SURVEYING

AND
LEVELLING
 19EE12
BY NN BASAK
1
Introduction
Definitions
 Surveying:
Surveying is the art of the determining the relative positions of the different objects on the
surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal distances between them, therefore in surveying the
measurements are only taken in horizontal plane.
 Levelling:
Levelling is the art of determining the relative vertical distances of different points on the
surface of the earth by measuring the vertical distances between them, therefore in levelling
measurements are taken only in vertical plane.
Objects of surveying:
 To prepare a map or plan to show the relative positions of different objects on the surface of the
earth.
 To establish the boundaries of the land.
 To select a suitable site for engineering project.
Classification of surveying:
1). Primary Classification:
Surveying is primarily classified as under:
a). Plane surveying:
Generally the shape of the earth is spherical, thus the surface of the earth is obviously curved.
But in plane surveying the earth is not considered as curvature. This is because the plane surveying is
carried out over a small area, so the surface of the earth considered as a plane. In this type of surveying
the line joining any two points is considered as a straight line. The triangle formed as a plane triangle,
the angles formed as plane angle. The degree of accuracy required in this type of surveying is
completely low. Plane surveying is used to measure an area of less than 250 km2.
b). Geodetic surveying:
In geodetic surveying the earth is considered as a curvature. In this type of surveying the line
joining any two points is considered as curved line, the triangle formed by any three points is spherical
triangle, the angles formed are spherical angle. This type of surveying is carried out using heavy
instruments. This type of surveying is required very high precision or accuracy, geodetic surveying is
used to measure an area of greater than 250 km2.
2). Secondary Classification:
Secondary Classification is based on:
a). Instruments:
 Chain Surveying:
This type of survey is also called triangulation survey. In this type of survey sides of triangles
are measured with the chain or tape, so we can say that angular measurements are concerned with this
type of survey.
 Compass Surveying:
This survey is used for measuring angles.
 Photographic Surveying:
In this type of survey photographs of the area are taken .There are two types of photographic
survey.
 Ground Photography:
In this photographs of ground are taken, which are used for plans or projections.
 Aerial Photography Survey:
This type of survey is done by the help of aero planes to drive out the photographs of hilly
areas.
 Plane table Surveying:
This is a graphical method of survey, in which field work and office work (plotting) both are
done simultaneously (at a time) .In this survey plane table instrument is used.
 Theodolite Surveying:
In this we can easily find horizontal and vertical angles by using theodolite and lengths are
measured by using chain or tape, etc.
 Tachometric surveying:
In this type of survey horizontal, vertical angles and distance are measured directly.
b). Methods:
 Triangulation Surveying:
In this type of survey the whole area which is to be surveyed is divided into a number of
triangles.
 Traverse Surveying:
In this type of survey there is the series of connecting lines, length of these lines is measured
with the chain or tape and angles are measured with the help of angle measuring instrument. There are
two types of this survey:
o Closed traverse Survey
o Open traverse Survey
c). Objects:
 Geological Surveying:
This type of survey is to be carried out to determine the different strata in the earth’s crust .
  Mine Surveying:
This type of survey is to be carried for exploring mineral wealth such as gold, silver, coal,
etc.
 Archeological Surveying:
This type of survey is to be carried for unearthing relics of antiquity (ancient times).
 Military Surveying:
Military survey is done for determining points of strategic importance both offensive and
defensive for locating suitable locations.
d). Nature of field:
 Land Surveying:
o Topological surveying
o Cadastral surveying
o City surveying
o Engineering surveying
 Marine Surveying:
This survey is done for finding objects from water, sea; etc. This is also done for navigation
purpose.
 Astronomical Surveying:
This type of survey is done for getting knowledge about the astronomical objects such as
moon, stars, etc.
 General principle of surveying:
There are two general principles of surveying.
1. To work from whole to the part:
This principle show that always from whole to the part.
According to this principle the whole survey area covered is enclosed by main stations and main survey
lines. The area is then divided into a number of divisions by forming well-conditioned triangles.
2. To locate a new station by at least two measurements from fixed reference points.
According to this 2 nd principle the new stations should always be fixed by at least two
measurements from fixed reference points. Linear measurement refer to horizontal distances measured
by chain or tape. Angular measurements refers to horizontal angle taken by a prismatic compass or
theodolite.
In chain surveying the position of the main stations and directions of the main survey lines
are fixed by the lines and check lines.
Accessories or Instruments for linear measurements:
1). Ranging Rods:
Rods which are using for ranging (i. e the process of line making straight) a line are known as
ranging rods. Such rods are made of seasoned timber or seasoned bamboo. Sometimes GI pipes of 25
mm diameter are also used as ranging rods.
 Ranging:
 The process of making a line completely straight by establishing a new intermediate points
between two end points of a line is known as Ranging.
There are two types of ranging:
a). Direct Ranging:
Direct ranging is the ranging conducted when the intermediate points between two stations
are inter visible. Direct ranging can be performed by eye or with the help of an eye instrument.
b). Indirect Ranging:
Indirect ranging is employed when the two points are not inter visible or the two points are at
a long distance. This may be due some kind of
intervention between the two points.
2). Chains:
Chains are the measuring instruments used in
surveying formed by the 100 links of 4mm galvanized
mild steel wire. These links are joined by 3 circular or
oval wire rings. These rings provide the flexibility to the
chains.
Types of chains used in surveying:
Depending upon the length of the chain, these are divide into
following types:
a). Metric chain:
Metric chains are most commonly used chain in
India. These types of chains comes in many lengths such as 5, 10, 20and 30 meters. Most commonly
used is 20m chain. Tallies are provided at every 2m of the chain for quick reading. Every link of this
type of chain is 0.2m. The total length of the chain is marked on the brass handle at the ends.
b). Steel or Band chain:
These types of chains consist of a long narrow strip of steel of uniform width of 12-16mm
and thickness of 0.3-0.6 mm. this chain is divided by brass studs at every 20cm or instead of brass studs,
band chain may have graduated engraving as centimeter.
For easy use and workability band chains are wound on steel crosses or metal reels from which they can
be easily unrolled. These steel bands are available in 20m and 30m length and the width of about 12-
16mm.
c). Gunter’s chain or Surveyor’s chain:
Gunter’s chain comes in standard 66ft. these chains are consists of 100 links, each link
being 0.66ft or 7.92 inches. The length 66ft is selected because it is convenient in land measurements.
10 square Gunter’s chains= 1 Acre
10 Gunter’s chains = 1 Furlong
80 Gunter’s chains = 1 mile
d). Engineer’s chain:
This chain comes in 100ft length. It consist of 100 links each link being 1ft long. At every
10 links a brass ring or tags are provided for indication of 10 links. Readings are taken in feet and
decimal.
f). Revenue chain:
 The standard size of this type of chain is 33ft. The number of links are 16, each link being
1 /16
2 ft. This chain is commonly used in cadastral survey.
Chain and Tape Corrections:
1). Temperature Correction (Ct):
This correction is necessary because the length of the tape or chain may be increased or
decreased due to change in temperature during measurement. This correction is given by the expression.
Ct =α ( Tm−¿ ) L
Where,
Ct is temperature correction
α is the coefficient of thermal expansion
Tm is temperature during measurement
To is the temperature at which the tape was standardized
L is the length of the tape in meters
The sign of the correction may be positive or negative according as Tm is greater or less than To.
Where alpha for the steel tape is not given, it may be assumed to be 11×10^-6 per degree
centigrade or Celsius.
2). Pull Correction (Cp):
During measurement the applied pull may be either more or less than the pull at which the
chain or tape was standardized. Due to elastic property of materials, the strain will vary according to
variation of applied pull, and hence necessary correction should be applied. This correction is given by
the expression:
Cp=(Pm−Po) L/ AE

