 20 m and 30m
 Older chains were in 100
feet(engineers),66 feet (Gunter’s)
and 33 feet (revenue)
 Chains have tallies and rings to
identify intermediate values

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 METRIC CHAINS
 BIS standard for chains – is 1492-
1964 Made of 4mm galvanized iron
wire
 Made of links 200 mm long and
connected
 by circular or oval rings
 End links shorter for providing handles

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5M AND 10M CHAINS

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20M AND 30 M CHAINS

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 TAPES
 Cloth tape
 Metallic tape
 Steel tape
 Invar tape
Cloth or linen tapes are not good for
field work as they shrink, tear easily
and not used for survey work.

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 METALLIC TAPES
 Lengths of 2m, 5m, 10 m, 20m, 30m, 50m
etc
 Yarn interwoven with metal fibres
 Metal ring to hold at the outer end
 16 mm wide, marked in cm and m
 Rolled out by pulling and rolled back using
rotating handle
 Commonly used for ordinary survey work

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 STEEL TAPE
 Steel tapes are made of galvanized
steel
or stainless steel
 Lengths from 1 m to 50 m
 Marked in meters, decimeters
and centimeters with end section
in millimeters
 Costly but very accurate
 Can be pulled out with the handle and
rolled back automatically
 Used for accurate survey work

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 INVAR TAPE
 Made of an alloy of steel and nickel
 About 6 mm wide and in lengths of
30m, 50 m and 100m
 Very low thermal coefficient
 Used for very precise work as in base line
measurement
 Should be handled very carefully

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 ACCESSORIES
1. Ranging rods
2. Ranging poles
3. Arrows
4. Offset rod
5. Wooden pegs
6. Laths and whites
7. Other equipment for clearing bushes, cleaning
ground

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 RANGING
 Ranging required when line is longer than
a chain/tape length
 Placing a line along the shortest distance
between points
 When end stations are inter-visible, direct
ranging can be done
 When end stations not inter-visible,
indirect ranging is done

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 MEASURING ALONG SLOPE
 For plotting, horizontal distances are required
 For a measured distance along slope, horizontal
distance can be calculated. Horizontal length is
less than length along slope For a given horizontal
distance, slope distance can be calculated
 The increase in length along slope is called
hypotenusal allowance

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HORIZONTAL DISTANCE

 Horizontal distance = L COS θ,Where L

is the slope distance and θ is the slope
angle.
 If slope is in gradient, 1:n, then
 Horizontal distance = L n/[√(1+n²)]

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HYPOTENUSAL
ALLOWANCE
Is the additional distance
measured along the slope to
give a chain length horizontally

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 HYPOTENUSAL ALLOWANCE
 Hypotenusal allowance is given by
L [sec θ – 1], exactly and
 L θ²/2, where θ is in radians.
Or
 Hypotenusal allowance = √(L² + h²) – L
(exact value) or h²/2L approximately.

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SLOPE MEASUREMENT
 Correction = h²/2L or = Lθ/2
 Where h is the height for length L
and
 Θ is the slope angle in radians

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 INTRODUCTION

 Chain surveying can be used when the area to

be surveyed is comparatively is small and is
fairly flat.
 But when the area is large , undulating and
crowded with many details ,
triangulation(which is the principle of chain
survey) is not possible.
 In such an area , the method of surveying is
used.

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 Traversing
 In traversing , the frame work consist of
connected lines.
 The length are measured by a chain or a tape
and the direction measured by angle
measuring instruments.
 Hence in compass surveying direction of
survey lines are determined with a compass
and the length of the lines are measured with
a tape or a chain. This process is known as
compass traversing.

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 Principle of compass surveying
 The principle of compass surveying is
traversing; which involves a series of connected
lines.
 The magnetic bearing of the lines are measured
by prismatic compass.
 Compass surveying is recommended when the
area is large, undulating and crowded with
many details.
 Compass surveying is not recommended for
areas where local attraction is suspected due to
the presence of magnetic substances like steel
structures, iron ore deposits, electric cables ,
and so on.
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 Compass
 A compass is a small instrument essentially
consisting of a graduated circle, and a line of
sight.
 The compass can not measures angle between
two lines directly but can measure angle of a
line with reference to magnetic meridian at
the instrument station point is called magnetic
bearing of a line.

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 Types of compass

 There are two types of magnetic compass

they are as follows:-
 The prismatic compass
 The Surveyor’s compass

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 Elements of prismatic compass

 Cylindrical metal box: Cylindrical metal

box is having diameter of 8 to 12 cm. It
protects the compass and forms entire
casing or body of the compass. It protect
compass from dust, rain etc.

 Pivot: pivot is provided at the center of

the compass and supports freely
suspended magnetic needle over it.

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 lifting pin and lifting lever: a lifting pin
is provided just below the sight vane.
When the sight vane is folded, it presses
the lifting pin. The lifting pin with the
help of lifting lever then lifts the magnetic
needle out of pivot point to prevent
damage to the pivot head.

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 Magnetic needle: Magnetic needle is the heart of the
instrument. This needle measures angle of a line from
magnetic meridian as the needle always remains pointed
towards north south pole at two ends of the needle when
freely suspended on any support.

 Graduated circle or ring: This is an aluminum

graduated ring marked with 0ᴼ to 360ᴼ to measures all
possible bearings of lines, and attached with the magnetic
needle. The ring is graduated to half a degree.

