1-s2.0-S0960308524000671-main

Food and Bioproducts Processing 145 (2024) 187–202
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Food and Bioproducts Processing

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fbp
Sustainable valorisation of coffee husk into value added product in the

context of circular bioeconomy: Exploring potential biomass-based
value webs
Kavin Tamilselvan a, Subramanian Sundarajan b, c, Seeram Ramakrishna b,
Al-Ashraf Abdullah Amirul d, e, f, *, Sevakumaran Vigneswari a, **
a
Institute of Climate Adaptation and Marine Biotechnology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Terengganu 21030, Malaysia
b
Center for Nanotechnology and Sustainability, national University of, Singapore 119260, Singapore
c
Department of Prosthodontics, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, Saveetha Institute of Medical & Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai 600077, India
d
School of Biological Science, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
e
Centre for Chemical Biology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bayan Lepas, Penang, Malaysia
f
Malaysian Institute of Pharmaceuticals and Nutraceuticals, National Institutes of Biotechnology Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Coffee, one of the most popular beverages worldwide, generates significant waste during production, including
Coffee husk coffee husk. Annually, an estimated 10 million tons of coffee husk waste are produced globally as a by-product of
Sustainable conversion the coffee industry. Improper disposal of coffee husk waste presents environmental risks and challenges to
Valuable by-products
human health. Handling and processing this material can lead to pollution, while improperly discarded waste
Economic benefits
Environmental remediation
may attract pests and release pollutants, necessitating proper management strategies. This review highlights the
economic, social, and environmental advantages of sustainably converting coffee husk waste into valuable by-
products. It particularly focuses on recent advancements and innovative applications in coffee husk utiliza
tion. The review elucidates the detrimental environmental impacts of coffee husk waste and underscores the
imperative for sustainable utilization. Notably, it delves into the adaptability of coffee husks as a bio sorbent for
environmental remediation, a constituent in building materials, a renewable energy source, and a component in
pharmaceutical and food applications. Emphasizing the relevance of supporting sustainable practices, the review
advocates for capitalizing on the latent potential of coffee husk waste and transforming it into useful resources.
Overall, this review suggests the adoption of sustainable practices and emphasizes the transformational potential
of coffee husk waste in addressing environmental challenges and promoting resource efficiency.
1. Introduction Interestingly, the annual production of coffee yields approximately

ten million metric tons of green beans and over 90% of this production
Coffee, a highly sought-after agro-industrial crop, is cultivated in constitutes waste, encompassing the husk (Jaramillo et al., 2021). as
diverse regions worldwide (Fig. 1), each with its unique microclimate, shown in Fig. 1. These compelling statistics underscore the profound
elevation, and terrain. These factors, combined with the varying tradi influence of coffee on the global agricultural landscape, as well as the
tions and practices in coffee cultivation, gave rise to a rich tapestry of significant environmental challenge posed by the waste it generates.
flavors and characteristics. Countries like Brazil, India, Mexico, One crucial aspect of coffee manufacturing is the generation of coffee
Indonesia, Ethiopia, and Colombia are at the forefront of coffee pro husk waste, also known as coffee chaff, a by-product of the drying
duction, each contributing distinctly to the global coffee landscape process of the entire coffee drupe, as seen in Fig. 2. Approximately 10
(Silvey, 2023). This ubiquity of coffee signifies its pivotal role in agri million tons of coffee husk waste are discarded into the environment
culture, bearing far-reaching economic impact and becoming a corner annually as a byproduct of the coffee industry worldwide (Lee et al.,
stone of cultural and economic life for millions of people. 2023).
* Corresponding author at: School of Biological Science, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A.-A.A. Amirul), [email protected] (S. Vigneswari).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2024.03.008
Received 10 January 2024; Received in revised form 14 March 2024; Accepted 29 March 2024
Available online 31 March 2024
0960-3085/© 2024 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K. Tamilselvan et al. Food and Bioproducts Processing 145 (2024) 187–202
This waste carries significant environmental, social, and economic utilizing coffee husk in diverse sectors and offers valuable insights for
implications, including pollution, resource depletion, health hazards improving environmental sustainability and resource efficiency, thus
and financial burdens (Tolessa et al., 2022). To address this issue, distinguishing itself from previous publications. Through this explora
various disposal methods are employed. Landfilling, though common, tion, we aim to uncover the potential for adding value, reducing envi
exacerbates landfill space scarcity and methane emissions. Alterna ronmental impact, and contributing to the transition toward a circular
tively, composting reduces waste volume while enriching soil with economy, thereby revitalizing this often-underutilized resource.
valuable nutrients. Biomass energy production offers an eco-friendly
alternative, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, utiliz 2. Morphological features of coffee
ing coffee husk waste in agriculture enhances soil fertility and promotes
sustainable farming practices (Melo, 2024). Despite its potential, coffee Coffee fruit, also known as a coffee cherry or coffee berry, undergoes
husks are often underestimated. Their organic nature makes them ideal a transformation from a small green fruit to a deep crimson or purple
for natural fertilizers and composting, contributing to soil enrichment berry. The coffee bean, the seed within this fruit, is the primary focus of
and plant growth. Recent research underscores the bioactive potential of coffee production. During the processing method, a significant byprod
coffee husks, particularly from Coffea arabica L., highlighting their sig uct is produced, which we refer to as coffee husk (Rd, 2020). Fig. 2,
nificance in the food industry and biological applications (Silva et al., presents a cross-sectional image of a coffee cherry, illustrating its
2020). structure from the outer skin to the central coffee bean.
