Process control

Process control is the discipline that employs control systems to manage the behavior of
dynamic systems. It aims to maintain desired outputs (setpoints) despite disturbances or
changes in operating conditions.

Steps involved in process model formulation.

Process model formulation involves creating mathematical or conceptual models to represent
the dynamics of a system or process. These models are used to predict, analyze, and control
system behavior. The key steps involved in process model formulation are:

1. Problem Definition:
o Clearly define the objective of the model. This includes identifying the system
to be modeled, its purpose (e.g., simulation, control, optimization), and the
expected outcomes of the model.
2. System Analysis:
o Break down the system into its key components and analyze their interactions.
This involves understanding the physical, chemical, or mechanical processes at
work, the inputs and outputs, and the system boundaries.
3. Assumptions and Simplifications:
o Make reasonable assumptions to simplify the system without losing important
characteristics. This might involve ignoring certain effects, assuming steady-
state conditions, linearizing non-linear equations, etc., to make the model
manageable.
4. Formulation of the Model:
o Use mathematical tools and physical laws (e.g., conservation of mass, energy,
or momentum) to describe the relationships between variables. This can lead to
differential equations, algebraic equations, or other forms of mathematical
expressions.
5. Parameter Identification:
o Determine the parameters that define the model, such as constants, coefficients,
and variables. These may be obtained from experimental data, literature, or
estimation methods.
6. Model Validation:
o Compare the model's predictions with experimental or real-world data to ensure
accuracy. Adjust parameters or refine the model as necessary to improve its
fidelity.
7. Simulation and Testing:
o Use the model to simulate the system under various conditions. Testing the
model's performance under different scenarios helps understand its limitations
and applicability.
8. Refinement and Iteration:
o Refine the model based on validation and testing results. This iterative process
may involve revisiting assumptions, adding complexity, or simplifying further
depending on the model’s performance.
9. Documentation and Implementation:
o Document the model formulation, assumptions, and results for future reference
or use. The model can then be implemented for control, optimization, or analysis
in practical applications.
Linear feedback control systems.

Linear feedback control systems are designed to regulate the behavior of a dynamic system by
comparing its output to a desired reference (or set point) and adjusting the input accordingly.
The basic principles of linear feedback control systems include:

1. System Components:

A linear feedback control system consists of the following key components:

• Plant (Process): The system to be controlled (e.g., a motor, furnace, etc.).

• Controller: Determines how the input to the plant should be adjusted based on the
error.
• Sensor: Measures the output of the plant (e.g., temperature, speed).
• Reference Input (Set Point): The desired value for the system output.
• Feedback Path: Provides information about the actual output to be compared with the
reference input.
• Actuator: Adjusts the system’s input to correct the error.

2. Feedback Loop:

• Feedback refers to the process of sending a portion of the system output back to the
input to influence the behavior of the system.
• In a linear feedback control system, this feedback is proportional to the system's output,
and it can either be negative or positive:
o Negative Feedback: Reduces the difference between the actual output and the
desired output by adjusting the input in the opposite direction of the error. It is
widely used because it stabilizes the system and reduces the impact of
disturbances.
o Positive Feedback: Increases the difference between the actual output and
desired output, which can lead to instability in most cases and is rarely used in
control systems.

3. Error Signal:

• The error is the difference between the reference input (set point) and the actual output
of the system.
• The controller’s job is to minimize this error by adjusting the system’s input.

4. Controller Action:

• The controller applies a control law (often proportional, integral, or derivative control,
or a combination, i.e., PID control) to compute the corrective action based on the error
signal.
• Integral (I) Control: The control input is proportional to the integral of the error,
correcting accumulated past errors.
• Derivative (D) Control: The control input is proportional to the rate of change of the
error, predicting future errors.

5. Transfer Function:
 • The behavior of a linear feedback control system is typically represented by a transfer
function in the Laplace domain. The transfer function relates the system's output to its
input in terms of complex frequency.

6. Stability:

• A critical requirement for any control system is stability, which means that the output
will eventually settle to a desired value without oscillating uncontrollably.
• The system's stability can be analyzed using techniques like the Routh-Hurwitz
criterion, Nyquist plot, or Bode plot to ensure the poles of the transfer function lie
within stable regions of the complex plane.

7. Transient and Steady-State Response:

• Transient Response: Refers to how the system responds immediately after a

disturbance or a change in reference input. Important parameters include rise time,
overshoot, and settling time.
• Steady-State Response: Refers to the system's long-term behavior. The goal is to
minimize the steady-state error, which is the difference between the reference input and
the system output after it has stabilized.

8. System Performance Metrics:

• The performance of a linear feedback control system is often measured in terms of:
o Stability: Ability to maintain a bounded output for any bounded input.
o Accuracy: Minimizing the steady-state error.
o Response Time: How quickly the system reaches the desired set point.
o Robustness: The system’s ability to maintain performance despite disturbances
or model uncertainties.