 Prism : prism is used to read graduations on ring and to

take exact reading by compass. It is placed exactly
opposite to object vane. The prism hole is protected by
prism cap to protect it from dust and moisture.

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 Object vane: object vane is diametrically
opposite to the prism and eye vane. The
object vane is carrying a horse hair or black
thin wire to sight object in line with eye
sight.
 Eye vane: Eye vane is a fine slit provided
with the eye hole at bottom to bisect the
object from slit.
 Glass cover: its covers the instrument box
from the top such that needle and graduated
ring is seen from the top.

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 Sun glasses: These are used when some
luminous objects are to be bisected.
 Reflecting mirror: It is used to get image of an
object located above or below the instrument
level while bisection. It is placed on the object
vane.
 Spring brake or brake pin: to damp the
oscillation of the needle before taking a reading
and to bring it to rest quickly, the light spring
brake attached to the box is brought in contact
with the edge of the ring by gently pressing
inward the brake pin

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Temporary adjustment of prismatic
compass
 The following procedure should be adopted
after fixing the prismatic compass on the
tripod for measuring the bearing of a line.
 Centering : Centering is the operation in
which compass is kept exactly over the station
from where the bearing is to be determined.
The centering is checked by dropping a small
pebble from the underside of the compass. If
the pebble falls on the top of the peg then the
centering is correct, if not then the centering is
corrected by adjusting the legs of the tripod.

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 Leveling : Leveling of the compass is done
with the aim to freely swing the graduated
circular ring of the prismatic compass. The
ball and socket arrangement on the tripod will
help to achieve a proper level of the compass.
This can be checked by rolling round pencil
on glass cover.
 Focusing : the prism is moved up or down in
its slide till the graduations on the aluminum
ring are seen clear, sharp and perfect focus.
The position of the prism will depend upon
the vision of the observer.

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 Observing Bearing of Line
NORTH
 Consider a line AB of
which the magnetic OBJECT B
bearing is to be taken.
180
 By fixing the ranging
rod at station B we get
the magnetic bearing
of needle wrt north 90 A 270
pole.
 The enlarged portion
gives actual pattern of
0
graduations marked onLINE OF
SIGHT
ring.
SOUTH

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 The Surveyor`s Compass

 It is similar to a prismatic compass except

that it has a only plain eye slit instead of
eye slit with prism and eye hole.
 This compass is having pointed needle in
place of broad form needle as in case of
prismatic compass.

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Working of Surveyor`s Compass

 1) Centering
 2) LEVELING
 3) OBSERVING THE BEARING OF A
LINE
 First two observation are same as prismatic
compass but third observation differs from
that.
 3) OBSERVING THE BEARING OF A
LINE : in this compass ,the reading is taken
from the top of glass and under the tip of
north end of the magnetic needle directly. No
prism is provided here.
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 BEARINGS
 The bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which
it makes with a reference line(meridian).
 Depending upon the meridian , there are four type
of bearings they are as follows:
 1) True Bearing: The true bearing of a line is the
horizontal angle between the true meridian and the
survey line. The true bearing is measured from the
true north in the clockwise direction.

 2) Magnetic Bearing: the magnetic bearing of a

line is the horizontal angle which the line makes
with the magnetic north.

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 3) Grid Bearing: The grid bearing of a line
is the horizontal angle which the line makes
with the grid meridian.

 4) Arbitrary Bearing: The arbitrary baring

of a line is the horizontal angle which the
line makes with the arbitrary meridian.

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 Designation of bearing

 The bearing are designated in the

following two system:-
 1) Whole Circle Bearing System.(W.C.B)
 2) Quadrantal Bearing System.(Q.B)

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Whole circle bearing system(W.C.B.)
 The bearing of a line measured with respect
to magnetic meridian in clockwise direction
is called magnetic bearing and its value
varies between 0ᴼ to 360ᴼ.
 The quadrant start from north an progress in
a clockwise direction as the first quadrant is
0ᴼ to 90ᴼ in clockwise direction , 2nd 90ᴼ to
180ᴼ , 3rd 180ᴼ to 270ᴼ, and up to 360ᴼ is 4th
one.

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EQUIPMENTSAND ACCESSORIESFORPLANE
TABLING

The following instruments are used in plane

table surveying.
1. Equipments
2. Plane Table
3. Tripod
4. Alidade

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EQUIPMENTSAND ACCESSORIESFOR
PLANETABLING
• Trough Compass
• Spirit levelU-Fork
with Plumb bob
• Water proof cover
• Drawing paper
• Pins
• Drawing
accessories

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 ACCESSORIES
Trough Compass:
• The trough compass is required for drawing the line showing
magnetic meridian on the paper. It is used to orient the table to
the magnetic meridian.
• When the freely suspended needle shows 0 0 at each end, a line
is drawn on the drawing paper which represents the magnetic
north.

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 SPIRIT LEVEL
• ASpirit Level is used for ascertaining If the table is properly level.
• The Table is leveled by placing the level on the board in two
positions at right angles and getting the bubble central in both
positions.

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 U-FORKWITH PLUMBBOB
• U- fork with plumb bob is used for centering the table over the point
or station occupied by the plane table when the plotted position of
that point is already on the sheet.
• Also, in the beginning of the work, it is used for transferring the
ground point on the sheet.