The primary objective of this review is to explore sustainable Processing coffee cherries involves techniques such as wet processing
methods for converting coffee husk waste into valuable by-products and dry processing, which are integral to coffee production. The choice
across various sectors, including bio energy sources, biotech industry of processing method significantly impacts the flavor and characteristics
applications, material processing, food industry utilization, clinical ap of the final coffee product. Fig. 3 presents how different processing
plications, and the agriculture sector. Throughout the review, we will methods involve phases such as depulping, dehusking, dehulling,
highlight specific examples of recent advancements, including novel fermentation, washing, and drying, each of which influences the final
technologies for coffee husk waste conversion and innovative uses. By coffee bean’s flavor profile.
conducting a comprehensive analysis, this review contributes to the The husk, or dried skin of the coffee bean, separates during the
discourse on sustainable waste management practices within the coffee roasting process and becomes available for use. Every year, millions of
industry. Furthermore, it emphasizes the socio-economic importance of tons of coffee husk waste are generated by the world’s thriving coffee
Fig. 1. The production of coffee cherry and husk from the top 10 coffee producers in the world for 2022, each boasting a unique coffee culture and climate conditions
that contribute to the diverse flavors and varieties of coffee available globally (Created using Canva.com).
188
industry. This byproduct, often discarded or underutilized, has signifi due to their acidic pH of approximately 4.3 and polyphenol content,
cant untapped potential to become a valuable resource in various sec which can impede efficient conversion (Mouftahi et al., 2020). Despite
tors. Coffee husk comprises approximately cellulose (52.9%), these obstacles, researchers are actively exploring innovative strategies
hemicellulose (12.5%), lignin (24.3%), and extractive content (9.4%) in to harness the potential of coffee husks for biofuels. Beyond their role as
its chemical composition (Anwar et al., 2022). Due to its high concen biofuel material, coffee husks provide a cost-effective and eco-friendly
tration of lipids, caffeine, polyphenols like tannins, and fermentable alternative to conventional fuels, facilitating the reduction of green
sugars in coffee husk waste, improper disposal might have detrimental house gas emissions and addressing waste issues within the coffee in
effects on the environment. A high carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of 57.2 in dustry. (Sugebo, 2022). Previous studies on coffee husk utilization for
coffee husk makes it difficult for it to spontaneously break down. biofuel production are summarized in Table 1.
Contrarily, this waste material contains potentially hazardous chemical
substances such as cellulose, which makes up 63% of the dry weight of 3.2. Coffee husk as fuel briquettes
the waste, 17% lignin, and 2.3% hemicellulose (L. E. Jaramillo et al.,
2021). These wastes have various environmental impacts such as soil Fuel briquettes offer a smart and sustainable alternative to tradi
contamination, water pollution and air pollution if not properly tional fossil fuels like natural gas and petroleum, providing compact,
managed. Common methods of disposing coffee husk waste include consistent, and energy-dense sources. The exploration of coffee husks for
landfilling, open burning, composting, biomass generation and agri this purpose has revealed promising avenues for sustainable energy
culture use. Coffee husk can support a variety of bacteria and filamen production. Studies have highlighted the effectiveness of manual
tous fungi despite the presence of antibacterial compounds. Coffee husk briquette presses in shaping charcoal mixes into efficient fuel briquettes,
has been successfully used as a raw material in the manufacturing of showcasing the versatility of coffee husk waste in providing sustainable
ethanol, biofuel, and enzymes due to the value it has been recognized for energy solutions. For instance, Tesfaye and his team (2022) successfully
(Kumar et al., 2018). This has contributed to long-term development. produced 5 kg of briquette charcoal from coffee husks using a straight
The construction of inexpensive home items, alternative energy sources, forward method involving collection, drying, carbonization, grinding,
and microbiological development have all been demonstrated to be mixing with clay soil, and shaping into briquettes. These briquettes burn
possible using coffee husks (Oliveira and Franca, 2015). A Coffea arabica for approximately 25 minutes, emphasizing the importance of efficient
husk, a byproduct of coffee production, is seen in Fig. 4. waste management, particularly in transforming coffee husks into
Researchers have highlighted that sustainable conversion of coffee valuable fuel resources. Researchers aimed to enhance biofuel produc
husk waste holds the potential to reduce waste, minimize environmental tion by mixing coffee husks with kraft lignin. Their experiments with
impact, and promote a circular economy. different mix ratios and briquetting conditions revealed that higher
lignin content resulted in stronger and denser briquettes. Additionally,
3. Utilization of coffee husk as biomass energy source varying heating temperatures influenced the production of bio-oil and
biochar, with implications for energy properties. This suggests that
3.1. Coffee husk for biofuel production combining coffee husks and kraft lignin holds promise as a sustainable
energy solution (Setter & De Oliveira, 2022).
Coffee husks, abundant byproducts of coffee production, offer a Borres (2022) explored variations in briquettes made from coffee
unique opportunity for biofuel production, aligning with the transition husk, cocopeat, and their mixtures. Distinct characteristics such as
towards biomass energy sources. Biofuels, derived from organic matter calorific value, ash level, moisture content, burning rate, and volatile
or biomass, signify a promising avenue away from traditional fossil fuels matter content underscore the importance of material selection for
and can be sustainably produced through agricultural and forestry specific energy applications. By having the highest calorific value
practices. However, utilizing coffee husks for biofuel faces challenges (3919.36 cal/g), coffee husk briquettes (T1) are positioned as a
Fig. 2. Cross sectional view of coffee cherry (Created using Canva.com).
189
Fig. 3. Coffee cherry processing methods encompass a range of techniques used in the coffee industry to transform harvested coffee cherries into green coffee beans
and waste - coffee husks (Created using Caanva.com).
190
prospective energy source. With a low ash level of 5.79%, cocopeat

briquettes (T2) are a desirable option for cleaner combustion. The lowest
moisture content was found in the coffee husk and cocopeat mixture
(T3), which also had the lowest fixed carbon content, at 17.28%. T1 had
the lowest burning rate at 6.61 g/min, while T2 showed the highest
volatile matter content at 76.93%.