9. Disturbance Rejection:

• Feedback control systems are designed to reject disturbances, which are unwanted
inputs that affect system performance. By adjusting the input in response to
disturbances, feedback control helps maintain the desired output despite these external
factors.

Adaptive control systems.

Need for Adaptation: In many real-world processes, system dynamics, and external
conditions may change over time. For instance, in manufacturing, variations in material
properties, equipment wear, or environmental changes (temperature, humidity) can affect
performance. Adaptive control helps mitigate these uncertainties.

Components of Adaptive Control:

• Reference Model: Defines the desired performance or behavior of the system.

• Controller: Adjusts its parameters based on feedback to match the behavior of the
system with the reference model.
• Parameter Estimator: Continuously estimates the system parameters, which may be
unknown or time-varying.
• Adaptation Mechanism: Modifies the controller’s parameters based on the error
between the actual system output and the desired output from the reference model.
 Types of Adaptive Control:

• Model Reference Adaptive Control (MRAC): The system is designed to follow a

reference model, and the controller parameters are adjusted to minimize the error
between the actual output and the reference model output.
• Self-Tuning Regulators (STR): The controller’s parameters are updated based on real-
time estimation of the process model parameters.
• Gain Scheduling: The controller parameters are predefined for various operating
conditions, and the system switches between them as conditions change.

Application Areas:

• Manufacturing: Adaptive control is used in processes like CNC machining where

variations in cutting forces, tool wear, or workpiece material properties require
continuous adjustment of parameters.
• Aerospace: In flight control systems, where the aircraft dynamics can change due to
different flight conditions (e.g., airspeed, altitude).
• Robotics: Adaptive control is used for precision motion control where system
dynamics change due to varying loads or disturbances.
• Process Industries: Used in chemical processes where reaction rates or fluid dynamics
may vary over time, necessitating real-time control adjustments.

Advantages:

• Can handle systems with changing dynamics or environments.

• Improves system performance and efficiency by minimizing the effects of disturbances.
• Reduces the need for manual tuning or intervention.

Comparison of programmable logic controllers and

supervisory control and data acquisition systems.

1. Definition

• PLCs:
oPLCs are industrial digital computers designed for the control of manufacturing
processes, such as assembly lines, machine functions, and other automated
processes. They are programmed to perform specific control tasks using various
input and output devices.
• SCADA:
o SCADA systems are used for supervising and controlling processes over a wide
geographical area. They collect data from remote sites and provide operators
with tools to monitor and control those processes.

2. Primary Functions

• PLCs:
oReal-time control of machinery and processes.
oExecution of control logic based on input signals from sensors and switches.
oMonitoring and controlling outputs (e.g., motors, actuators) based on
programmed logic.
o High-speed processing of signals for immediate action.
• SCADA:
o Data acquisition from sensors and devices at remote locations.
 o Visualization of data through graphical user interfaces (GUIs).
o Long-term data logging and historical data analysis.
o Alarm management and reporting for operational insights.
o Centralized control and monitoring of multiple PLCs or field devices.

3. Architecture

• PLCs:
oTypically consist of a CPU, input/output (I/O) modules, and a programming
interface.
o Operate in a standalone or networked environment.
o Can be connected to sensors, actuators, and other field devices for real-time
control.
• SCADA:
o Comprises multiple components, including a central server, communication
network, and client workstations.
o Often integrates with multiple PLCs, sensors, and other control devices across
different locations.
o Uses communication protocols to exchange data (e.g., Modbus, DNP3).

4. Programming and Configuration

• PLCs:
oProgrammed using ladder logic, function block diagrams, or structured text.
oConfiguration focuses on control logic specific to machinery and processes.
• SCADA:
o Configured using graphical interfaces and software for data visualization and
control.
o Involves setting up data points, alarms, and reporting mechanisms.

5. User Interaction

• PLCs:
oTypically require engineers or technicians to program and maintain.
oLimited user interface; interactions are mainly through programming software
or local controls.
• SCADA:
o Provides user-friendly interfaces for operators and engineers.
o Allows operators to monitor processes, acknowledge alarms, and issue
commands remotely.

6. Data Handling

• PLCs:
oFocus on real-time processing and control of data from I/O devices.
oStore limited historical data (typically for troubleshooting and diagnostics).
• SCADA:
o Capable of handling large amounts of data over time, including historical trends
and logs.
o Provides comprehensive reporting and analysis tools for operational
performance.

7. Applications

• PLCs:
 oCommonly used in manufacturing, packaging, conveyor systems, and other
industrial automation tasks.
o Ideal for tasks requiring rapid response times and direct control.
• SCADA:
o Used in utility management (water, electricity, gas), transportation, and large-
scale industrial applications.
o Suitable for processes that require monitoring over large distances and
centralized control.

Computer process control

Computer process control encompasses the methods and technologies that use computers to
oversee and control production systems. It includes both the hardware (computers, sensors,
actuators) and software (control algorithms, monitoring tools) that facilitate process
management.