12

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WATERPROOFCOVER&DRAWING
PAPER
• An umbrella is used to protect the drawing paper from
rain.
• Drawing paper is used for plotting the ground details.

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 MAJOR ADVANTAGES OF
PLANETABLESURVEYING

• The plan is drawn by the surveyor himself

while the area to be surveyed is before his
eyes. Therefore, there is no possibility of
omitting the necessary measurements.
• The surveyor Can compare the plotted work with
the actual features
of the area.

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 METHOD OFSETTING UPTHEPLANETABLE
• Three processes are involved in setting up the plane
table over the
station.
• Leveling
• Centering
• Orientation

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 LEVELINGAND CENTERING

• The Table should be set up at convenient height

for working on the board, say about 1 m. The
legs of Tripod should be spread well apart and
firmly into the ground

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 LEVELINGAND CENTERING

• The table should be so placed over the station on the

ground that the point plotted on the sheet corresponding to
the station occupied should be exactly over the station on
the ground. The operation is known as centering the plane
table. It is done by U- fork and plumb bob.
• For leveling the table ordinary spirit level may be used.
The table is leveled by placing the level on the board in two
positions at right angles and getting the bubble central in
both directions.

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 ORIENTATION
• The Process by which the positions occupied
by the board at various survey stations are
kept parallel is known as the orientation.
Thus, when a plane table is properly oriented,
the lines on the board are parallel to the lines on
ground which they represent.
• There are two methods of orientation:
• By magnetic needle
• By back sighting

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 BYMAGNETIC NEEDLE
• In this method, the magnetic north is drawn on paper at
a particular station. At the next station, the trough compass is
placed along the line of magnetic north and the table is
turned in such a way that the ends of magnetic needle are
opposite to zeros of the scale.
• The board is then fixed in position by clamps. This method is
inaccurate in the since that the results are likely to be affected
by the local attraction.

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 BYBACKSIGHTING
 B= Second survey station
• Suppose a line is drawn from station A on
paper as ab, representing line AB on ground
• The table is turned till the line of sight bisects
the ranging rod at A. The
 board is then clamped in this position.
 This method is better than the previous one and
it gives perfect orientation.

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 METHODS OF PLANETABLING
There are four distinct methods of plane tabling:
• Method of Radiation
• Method of Intersection
• Method of Traversing
• Method of Resection

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 RADIATION METHOD
• In the radiation method of plane table surveying,
the direction of the objects or points to be located
are obtained by drawing radial lines along
fiducially edge of alidade after getting the
objects or points bisected along the line of
sight of the alidade. The horizontal distances
are then measured and scaled off on the
corresponding radial lines to mark their positions
on the drawing.

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 RADIATION METHOD
• Suppose P is a station on the ground from where the object A,
B, C and D
are visible.
• The plane table is set up over the station P. Adrawing is fixed on
the table, which is then leveled and centered. A point p is
selected on the sheet to represent the station P.
• The north line is marked on the right- hand top corner of the
sheet with trough compass or circular box compass.
• With the alidade touching p, the ranging rod at A,B, C and D
are bisected and the rays are drawn.
• The distances PA, PB, PC and PD are measured and plotted to
any suitable scale to obtain the points a, b, c and d representing
A,B,C,D on paper.

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RADIATION METHOD

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 METHOD OF INTERSECTION
• In intersection method of plane table surveying, the
objects or points to be located are obtained at the point of
intersection of radial lines drawn from two different stations.
• In this method, the plotting of plane table stations are
to be carried out accurately. Checking is important and
thus done by taking third sight from another station.
• The intersection method is suitable when distances of
objects are large or cannot be measured properly. Thus,
this method is preferred in small scale survey and for
mountainous regions.

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METHOD OF INTERSECTION
• Suppose A and B are two station and P is the
object on the far bank of a river. Now it is
required to fix the position of P on the sheet by
the intersection of rays, drawn from A and B.
• The table is set up at A. It is leveled and centered
so that a point a on the sheet is just over the
station A. The north line is marked on the right-
hand top corner, the Table is then clamped.
• With the alidade touching a, the object P and
the ranging rod at B are bisected, and rays
are drawn through the fiducially edge on
alidade,

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 METHOD OFINTERSECTION
The distance AB is measured and plotted to any suitable scale to
obtain point b.

The table is shifted and centered over B and leveled properly.

Now the alidade is placed along the line ba and orientation is done by
back sighting

With the alidade touching b, the object P is bisected and a ray is

drawn, suppose this ray intersects the previous rays at point p. the
point p is the required plotted position of P

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 THETHREEPOINT PROBLEM
• Again the alidade is placed along the line ac and
the point C is bisected and the table is clamped.
With the alidade touching a, the point B is
bisected and a ray is drawn. Suppose this ray
intersects the previous ray at a point d
• The alidade is placed along db and the point B is
bisected. At this position the table is said to be
perfectly oriented. Now the rays Aa, Bb and Cc
are drawn. These three rays must meet at a
point p which is the required point on the
map. This point is transferred to the ground by U-
fork and plumb bob.