Another study investigated briquettes made from rice and coffee
husk agricultural waste, utilizing cassava starch and clay as binders. The
findings indicated differences in moisture, volatile matter, ash content,
fixed carbon, and ignition and boiling times, depending on the binder
and husk type used (Lubwama and Yiga, 2018). Moreover, innovative
approaches involving carbonization of coffee husk and pulp waste,
combined with a cow dung binder, demonstrated the potential for pro
ducing desirable fuel briquettes with low moisture content, moderate
ash content, and high fixed carbon percentage (Merete et al., 2012). The
calorific value of coffee husk briquettes varies depending on factors such
as moisture content, density, and composition. Generally, coffee husk
briquettes have a calorific value ranging from approximately 3000 to
4000 calories per gram (cal/g). In comparison, the calorific value of real
wood can also vary depending on the type of wood, moisture content,
and other factors. However, on average, real wood typically has a
calorific value ranging from 4000 to 5000 cal/g. Therefore, coffee husk
Fig. 4. Coffea arabica husk. briquettes generally have a slightly lower calorific value compared to
real wood, but they still provide a significant amount of energy when
burned as fuel (Tesfaye et al., 2022).Fig. 5
Table 1 The conversion of coffee husks into biofuels and fuel briquettes offers
Early research studies have been conducted on the production of biofuel from significant opportunities for revenue generation and job creation,
coffee husk waste.
particularly in regions where coffee production is prevalent. Biofuel
Process of biofuel production Biofuel obtained from References production involves the transformation of coffee husks into liquid fuels
different process such as ethanol or biodiesel, while fuel briquettes are compressed forms
Thermochemical conversion of Treating the biomass with Silveira, Pérez, of biomass used for heating or cooking purposes. Both biofuels and fuel
coffee husks via fast pyrolysis acetic acid and pyrolyzing it et al., 2023 briquettes derived from coffee husks contribute to energy independence,
after pre-treatment with acid at 500◦ C yielded the highest
reduce reliance on imported fossil fuels, and promote environmental
solutions such as acetic acid amount of levoglucosan, a
(CH3COOH-10%) nitric acid type of sugar crucial for sustainability (Emma et al., 2022; Miito and Banadda, 2017). Addi
(HNO3–0.1%), sulfuric acid biofuel production due to its tionally, these initiatives can bolster local economies and enhance
(H2SO4–0.1%) abundant availability and community resilience by providing alternative sources of income for
efficient conversion
coffee farmers. Thus, the utilization of coffee husks as a renewable en
potential.
Acid and cellulolytic hydrolysis The optimal procedure yields Sugebo et al.
ergy source holds promise for addressing energy challenges while sup
of coffee husk followed by the highest amount of bio- 2022 porting sustainable agricultural practices (Tesfaye et al., 2022). Fig. 6
fermentation with ethanol 132.2 ± 40 g/L The conversion of coffee husks into biofuels and fuel briquettes
lignocellulosic yeast GSE16- compared to other coffee presents promising opportunities, yet it also entails certain limitations.
T18; Pervaporation at 50 ◦ C waste fractions, surpassing
Firstly, the availability of coffee husks may fluctuate due to seasonal
conventional methods
Anaerobic co-digestion of coffee Increased biogas (methane) Passos et al. variations in coffee production and market demands. Such variability
husks and microalgal biomass production (17%) compared 2018 could challenge the establishment of consistent supply chains necessary
after thermal hydrolysis to treating them separately for biofuel and briquette production (Flammini et al., 2020). Secondly,
pretreatment at 120◦ C for the processing of coffee husks into these energy forms requires
60 minutes
Transesterification of coffee Transformation of coffee Emma et al.,
specialized equipment and technologies, potentially incurring high
husk oil into CH oil methyl husk oil into CHOME 2022 initial investment and operational costs. Moreover, the transportation
ester (CHOME), involves biodiesel, yielding 700 mL of and handling of bulky biomass materials add logistical complexities and
breaking down the oil into biodiesel from 1000 mL of production for land and resources, raising questions regarding prioriti
esters and glycerol in the CH oil; suitable for use in
zation between food security and energy needs in regions where both are
presence of alcohol and a internal combustion engines
catalyst. by blending with regular critical (Melo, 2023; Sugebo, 2022). Addressing these limitations is
diesel at a maximum ratio of crucial for ensuring the sustainable and responsible implementation of
30% coffee husk-based energy initiatives.
Biochemical conversion of Optimal results achieved Kasirajan, 2017
coffee husk via Pre-treatment, with 1% dilute sulfuric acid
Hydrolysis, Fermentation & and 0.5 mm size of coffee 4. Biotechnology and industrial applications of coffee husk
Distillation husk powder, yielding 69%
bioethanol from 100 g of 4.1. Coffee husks as biosorbents
husk powder
Utilization of Mycotypha fungus Substantial increase in Jayachandra
for bio-methanation of coffee methane production: treated et al. 2011
Coffee husks have gained considerable attention as effective bio
husks husks yielded 5910 mL sorbents in various environmental applications, particularly in waste
compared to 5050 mL from water treatment. Biosorption, utilizing organic materials such as coffee
untreated husks; husks, is essential for removing pollutants or toxins from water and
demonstrated potential for
other media (Quyen et al., 2021). Rich in cellulose, lignin, and other
biofuel production and
organic fertilizer generation organic substances, coffee husks possess significant adsorption capac
ities and have been effectively employed in eliminating heavy metals,
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Fig. 5. Preparation of fuel briquette from coffee husk waste (Created using Biorender.com).
Fig. 6. Coffee husk waste plays a crucial role in various agricultural sectors (Created using Biorender.com).