2
Chain Surveying
 Principle of Chain Surveying:
The principle of chain surveying is triangulation. This means that the area to be surveyed is divided into
number of small triangles which should be well conditioned. In the chain surveying the sides of triangle
are directly measured on the field with the help of chain or tape, and no angular measurement are not
taken.
 Well-Conditioned Triangle:
A triangle which have not any angle less than 30* and greater than 120* then this type of triangle is
known as Well-Conditioned Triangle.
 Survey stations:
It is a point of importance at the beginning or at end of the survey line, these stations are known as
survey stations. There are three types of survey stations.
1. Main station:
The stations which are at the beginning or at the end of the survey line forming main skeleton are known
as the Main Stations. The line joining the main stations is known as main survey line. Main stations are
denoted by Δ ѧ and with letters A, B, C, D, E, F …..
2. Subsidiary Stations:
The stations which are on the main survey line or another survey line are known as subsidiary stations or
tie stations. Subsidiary stations are used for dividing the area into triangles and for the checking the
accuracy of triangle and for locating interior details. Subsidiary stations are denoted by and letters S 1, S2,
S3, S4…..
 Base line:
The line on which the frame work of the survey built is known as base line. It is the most important line
of the survey. Generally the longest of the main survey line is considered as base line. The magnetic
bearing of the line taken to fix the north line of the map.
 Check line:
The line joining the apex point of the triangle to some fixed points on its base is known as the check
line. It is taken to check the accuracy of the triangle. Sometimes it helps to find the interior details.
 Offsets:
The lateral measurement taken from an object to the chain line is known as offset. Offsets are taken to
locate objects with reference to the chain line, they may be of two kinds:

1. Perpendicular offsets:
When the lateral measurements are taken perpendicular to the chain line is known as perpendicular
offsets.
 2. Oblique offsets:
Any offsets that is not perpendicular to the chain line is known as oblique offsets. Oblique offsets are
taken when the objects are at a long distance from the chain line.

 Cross staff:
The cross staff is the simple instrument used in surveying used for setting out right angles.
There are three types of Cross Staff.
1. Open
2. French
3. Adjustable

3
Compass Traversing
 Compass Traversing:
In traversing the frame work of number of connected lines done. The lengths are measured by chain and
tape and direction is identified by angle measuring instrument. In one of the methods the angle
measuring instrument used is the compass. Hence the process is known as Compass Traversing.
 +,- +,+

-,- -,+
 Magnetic Bearing:
Bearing is the horizontal angle between the direction of an object and another object.
OR
A survey line makes an angle with respect to magnetic meridian is known as bearing of a line.
 Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B):
The magnetic bearing of a line measured clock wise from the north-pole towards the survey line, is
known as the whole Circle Bearing of that line. In this type of bearing may have any value between 0̊ -
360̊. The whole circle bearing of the line is obtained by Prismatic Compass.

 Reduced Bearing (R.B):

The magnetic bearing of a line measured in clockwise or counter
clock wise from the north-pole or south-pole towards the east or west
is known as Reduced Bearing or Quadrilateral Bearing.
  Fore Bearing and Back Bearing:
F.B: The bearing of the line measured in the direction of the progress of the survey line is called as the
fore bearing (FB) of the line.
B.B: The bearing of the line measured in the direction of opposite to the survey is known as the back
bearing.
 Traversing
Cross staff and optical square
Accessories of the plane table
Reduced level
LEVELLING