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 THETHREEPOINT PROBLEM
The Mechanical Method
• Suppose A, B and C are the three well-defined
points which have been plotted on the map as
a, b and c. It is required to locate a station at P.
• The table is placed at P and leveled. A tracing
paper is fixed on the map
and a point p is marked on it.
• With the alidade centered on P the points A, B
and C are bisected and rays are drawn. These
rays may not pass through the points a, b and
c as the orientation is done approximately

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THEMECHANICALMETHOD

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 THETHREEPOINT PROBLEM
• Now a tracing paper is unfastened and moved
over the map in such a way that the three rays
simultaneously pass through the plotted
positions a, b and c. Then the points p is pricked
with a pin to give an impression p on the map. P
is the required points on the map. The tracing
paper is then removed.
• Then the alidade is centered on p and the rays are
drawn towards A, B
and C. These rays must pass through the points a, b
and c

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 THETHREEPOINT PROBLEM
The method of Trial and error
• Suppose a, B and C are the three well- defined points
which have been plotted as a, b and c on the map. Now it is
required to establish a station at P.
• The table is set up at P and leveled. Orientation is done by
eye estimation
• With the alidade, rays Aa, Bb and Cc are drawn. As the
orientation is approximately, the rays may not intersect at
a point, but may form a small triangle the triangle of error.
• To get the actual point, this triangle of error is to be
eliminated. By repeatedly turning the table clockwise or
anticlockwise. The triangle is eliminated in such a way that
the rays Aa, Bb and Cc finally meet at a point p. This is the
required point on the map. This point is transferred to the
ground by U- fork and plumb bob. 65
Plane table survey equipment is
arranged in 4 steps as follows
 Fixing of Plane Table
 Fix the plane table to the tripod stand.
Arrange the drawing sheet on the plane
table using paper clips or thumb screws.
The sheet should be in one position from
first to last.
 Leveling of Plane Table
 Plane table should be leveled using spirit
level. For small works, eye estimation can
be ok.
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 Centering of Plane Table
 The table should be centered by using
plumbing fork. By which we can arrange the
plotted point exactly over the ground point.
 Orientation of Plane Table
 Whenever we are using more than one
instrument station, orientation is essential. It
can be done by using compass or back
sighting. In this case, the plane table is rotated
such that plotted lines in the drawing sheet are
parallel to corresponding lines on the ground.

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Methods of Plane Table Surveying

 Generally there are four methods are

available to perform plane table surveying.
They are
 Radiation
 Intersection
 Traversing
 Resection

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 Unit 2

LEVELING
AND
CONTOURING

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 What is “Leveling?”
 Levelling is the process by which differences
in height between two or more points can be
determined.
 Leveling is a branch of surveying, the object
of which is to find or establish the elevation
of a given point with respect to the given or
assumed Datum (reference point).
 Common leveling instruments include the
spirit level, the dumpy level, the digital level,
and the laser level.

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 Basic Principle of Leveling
 Measures height differences between points
◦ Along a line
◦ Several points from one occupation

Leveling rods
Line of sight
Back sight Fore sight
fs
bs
Dh = bs - fs

Gravity Gradient
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Vertical line: A line that follows the local direction of gravity as indicated
by a plumb line.

Level surface: A curved surface that, at every point is perpendicular to the

local plumb line (the direction in which gravity acts).

Level line: A line in a level surface

Horizontal plane: A plane perpendicular to the local direction of gravity.

In plane surveying, it is a plane perpendicular to the local vertical line.

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 Horizontal line. A line in a horizontal plane.
In plane surveying, it is a line
 perpendicular to the local vertical.
 Vertical datum. Any level surface to which
elevations are referenced. This is the surface
that is arbitrarily assigned an elevation of zero.
 Elevation. The distance measured along a
vertical line from a vertical datum
 to a point or object.

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 Old Datum: Mean Sea Level

 Mean Sea Level (MSL)

 Average height over a 19-year period

 26 gauging stations along the Atlantic

Ocean, Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of
Mexico

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 Devices are classified leveling in terms of
accuracy into three categories

1Precision: the settlement where the bubble is very

sensitive as are high magnification power and uses
this type of work and Geodetic Survey businesses
that require high precision.
2- Precision medium: It is less accurate than the first
category and dominated the use of this type in most
engineering projects.
3- low-precision devices: and make this kind of
hardware specifically for the purposes of settlement
approximate as in building projects Ltd. and
settlement cases within short distance.

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Datum line ( M.S.L. ) :- Is the level (line), which are attributed to it
points levels on the surface of the Earth. Which is the average sea
level.
Reduced level ( R.L) :- Is the high point from datum line. Benchmark (B
.M ) :- Are fixed points information site and attributed placed in different
places until you start racing
them when conducting settlement .
Back sight ( B.S.) :- Is the first reading taken after placing the device in
any position so that we see the greatest possible number of points
required to find the elevation .
Fore sight (F.S) :- Is the last reading taken before the
transfer device

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Leveling of the instrument is done to make the vertical
axis of the instrument truly vertical. It is achieved by carrying out the
following steps:

Step 1: The level tube is brought parallel to any two of the foot screws, by
rotating the upper part of the instrument.
Step 2: The bubble is brought to the centre of the level tube by rotating
both the foot screws either inward or outward. (The bubble moves in the
same direction as the left thumb.)
Step 3: The level tube is then brought over the third foot screw again by
rotating the upper part of the instrument. Step 4: The bubble is then again
brought to the centre of the level tube by rotating the third foot screw
either inward or outward.