192
dyes, pesticides, and various contaminants. Their functional groups and production of wine and tea to reduce bitterness, and pectinase enzymes
porous structure enable processes such as ion exchange, complexation, are utilized in fruit juice processing to enhance yield and clarity.
and physical adsorption (Ayalew and Aragaw, 2020). The use of coffee Moreover, α-amylase enzymes play a crucial role in starch hydrolysis for
husks as biosorbents offers numerous benefits, including affordability the production of sweeteners, alcoholic beverages, and biofuels (Yazid
and sustainability, as they are easily accessible as agricultural waste, and Roslan et al., 2020; Correa et al., 2021). Coffee husk waste has
often obtained from coffee processing facilities, requiring fewer addi shown potential as an ideal substrate for enzyme production, with
tional raw materials. Additionally, the biosorption procedure simply fermentation emerging as a highly successful technique for microbial
requires ambient conditions, making it simple and energy-efficient, enzyme manufacturing. Coffee husks offer a combination of abundance,
while the ability to recycle and reuse coffee husks enhances their eco nutrient richness, carbon availability, complexity, cost-effectiveness,
nomic viability and reduces waste production (Oliveira and Franca, and sustainability, making them an excellent choice for enzyme pro
2015). duction compared to other substrates (Kumar et al., 2018). For example,
Recent studies have highlighted the growing importance of coffee xylanases have been produced during fermentation using coffee husks as
husks as environmentally benign biosorbents in wastewater treatment. a substrate, crucial for hydrolyzing β-1,4-xylans commonly found in
found the best way to remove pollutants, like methylene blue dye, using lignocellulosic materials (Venugopal et al., 2013).
chemically treated coffee husks. First, they cleaned and dried the husks, Table 2 provides a comprehensive overview of the diverse range of
then turned them into granules. After soaking the granules in phosphoric enzymes that can be produced by various microbes using coffee husks as
acid for a day, they heated them to 400–600◦ C to make them more a substrate. Fermentation processes utilizing coffee husks produce a
porous. Finally, they neutralized and dried the activated granules for use variety of enzymes, including xylanases, cellulases, polygalacturonases,
in their experiments on pollutant removal. Similarly, Aragaw et al. polyphenol oxidases, and tannases, along with valuable chemicals like
(2022) demonstrated the potential of activated coffee husk carbon as a citric acid, gibberellic acid, gallic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA),
cost-effective adsorbent for extracting chromium (Cr) from electro and bacterial cellulose. This article explores the field of producing en
plating wastewater, emphasizing its applicability and affordability in zymes from coffee husks, a subject gaining significance across diverse
addressing metal pollution. The processes involved collecting coffee industries. While enzymes historically had limited sources, modern
husks, washing them (3% formaldehyde) to prevent degradation, drying technological advancements have vastly expanded their utility beyond
(105◦ C, 24 hrs.), thermally activating (550◦ C, 60 min), and grinding the food and beverage sector. The utilization of coffee husk waste as a
them for use in adsorption experiments. Furthermore, coffee husks, after substrate for enzyme fermentation presents a cost-effective and sus
undergoing biochar conversion and sodium hydroxide modification, tainable option for various bioprocesses. Moreover, the rapid develop
have shown promising results in the extraction of heavy metal ions, ment of microbes associated with coffee husks, including biocontrol
particularly lead (Pb2+) and cadmium (Cd2+). These modified coffee agents with extended shelf lives, holds particular interest(Blinová et al.,
husk biosorbents exhibited significant removal efficiencies and impres 2017). By efficiently repurposing waste materials, this approach aligns
sive sorption capacities, underscoring their value as affordable and with environmental objectives and creates economic opportunities.
effective adsorbents for heavy metal ion removal in wastewater treat
ment (Quyen et al., 2021; Pakade et al., 2023). 4.3. Coffee husk in bacterial cellulose production
Additionally, Castillo et al. (2021) explore the potential of coffee
husk as a bio-adsorbent to combat caffeine contamination in aquatic and Green plants contain a significant amount of cellulose, a poly
terrestrial ecosystems, proposing a circular economy approach to saccharide made up of β-D-glucopyranose units connected by β-1,4-
address pollution. Repurposing coffee waste for wastewater treatment glycosidic linkages (Held et al., 2014). Obtaining pure cellulose as a
provides a cost-effective solution, minimizing the need for additional substrate from plants might be challenging due to the presence of other
raw materials and reducing overall costs (Kang et al., 2022; Quyen et al., components such as lignin, pectin, hemicellulose, and biogenic com
2021). pounds (Lahiri et al., 2021). In response to this difficulty, coffee husks
Despite its potential, challenges persist in optimizing the perfor have emerged as a potential raw material for the production of bacterial
mance of these bio-adsorbents, necessitating the exploration of nano cellulose.
technology solutions like nanocomposites or biodegradable scaffolds to Bacterial cellulose is a distinct type of cellulose produced by specific
enhance efficacy while preserving eco-friendliness. Further research is bacteria, particularly strains of the genus Gluconacetobacter, with ap
vital to refine coffee waste-derived bio-adsorbents, potentially miti plications in various industries including food, biomedical, and pack
gating environmental and health impacts (Castillo et al.2021). While aging (Nie et al., 2022). The utilization of coffee husk extract as a carbon
various treatment techniques, including pyrolysis and chemical treat source for bacterial cellulose synthesis has been extensively studied.
ments, have been utilized to enhance the adsorption capacity of coffee Coffee husks, containing lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose, serve as a
waste, further exploration of advanced surface modification techniques nutrient-rich substrate for bacteria proficient in cellulose production.
like grafting, crosslinking, and nanoparticle inclusion is necessary to During fermentation of coffee husks by bacteria from the Acetobacter,
maximize the efficiency of coffee waste adsorbents (Kang et al., 2022). Komagataeibacter, or Gluconacetobacter genera, cellulose is secreted at
the air-liquid interface, forming a gelatinous mat or a white, leathery
4.2. Coffee husk for enzyme production pellicle (Nie et al., 2022). This mat can be harvested, purified, and
further processed for various applications. The resulting bacterial cel
Enzymes derived from various sources, including plants, animals, lulose exhibits exceptional properties such as high mechanical strength,
fungi, and bacteria, have historically played crucial roles in catalyzing water-holding capability, and biocompatibility, rendering it suitable for
chemical reactions within living organisms (Hatti-Kaul, 2002; Niyon wound dressings, tissue engineering scaffolds, food coatings, and bio
gabo Niyonzima, 2019). Some enzymes that can be produced using based packaging materials (Swingler et al., 2021; Pigaleva et al., 2019).