77
Leveling Errors
 There are a large number of potential sources of errors in
leveling. Many of these are only significant for precise
leveling over long distances. For the short segments of
leveling that will occur in connecting a TGBM to nearby
benchmarks there are only four worth mentioning:
 · Collimation Error
 · Error due to Earth Curvature
 · Error due to Parallax Error
 · Error due to Refraction

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Collimation Error
 The Automatic Prism compensator goes
out of alignment.
 The level provides readings outside of its
specification

79
Parallax Error
 When using an optical instrument — both the image and cross hairs
can be focused- if either is imprecisely focused, the cross hairs will
appear to move with respect to the object focused, if one moves one's
head horizontally in front of the eyepiece.

80
Curvature of the Earth
 Due to the curvature of the Earth, the line of
sight at the instrument will deviate from a
horizontal line as one moves away from the
level

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Contour: An imaginary line on the
ground surface joining the points of
equal elevation is known as contour.

In other words, contour is a line in which

the ground surface is intersected by a
level surface obtained by joining points
of equal elevation. This line on the map
represents a contour and is called contour
line.
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Contour Map
A map showing contour lines is known as
Contour map.
A contour map gives an idea of the
altitudes of the surface features as well as
their relative positions in plan serves the
purpose of both, a plan and a section.

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 PURPOSE OF CONTOURING
Contour survey is carried out at the starting
of any engineering project such as a road,
a railway, a canal, a dam, a building etc.
i) For preparing contour maps in order to select
the most economical or suitable site.
ii) To locate the alignment of a canal so that it
should follow a ridge line.
iii) To mark the alignment of roads and railways so
that the quantity of earthwork both in cutting
and filling should be minimum.

84
CONTOUR INTERVAL

The constant vertical distance between two

consecutive contours is called the contour
interval.
HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENT
The horizontal distance between any two
adjacent contours is called as horizontal
equivalent.
The contour interval is constant between the
consecutive contours while the horizontal
equivalent is variable and depends upon the
slope of the ground.

85
FACTORS ON WHICH CONTOUR -
INTERVAL DEPENDS
The contour interval depends upon the
following factors:-

i) The Nature of the Ground In flat and

uniformly sloping country, the contour
interval is small , but in broken and
mountainous region the contour
interval should be large otherwise the
contours will come too close to each
other.
86
 FACTORS ON WHICH CONTOUR -
INTERVAL DEPENDS
ii) The Purpose and extent of the survey.
Contour interval is small if the area to be
surveyed is small and the maps are
required to be used for the design work or
for determining the quantities of earth
work etc. while wider interval shall have to
be kept for large areas and comparatively
less important works.

87
COMMON VALUES OF THE CONTOUR -
INTERVAL

The following are the common values of the

contour interval adopted for various
purposes:-
i) For large scale maps of flat country, for
building sites, for detailed design work
and for calculation of quantities of earth
work;
0.2 to 0.5 m.

88
COMMON VALUES OF THE CONTOUR -
INTERVAL

ii) For reservoirs and town planning schemes;

0.5 to 2m.

iii) For location surveys. 2 to 3m.

iv) For small scale maps of broken country and

general topographic work; 3m,5m,10m,or
25m.

89
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

i) All points in a contour line have the

same
elevation.
ii) Flat ground is indicated where the
…contours are widely separated and
steep-
slope where they run close together.
iii) A uniform slope is indicated when the
contour lines are uniformly spaced and
iv) A plane surface when they are straight,
parallel and equally spaced.

90
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

v) A series of 8
closed 0
75
contour lines
70
on the map
represent a 65
HIL
hill , if the 60 L
6
higher 0
6
5
values are 70
75
inside 80

A HILL
91
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
8
0
7
vi) A series of 5
closed DEPRESSI
7
ON
contour lines 0
6
on the map 5
indicate a 60

depression if
the higher
values are 70
60
outside 6
70
5
75
8
0
A DEPRESSION
92
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
vii) Contour line cross ridge or valley line
at right angles.
100 If the higher
90 values are
8
inside the bend
0
70
or loop in the
60
contour, it
50 indicates a
Ridge.

RIDGE
LINE
93
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
vii) Contour line cross ridge or valley line
at right angles.
If the
higher
10
0 values are
90
outside the
80
bend, it
70 represents
60
a Valley
50

VALLEY
LINE
94
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

viii) Contours cannot end anywhere

but close on themselves either
within or outside the limits of the
map.

95
 Unit 3

COMPUTATION OF AREAS
AND
VOLUMES

96
COMPUTATION OF AREAS AND
VOLUMES

Introduction and methods

97
 Introduction

Areas and Volumes are often required in the context

of design, eg. we might need the surface area of a
lake, the area of crops, of a car park or a roof, the
volume of a dam embankment, or of a road cutting.
Volumes are often calculated by integrating the area
at regular intervals eg. along a road centre line, or
by using regularly spaced contours. We simply use
what you already know about numerical integration
from numerical methods).