coffee husks include cellulase, tannase, pectinase, xylanase, and Moreover, the bioconversion of coffee husk waste through these
α-amylase (Kumar et al., 2018). These enzymes have diverse applica bioprocesses aligns with sustainability goals by efficiently utilizing
tions in various industries, including food and beverage production, waste materials. The rapid proliferation of microorganisms, including
agriculture, and biotechnology (Sindhu et al., 2018). For instance, biocontrol agents like Trichoderma sp., in conjunction with coffee husks
cellulase enzymes are used in the biofuel industry to break down cel enhances their utility, particularly in bioprocesses for the environmen
lulose into fermentable sugars, while xylanase enzymes find applications tally friendly treatment of agro-industrial waste (Blinová et al., 2017).
in improving the digestibility of animal feed and enhancing paper pulp In a study by Rani & Appaiah et al., the suitability of coffee husk
production. Additionally, tannase enzymes are employed in the extract combined with different dietary supplements and additives was
193
Table 2
Utilizing various microorganisms in conjunction with coffee husks to produce different types of enzymes.
Agro Waste Microorganisms used for enzyme production Process Enzyme Applications References
produced by
waste
Coffee husk and Paecilomyces variotii - to optimize the production During fermentation, the fungus secretes Tannase Leather (Aharwar and
wheat bran tannase. The most important variables were tannase enzymes, which catalyze the industry Parihar, 2018)
temperature (27– 37 C); % residue (coffee husk:wheat hydrolysis of tannins present in the (tanning)
bran) between (70:30–30:70) and tannic acid coffee husk and wheat bran
(6–18%)- Fermentation
Pineapple crown Sludge microbiota – Solid state fermentation (96 hrs, During solid state fermentation, it is Cellulase, Biomass Yazid and
+ coffee husk 37℃, aerobic) utilized to produce cellulase and Bromelain conversion Roslan, 2020
(Co-substrate) bromelain enzymes. These enzymes
facilitate the conversion of biomass
Coffee husk Fungus - Trichoderma reesei - Stimulation process - The fungus secretes cellulase enzymes, Cellulases Biomass Coral-Velasco
superpro designer package which break down the cellulose present conversion et al., 2022
in the husk into simpler sugarsSolid -
state fermentation
Coffee husk Lactobacillus sp. ASR-S1 - Moisture 50%, pH 5, 37◦ C - - It secretes tannase enzymes, which Tannase Leather (Kapoor et al.,
state fermentation catalyze the hydrolysis of tannins present industry 2016)
in the coffee husk (tanning)
Coffee husk Phaffomycetaceae - mixing 10 g of fermented solids During solid state fermentation, it is cellulase Biofuel
with 150 mL of citrate buffer (pH 4.8) for 30 minutes utilized to produce cellulase enzymes. production
at room temperature. After centrifugation and
filtration, the resulting supernatant was used for
cellulase
Coffee husk Dipodascaceae - Fermented solids mixed with During solid state fermentation, it is cellulase Biofuel (Cerda, Gea,
150 mL pH 4.8 citrate buffer, stirred for 30 minutes, utilized to produce cellulase enzymes. production et al., 2017)
centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 minutes, and
filtered. Resulting supernatant contained extracted
cellulases.
Coffee husk and Pseudoxanthonomas taiwanensis -In the process, wood During solid state fermentation, it is cellulase Biofuel
wood chips chip degradation was avoided with short cycles. utilized to produce cellulase enzymes. production
Sequential batch operation aimed for stable cellulase
production of 9 ± 1 FPU g− 1 DM, starting with a 48-
hour fermentation stage per cycle, followed by a 90%
substrate exchange every 48 hours - Solid state
fermentation
carefully examined for the synthesis of bacterial cellulose using Gluco 5. Material processing from coffee husk
nacetobacter hansenii UAC09. Researchers optimized the conditions and
achieved remarkable production yields of bacterial cellulose ranging 5.1. Coffee husk as building material
from 5.6 to 8.2 g/L. The resulting bacterial cellulose demonstrated
impressive tensile strengths, ranging from 28.5 to 42.4 MPa (Rani and Coffee husks have emerged as a promising candidate for the pro
Appaiah, 2013). This study underscores the significant potential of duction of building materials, offering a sustainable and eco-friendly
coffee husks in the environmentally friendly manufacture of superior alternative. Their elevated lignocellulosic content and impressive ther
bacterial cellulose with a wide range of practical applications. mal stability position coffee husks as a valuable resource for various
The utilization of coffee husks for bacterial cellulose production and construction applications (Castillo et al., 2021). Researchers have
other bioprocesses offers significant economic and social benefits. ventured into incorporating coffee husks into building blocks, such as
Economically, it enhances cost efficiency by providing a readily avail bricks, to augment their properties. Ongoing research aims to refine the
able and inexpensive raw material, thereby reducing production costs manufacturing process and unlock the full potential of coffee husks in
and creating new revenue streams (Peluso, 2023). Additionally, repur building block production, thereby advancing sustainable and
posing coffee husks promotes environmental sustainability by mini energy-efficient construction practices (Saberian et al., 2021).