98
 Objectives
After completing this topic you should be able to
calculate the areas of polygons and irregular
figures and the volumes of irregular and curved
solids

Triangles if s = (a + b + c) / 2 then area = S.(S-a)(S-b)(S-

c)

99
Calculating area of a polygon from Coordinates: If
the coordinate points are numbered clockwise: area
= 1 2 ∑ i=1 n ( Ni . Ei+1 - Ei . Ni+1 ) This formula
is not easy to remember, so let's look at a practical
application

100
101
COMPUTATION OF AREAS AND VOLUMES

The computation of volumes of various quantities from the

measurements done in the field is required in the design and
planning on many engineering works. The volume of earth
work is required for suitable alignment of road works, canal
and sewer lines, soil and water conservation works, farm
pond and percolation pond consent. The computation of
volume of various materials such as coal, gravel and is
required to check the stock files, volume computations are
also required for estimation of capacities of bins tanks etc.

102
103
104
Volumes can be calculated in a number of
ways. It is common to calculate the area of
each of several equally spaced slices (either
vertical cross-sections, or horizontal
contours), and integrate these using
Simpson's Rule or similar. A second method
is to use spot levels, and calculate the
volume of a series of wedges or square cells

105
Cross-sections are well suited for calculating volumes
of roads, pipelines, channels, dam embankments, etc.
Formulae are given below for the most common cross-
section cases.

106
Computation of area using different methods

107
108
109
110
111
112
 Computation of area using different
methods

Midpoint-ordinate rule
The rule states that if the sum of all the ordinates
taken at midpoints of each division multiplied by
the length of the base line having the ordinates (9
divided by number of equal parts).
113
 Problems
The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10m interval from a
survey line to an irregular boundary line. The ordinates are measured at
midpoint of the division are 10, 13, 17, 16, 19, 21, 20 and 18m. Calculate
the are enclosed by the midpoint ordinate rule.
Given:
Ordinates
O1 = 10
O2 = 13
O3 = 17
O4 = 16
O5 = 19
O6 = 21
O7 = 20
O8 = 18
Common distance, d =10m
Number of equal parts of the baseline, n = 8
Length of baseline, L = n *d = 8*10 = 80m
Area = [(10+13+17+16+19+21+20+18)*80]/8
114
 Average Ordinate Rule

Average Ordinate Rule

The rule states that (to the average of all the
ordinates taken at each of the division of equal
length multiplies by baseline length divided by
number of ordinates).

115
 Problems

The following perpendicular offsets were taken

at 10m interval from a survey line to an irregular
boundary line.
9, 12, 17, 15, 19, 21, 24, 22, 18
Calculate area enclosed between the survey line
and irregular boundary line.
Area = [(O1+ O2+ O3+ …. + O9)*L]/(n+1)
=
[(9+12+17+15+19+21+24+22+18)*8*10]/(8+1)
= 139538sqm

116
 Simpson’s Rule Statement
It states that, sum of first and last ordinates has to
be done. Add twice the sum of remaining odd
ordinates and four times the sum of remaining
even ordinates. Multiply to this total sum by
1/3rd of the common distance between the
ordinates which gives the required area.

117
 Problem
Chainage 0 25 50 75 100 125 150

Offset ‘m’ 3.6 5.0 6.5 5.5 7.3 6.0 4.0

The following offsets are taken from a chain line to

an irregular boundary towards right side of the chain
line.
Common distance, d = 25m
Area = d/3[(O1+O7) + 2 (O3+O5)+4(O2+O4+O6)]
= 25/3[(3.6+4)+2(6.5+7.3)+4(5+5.5+6)]

Area = 843.33sqm
118
COMPUTATION OF VOLUMES

The computation of volumes of various quantities

from the measurements done in the field is required
in the design and planning on many engineering
works. The volume of earth work is required for
suitable alignment of road works, canal and sewer
lines, soil and water conservation works, farm pond
and percolation pond consent. The computation of
volume of various materials such as coal, gravel
and is required to check the stock files, volume
computations are also required for estimation of
capacities of bins tanks etc.

119
COMPUTATION OF VOLUMES

For estimation of volume of earth work cross

sections are taken at right angles to a fixed line,
which runs continuously through the earth work.
The spacing of the cross sections will depend
upon the accuracy required. The volume of earth
work is computed once the various cross-
sections are known, adopting Prismoidal rule
and trapezoidal rule

120
 Problem
1.Compute the cost of earth work involved in cutting
open a trench of following size. Length 200 m, side
slope 2: 1, depth of trench 4 m, bottom, width of
trench 1.5 m. Cost of earth work Rs. 50 per m3 .
Cross sectional area of trench, A = (b + sh)*h
A = (1.5 + 2*4)*4 A = 9.5 * 4 = 38 m2
∴ Volume of earth work, V = A*L = 38 * 200 = 7600
m3
∴ Cost of earth work = 7600 * 50 = Rs. 3,80,000.00

121
 Problem
Compute the volume of earth work involved in constructing a farm pond of the
following size: size, at bottom 6 x 4 m. Side slope 2: 1, depth of pond 4 m work out
the cost of earth work also if it costs Rs. 50 per cubic metre.

122
 A level section, two level section and respective
problems
Measurement of Volume of Earth work from Cross-Sections:
The length of the project along the centre line is divided into a series of solids
known as prismoids by the planes of cross-sections. The spacing of the
sections should depend upon the character of ground and the accuracy
required in measurement.
They are generally run at 20m or 30m intervals, but sections should also be
taken at points of change from cutting to filling, if these are known, and at
places where a marked change of slop occurs either longitudinally or
transversely.
The areas of the cross-sections which have been taken are first calculated and
the volumes of the prismoids between successive cross- sections are then
obtained by using the Trapezoidal formula or the prismoidal formula. The
former is used in the preliminary estimates and for ordinary results, while the
latter is employed in the final estimates and for precise results.