mizing waste and supporting circular economy principles (Tracextech The recycling potential of various industrial and agricultural wastes,
and Tracextech, 2023). Moreover, it brings health benefits through the such as coffee husks and granite refuse, was examined in a major study
production of bacterial cellulose and other enzymes for biomedical ap by Acchar et al. (2016). The handling of trash from both businesses
plications, improving healthcare outcomes and quality of life. However, presents a considerable difficulty in nations like Brazil where coffee
it also poses some limitations to consider. bean cultivation and the manufacturing of ornamental granite are sig
The quality and consistency of coffee husks as a raw material for nificant industries. Common behaviors include illegally discarding cof
biotechnological applications may vary, potentially affecting the effi fee husk ashes and improperly disposing of stone waste on riverbanks
ciency and reliability of bioprocesses. Extracting enzymes from coffee (Hossain and Roy, 2020). The researchers investigated the use of granite
husks may involve composition variation, complex processing tech debris as a sintering aid and coffee husk ashes in clay-based ceramic
niques and require specialized equipment, posing challenges, particu materials to address this issue. Their research showed that both sub
larly for small-scale operations (Rebollo-Hernanz et al., 2023). stances worked well as fluxing agents, bringing down the sintering
Furthermore, balancing between the diverse potential uses of coffee temperature and improving the sinterability of clay-based materials.
husks and prioritizing their allocation could also present challenges, This shows that these waste products have potential as cost-effective
especially in resource-constrained regions. alternatives to the rare feldspars now utilized in ceramics. It is still a
difficult task to guarantee the quality of ceramic goods made from waste
materials without sacrificing their fundamental qualities (Acchar et al.
2016, & Gedefaw et al., 2022).
194
5.2. Coffee husk integration in biopolymers Another one innovative process involves grinding the coffee husks
into fine particles and torrefying them to enhance their thermal stability
The incorporation of coffee husks into biopolymers entails mixing and compatibility with biopolymers like polylactide (PLA). The resulting
coffee husks with biopolymer components to create composite materials torrefied coffee husk flour (TCHF) is then combined with PLA at
that take advantage of the benefits of both coffee husks and biopolymers different concentrations and shaped into pieces using injection molding.
separately and collectively (Ortiz-Barajas et al., 2020). By developing Despite a slight reduction in PLA’s ductility and toughness, incorpo
eco-composites using polyethylene and coffee husk fillers, this creative rating 20 wt% of TCHF yields pieces with balanced mechanical prop
strategy solves the issues related to plastic waste and consumption. erties and improved hardness. Additionally, TCHF induces a nucleating
Although the efficient incorporation of coffee husk particles into the effect, promoting the formation of PLA crystals and delaying thermal
polymer matrix has been proven by a number of characterisation tech degradation. The resulting green composite pieces exhibit higher ther
niques, there may still be some voids due to the lack of a compatibilizer momechanical resistance, making them suitable for use in compostable
agent. The addition of coffee husks may result in a slight loss in the rigid packaging and food contact disposables. This study highlights the
composite’s mechanical properties, but it also improves attributes like potential of coffee waste valorization in contributing to sustainable
crystallinity, Young’s modulus, and hardness in these eco-composites. packaging solutions within the circular economy approach (Ortiz-Bar
These eco-composites have been effectively used in the extrusion and ajas et al., 2020).
injection processes to produce a wide range of consumer products, Coffee cups, saucers, and lids made from coffee husks are a fantastic
demonstrating their industrial viability (Melyna and Afridana, 2023). As and sustainable improvement over conventional disposable cups. These
their incorporation into a portion of polyethylene products holds the goods are made from leftover coffee husks and a biopolymer produced
potential to significantly mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, this by CO2-capture microorganisms. They are recyclable and reusable. The
research highlights the significant environmental benefits of using cof final product is a suitable replacement for conventional ceramics
fee husk-based eco-composites (Melyna and Afridana, 2023; Jaramillo because to its extraordinary durability, resistance to chipping, and
et al., 2021). This creative strategy is an encouraging step in the direc fracturing (Designer Reusable Coffee Cups Australia | Huskee, n.d.).
tion of more environmentally friendly material usage and more sus Numerous businesses across the world are producing coffee husk cups,
tainable material utilization. with one Australian business alone sending 2.67 million of them to 57
The integration of coffee husks into building materials not only offers different nations while saving 600 tonnes of coffee husk trash from being
a sustainable alternative but also provides communities with an op dumped in landfills (Eckhardt et al., 2022). This accomplishment
portunity to reduce their reliance on traditional building materials highlights the enormous waste reduction potential present in items
(Peluso, 2023). By utilizing coffee husks in construction applications, made from coffee husks.
communities can potentially lower construction costs and stimulate Crucially, these cups prioritize the use of non-toxic materials, hold
economic growth in the region. Additionally, repurposing coffee husks FDA approval, and feature recognized certifications, ensuring high
for building blocks can help mitigate waste disposal challenges, standards of safety and quality. Additionally, the adoption of closed-
contributing to cleaner environments and promoting social re loop technologies by the coffee industry and the utilization of coffee
sponsibility within the community. Integrating coffee husks into bio husk waste as a carbonized fuel source significantly contribute to waste
polymers can further advance sustainable materials manufacturing . reduction and sustainability efforts (Food Packaging Forum, Food
While using coffee husks in building materials and biopolymers offers Packaging Forum Foundation, FPF, 2022). By reducing reliance on
benefits such as cost reduction and waste mitigation, it also promotes single-use disposable coffee cups, which contribute to the production of
environmental sustainability by reducing plastic waste and greenhouse 500 billion cups annually (Cups Made from Coffee Waste? A Sustainable
gas emissions. However, there are certain challenges to address, Option for Your Morning Brew, n.d.), these initiatives promote respon
including ensuring the strength and durability of the materials, consis sible consumption and environmental stewardship. Table 3, shows
tent availability of coffee husks, potential thermal degradation, man several companies that support by-products derived from coffee husk
aging the environmental impact of processing, and fostering community waste.
adaptability (Pinto et al., 2023; Jaramillo et al., 2021). To overcome
these challenges, further research is needed to pre-treat and refine
production methods, as well as to raise community awareness about the Table 3
benefits of eco-friendly practices. Companies from various countries that support by-products derived from coffee
husk waste.