123
 Formulae for Areas of Cross-
Sections:
 The following are the various cross-sections
usually met with whose areas are to be
computed:
 1. Level section.
 2. Two-level section.
 3. Side-hill two-level section.
 4. Three-level section.
 5. Multi-level section.

124
Level section

125
Two level section

126
A level section, two level section and respective
problems

127
128
129
130
 Formula
Let Σ F= sum of the product of the co-ordinates
joined by full lines.
Σ D= sum of the products of the co-ordinates
joined by dotted lines.
Then, A= 1/2 (ΣF- ΣD)

131
 Unit 4

THEODOLITE
AND
TRAVERSE SURVEYING

132
 Surveying

THEODOLITE AND
TRAVERSE SURVEYING:-

133
 Types of Theodolites
 There are two different kinds of theodolites:
digital and non digital. Non digital theodolites
are rarely used anymore. Digital theodolites
consist of a telescope that is mounted on a base,
as well as an electronic readout screen that is
used to display horizontal and vertical angles.
Digital theodolites are convenient because the
digital readouts take the place of traditional
graduated circles and this creates more accurate
readings.
134
 Theodolite
 Theodolites are mainly used for surveying, but
they are also useful in these applications:
 Navigating
 Meteorology
 Laying out building corners and lines
 Measuring and laying out angles and straight
lines
 Aligning wood frame walls
 Forming panels
 Plumbing a column or building corner

135
 Surveying

Terminology of Theodolite

136
 It is important to clearly understand the terms
associated with the theodolite and its use and
meaning. The following are some important
terms and their definitions.
 Vertical axis It is a line passing through the
centre of the horizontal circle
and perpendicular to it. The vertical axis is
perpendicular to the line of sight and the
trunnion axis or the horizontal axis. The
instrument is rotated about this axis for
sighting different points

137
 Horizontal axis It is the axis about which
the telescope rotates when rotated in a
vertical plane. This axis is perpendicular
to the line of collimation and the verti-cal
axis.
 Telescope axis It is the line joining the
optical centre of the object glass to
the centre of the eyepiece

138
 Line of collimation It is the line joining
the intersection of the cross hairs to
the optical centre of the object glass and
its continuation. This is also called the line
of sight.
 Axis of the bubble tube It is the line
tangential to the longitudinal curve of
the bubble tube at its centre

139
 Centring Centring the theodolite means
setting up the theodolite exactly over
the station mark. At this position the plumb
bob attached to the base of the instrument
lies exactly over the station mark.

 Transiting It is the process of rotating the

telescope about the horizontal axis through
180 o . The telescope points in the opposite
direction after transiting. This process is also
known as plunging or reversing.
140
 Swinging It is the process of rotating the
telescope about the vertical axis for the
purpose of pointing the telescope in different
directions. The right swing is a rotation in
the clockwise direction and the left swing is
a rotation in the counter-clockwise direction.
 Face-left or normal position This is the
position in which as the sighting is done, the
vertical circle is to the left of the observer.

141
 Face-right or inverted position This is the position in
which as the sighting is done, the vertical circle is to the
right of the observer.

 Changing face It is the operation of changing from

face left to face right and vice versa. This is done by
transiting the telescope and swinging it through 180 o .

 Face-left observation It is the reading taken when the

instrument is in the normal or face-left position.

 Face-right observation It is the reading taken when

the instrument is in the inverted or face-right position

142
 Surveying

Problems on Trigonometric
leveling

143
 Surveying
 Case 1)
Determination of elevation of object when the base is
accessible the object is Vertical
It is assumed that the horizontal distance between the
instrument and the object can be measured accurately. In
Fig. 1, let B = instrument station F = point to be observed
= center of the instrument AF = vertical object D = CE
= horizontal distance 1
= height of the instrument at Bh = height FES = reading
on the levelling staff held vertical on the Bench Mark
(B.M)
= angle of elevation of the top of the object
so, H=D tan z

144
 Surveying

R.L of F= R.L of B.M. + h + D tan z

Corrections for curvature and refraction
C =0.06735(D*D) so the true R.L is R.L of B.M. + h +D tanz + C

145
 Surveying
 If the both the angle of depression and elevation
are given to us then we can directly find the height
of the whole building.
 Let us assume the angle of elevation is z1 and
angle of depression is z2 and the object is
accessible and the distance between instrument and
foot of building is D
 then,
Height of building= D tan z1 + D tan z2

146
Surveying
Case 2
Base of the object is not accessible

147
Surveying
 Base of the object is not accessible

148
 Surveying

Problems on Trigonometric
leveling

149
 Surveying
 Principles
 Trigonometric leveling is so named because it uses a total
station instrument's (TSI) slope distance and zenith angle
meeasurements to mathematically compute an elevation
difference which, with a few more bits of information, can
be used to determine a point's elevation. Using appropriate
procedures, and controlling errors, elevation accuraciy can
be better than 0.1 ft. Because trigonometric leveling is not
limited to a horizontal line of sight, it is more flexible and
provides faster elevation data collection than differential
leveling.