6. Coffee husk for food packaging material Company Location Reference
Tata Coffee India (Mobikasa, 2021)

In a remarkable development, Schutz et al. (2022) created S/CH Coffee Day Global India (COFFEE DAY GLOBAL LIMITED -
films by blending coffee husks with starch, resulting in eco-friendly Limited Company, Directors and Contact Details |
packaging materials. Coffee husks were incorporated into the films at Zauba Corp, n.d.)
Narasu’s Coffee India (Narasu’s Coffee Company, n.d.)
varying concentrations (5%, 10%, and 15% w/w), with their mechani
Company
cal, thermal, and barrier properties extensively evaluated. SEM analysis Leo Coffee India (Leo Coffee in Tamilnadu, n.d.)
confirmed strong adherence between coffee husks and starch, although SLN Coffee India (Home | SLN Coffee | the Levista | the Taste
higher concentrations led to less uniform fiber distribution. Despite no of Coorg Coffee | India, n.d.)
apparent changes in FT-IR spectra, XRD analysis revealed a higher Araku Originals India (Araku Coffee India, n.d.)
Wayanad Social India (WSSS, n.d.)
crystallinity index. Remarkably, the films exhibited enhanced tensile Service Society
strength, with the 5% w/w coffee husk concentration showing a Starbucks United States (About Us: Starbucks Coffee Company, n.d.)
remarkable 43% improvement compared to the control film (Pandey Corporation
et al., 2021). Furthermore, the addition of coffee husks resulted in sig Nestlé S.A. Switzerland (Sustainability at Nestlé, n.d.)
JDE Peet’s Netherlands (Sustainability, n.d.)
nificant reductions in water vapor permeability, moisture content, and
Kōkako Organic New Zealand (Collective, 2024)
water solubility by approximately 15%, 21%, and 50%, respectively. Coffee Roasters
Additionally, these films displayed improved thermal stability and an Waka Coffee United States (Waka Coffee & Tea, n.d.)
impressive UV-light barrier effect, highlighting their potential as Huskee Australia Steffen and Steffen, 2020
eco-friendly, high-performance packaging materials for various appli Cafédirect United (Cafédirect, 2023)
Kingdom
cations (Schutz et al., 2022).
195
The invention of eco-friendly packaging materials signifies a 8. Coffee husk in food production
commitment to environmental sustainability, fostering responsible
consumption and waste reduction. It also opens up new market oppor 8.1. Mushroom cultivation
tunities and revenue streams for businesses, while closed-loop technol
ogies and waste utilization contribute to resource efficiency and According to Dissasa (2022), coffee husks have established them
environmental preservation. Overall, these initiatives demonstrate the selves as an extraordinary substrate for mushroom cultivation, largely
potential of coffee husks to drive positive social and economic change by because of their high cellulose and lignin content. They are the perfect
promoting sustainable practices and reducing environmental impact substrate for cultivating particular mushroom species, promoting
(Oliveira et al., 2021). mycelium colonization, and encouraging mushroom growth because of
these natural properties. Their usage in mushroom production lessens
7. Coffee husk for biological applications dependency on conventional substrates like wood chips or straw in
addition to recycling agricultural waste. According to Kasuya et al.
The focus of our investigation is Coffee Arabica L. Husk Essential Oil (2015), edible mushrooms also have a remarkable capacity to break
(CAH-EO), which is derived from the husks of Coffea arabica L., a well- down antinutritional chemicals and turn lignocellulosic wastes, like
known coffee species. This journey unfolds within the context of Arabica coffee husks, into economically and nutritionally important food prod
coffee’s extensive popularity as a beloved variety. Yousef and Amina’s ucts. Pioneering studies within the realm of Pleurotus mushroom culti
(2018) recent research have shown the amazing potential of CAH-EO by vation have revealed innovative approaches. De Cássia Soares Da Silva
showcasing its robust antibacterial and antioxidant characteristics, et al. (2012) investigated the effects of adding sodium selenite-infused
positioning it as a valuable natural product with a variety of uses. coffee husks on selenium (Se) enrichment in Pleurotus ostreatus. Add
The investigation into the use of coffee husks as a substrate for ing 51 mg/kg of sodium selenite improved Se absorption, but too much
diverse by-products picks up steam due to their inherent richness in vital Se reduced the mushroom’s biological effectiveness, according to their
ingredients. These comprise nitrogen, potassium, lignin, pectin, hemi research. Notably, the initial harvest of mushrooms had higher levels of
cellulose, carbohydrates, proteins, and other substances that serve as the selenium (Se) than subsequent flushes, demonstrating the potential of
building blocks for a variety of uses (Esquivel and Jiménez, 2012; coffee husks to produce Se-enriched mushrooms as well as the ability of
Murthy and Madhava Naidu, 2012). The thorough investigation of the fungus to store and amplify Se (L. S. Oliveira and Franca, 2015). This
CAH-EO using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) has investigation into the use of coffee husks in the mushroom industry re
revealed fifty-five different components. According to Yousef and Amina veals their versatile possibilities and cutting-edge uses in sustainable
(2018), notable ingredients include 1,2-benzenedicarboxilic acid agriculture.