150
 Surveying
 Base of the object is not accessible
 The instrument stations and the elevated object not
in the same vertical plane
 This is the most practical case on field if we
consider in comparison with other cases
 In this case we use the sine law for finding the
distances example D1 and D2
For example
(d sin z1)/sin z3 = D2

151
Surveying

152
 Surveying
 HEIGHTS And DISTANCES
 When the distance btw the stations is not large, the
distance btw the stations measured on the surface
of the earth or computed trigonometrically may be
assumed as a plane distance.
 The amount of correction due to curvature of the
earth surface an refraction just be ignored.
 Depending on field conditions, the following three
cases are involved

153
 Unit 5

TACHEOMETRIC
AND
ADVANCED SURVEYING

154
 SURVEYING

Tacheometric and advanced

surveying

155
 SURVEYING
 Tacheometric surveying is a method of angular
surveying in which the horizontal distance from the
instrument to the staff stations and the elevations of
the staff stations concerning the line of collimation
of the instrument are determined from instrumental
observations only
 Thus the chaining operations are eliminated. Field
Work can be completed very rapidly Tacheometry
is mainly used for preparing the contour plans of
areas

156
 SURVEYING
 Methods of Tachometric Survey
 Various methods of tacheometry survey are based
on the principle that the horizontal distance
between an instrument Station “A” and a staff
station “B” and the elevation of point “B” with
reference to the line of sight of the instrument at
point “A” depend on the angle subtended at point
“A” by a known distance at point “B” and the
vertical angle from point “B” to point “A”
respectively.

157
 SURVEYING
 This principle is used in different methods in
different ways. Mainly there are two methods of
tachometry survey
(1)Stadia system, and
(2) tangential system.
(1) Stadia System of Tacheometry;
In the stadia system, the horizontal distance to the
staff Station from the instrument station and the
elevation of the staff station concerning the line
of sight of the instrument is obtained with only
one observation from the instrument Station
158
 SURVEYING
 In the stadia method, there are mainly two
systems of surveying.
 (1) fixed hair method and,
 (2) movable hair method.
 (i) Fixed Hair Method:
 In the fixed hair method of tacheometric
surveying, the instrument employed for taking
observations consist of a telescope fitted with two
additional horizontal cross hairs one above and
the other below the central hair. These are placed
equidistant from the central hair and are called
stadia hairs. 159
 SURVEYING
 When a staff is viewed through the telescope, the
stadia hairs are seen to intercept a certain length of
the staff and this varies directly with the distance
between the instrument and the stations.
 As the distance between the stadia hair is fixed, this
method is called the “fixed hair method.”

160
 SURVEYING

Problems on Tachometric
leveling and curves

161
 SURVEYING
 Movable Hair Method;
 In the movable Hair method of tacheometric surveying, the
instrument used for taking observations consist of a
telescope fitted with stadia hairs which can be moved and
fixed at any distance from the central hair (within the limits
of the diaphragm).
 The staff used with this instrument consists of two targets
(marks) at a fixed distance apart (say 3.4 mm).
 The Stadia interval which is variable for the different
positions of the staff is measured, and the horizontal
distance from the instrument station to the staff station is
computed.

162
SURVEYING

163
 SURVEYING
 Tangential System of Tacheometric Surveying:
 In this system of tacheometric surveying, two
observations will be necessary from the instrument
station to the staff station to determine the
horizontal distance and the difference in the
elevation between the line of collimation and the
staff station.

164
 SURVEYING
 The only advantage of this method is that this
survey can be conducted with ordinary
transit theodolite. As the ordinary transit
theodolite are cheaper than the intricate and more
refined tacheometer, so, the survey will be more
economical.
 So, far as the reduction of field notes, distances
and elevations are concerned there is not much
difference between these two Systems.
 But this system is considered inferior to the stadia
system due to the following reasons and is very
seldom used nowadays.
165
 SURVEYING

ADVANCED SURVEYING

166
 SURVEYING
 Total Station Setup and Operation

167
SURVEYING

168
SURVEYING

169
SURVEYING

170
Surveying

171
 Surveying
 Total station is a surveying equipment combination
of Electromagnetic Distance Measuring
Instrument and electronic theodolite. It is also
integrated with microprocessor, electronic data
collector and storage system. The instrument can
be used to measure horizontal and vertical angles
as well as sloping distance of object to the
instrument

172
 Surveying
 Capability of a Total Station
 Microprocessor unit in total station processes the
data collected to compute:
 Average of multiple angles measured.
 Average of multiple distance measured.
 Horizontal distance.
 Distance between any two points.
 Elevation of objects and
 All the three coordinates of the observed points

173
 Surveying
 Important Operations of Total Station
 Distance Measurement
 Angle Measurements
 Data Processing
 Display
 Electronic Book

174
 Surveying
 Uses of Total Station
 When target is sighted, horizontal and vertical angles as
well as sloping distances are measured and by pressing
appropriate keys they are recorded along with point
number. Heights of instrument and targets can be keyed in
after measuring them with tapes. Then processor computes
various information about the point and displays on screen.
 This information is also stored in the electronic notebook.
At the end of the day or whenever electronic note book is
full, the information stored is downloaded to computers

175