(7.28%), 2,3-isopropylidene-6-decoxyhexo (1.63%), butylated hydrox Chai et al. (2021) experimented with using used coffee grounds
ytoluene (65.83%), and phenylethyl alcohol (1.69%). The anthocyanin (SCGs) as a substrate for Pleurotus mushroom cultivation. Due to the
cyanidin-3-rutinoside, a chemical compound lauded for its multifaceted presence of phenolic compounds and caffeine, their analysis showed
antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-diabetic that higher concentrations of SCGs inhibited mycelial development and
properties, was also highlighted in an earlier study from 2007 that prevented fruitification. Surprisingly, Pleurotus mushrooms showed that
focused on the potential of coffee husk as a source (Prata and Oliveira, they may use bioaccumulation and biodegradation processes to partially
2007; Thilavech et al., 2017). reduce the phenolic and caffeine concentrations in SCGs. It’s interesting
The volatile oil and ethanol extract made from C. arabica husk have to note that adding up to 20% SCGs to the substrate had little impact on
both shown significant antibacterial and antioxidant activity in biolog the makeup of the grown mushrooms. The promise of SCGs as an
ical screens (Abers et al., 2021). These testing against a variety of bac alternative substrate is highlighted in this work, along with the fungus’
terial and fungal species have shown them to be remarkably efficient. ability to mitigate phenolic and caffeine chemicals.
Notably, S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa are among the antibacterial Additionally, a recent study investigated the use of coffee waste,
organisms that the ethanol extract has proven to be the most effective including husks and parchment, as a platform for growing four different
against. Additionally, the examined fungal strains have shown suscep kinds of Pleurotus mushrooms. The findings showed that different times
tibility to both the volatile oil and the ethanol extract (Yousef and were required for the development of the fruit body and pinheads, with
Amina, 2018). P. ostreatus taking the lowest amount of time. Every species produced
The primary component comprising coffee husk oil extract is oleic three to four flushes at least, with the first flush producing the maximum
acid, constituting a substantial 65% of the extract’s composition. Several output. The type of substrate used had an impact on the biological ef
studies (Sini et al., 2005; Farag et al., 2011; Farag et al., 2021) have ficiency, which differed between species. Coffee husks that had been
recognized oleic acid’s insecticidal properties within plant extracts, composted performed more efficiently than uncomposed husks. Addi
suggesting its potential for insect toxicity. The insecticidal and repellent tionally, pectinase enzyme synthesis was found in the study, with
attributes exhibited by coffee husk oil extract from Coffea arabica against P. sapidus and P. ostreatus showing the highest activity. This study
S. littoralis 4th instar larvae further emphasize its viability as a natural highlights the potential of using composted coffee waste for sustainable
and safe insecticide (Essa et al., 2022). These findings emphasize the and protein-rich mushroom cultivation through solid-state techniques
multifaceted potential of CAH-EO, positioning it as a remarkable natural (Dissasa, 2022).
resource with profound applications in the antimicrobial, antioxidant, While studies have conclusively shown that growing mushrooms in
and insecticidal domains. coffee husks is feasible, it is crucial to stress the importance of careful
In summary, the research findings presented underscore the poten preparation and sterilization techniques in order to reduce contamina
tial of coffee husk extracts, particularly CAH-EO, in biological applica tion risks and guarantee the growth of mushrooms. Coffee husks become
tions, ranging from pharmaceuticals to nutraceuticals and beyond a practical and environmentally beneficial option for promoting mush
(Rebollo-Hernanz et al., 2023). However, there is a need for more room cultivation with careful handling and sensible procedures. The use
comprehensive studies to elucidate the specific mechanisms of action, of coffee husks as a substrate offers a sustainable solution for recycling
potential interactions with existing medications, and any adverse effects agricultural waste while reducing dependency on conventional sub
associated with long-term use (Islam et al., 2018). Further research and strates like wood chips or straw (Blasi et al., 2023). By promoting the
innovation in this field hold the promise of addressing pressing health growth of edible mushrooms, coffee husks contribute to the diversifi
care challenges while simultaneously fostering socio-economic devel cation of agricultural products and offer additional sources of income for
opment and environmental sustainability. farmers. Furthermore, the incorporation of coffee husks into mushroom
cultivation practices may help mitigate environmental issues associated
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with waste disposal, thereby promoting circular economy principles and its by-products ((Janissen and Huynh, 2018). These techniques not only
enhancing environmental sustainability (Bárta et al., 2024). improve the suitability of coffee by-products for animal feed applica
tions but also enhance their digestibility and overall utilization in the
8.2. Alternative food source industry (Marcel et al., n.d.).
Coffee husks, often considered a by-product of coffee manufacturing, 9. Coffee husk for agricultural sector
are emerging as a source of innovation in the food industry. The prac
tical implications of utilizing coffee husks in food production are diverse In the realm of agriculture, coffee husk has emerged as a valuable
and impactful. For instance, research by Marques et al. (2022) demon resource, serving as an organic fertilizer with the potential to transform
strated that incorporating coffee husks as antioxidants in fresh sausages soil health and agricultural sustainability (Hoseini et al., 2021). Unlike
effectively reduces lipid oxidation, particularly when stored in modified coffee pulp solids, which tend to export only a fraction of soil nutrients,
atmosphere packaging (MAP). This not only enhances the quality and coffee husk contains humus and organic soil carbon, enriching the soil in
shelf life of sausages but also provides a practical solution for the meat which it’s applied. Researchers have delved into various composting
industry to boost the antioxidant properties of meat products. Further methods, blending coffee husk with animal manures and phosphate
more, coffee husk tea, derived from dried coffee husks, offers a novel rock, leading to the creation of high-quality compost compared to its
beverage option with a mild, nutty flavor profile and high antioxidant initial state (Yenani et al., 2021;). The elevated nitrogen, phosphorus,
content, as highlighted by Turck et al. (2022). This alternative beverage and potassium levels in coffee husks and peels offer an eco-friendly
not only caters to consumers seeking unique flavor experiences but also alternative to conventional chemical fertilizers.
provides potential health benefits comparable to regular coffee, such as Studies have illuminated the advantages of employing coffee husk
increased metabolism and a caffeine boost. compost in coffee plantations. Through the supplementation of coffee
Moreover, coffee husks are transformed into a versatile flour that is husks with cow manure, phosphorus, and urea fertilizers, the resultant
naturally gluten-free and rich in dietary fiber, antioxidants, and essential compost was meticulously applied to coffee plants over three years
minerals, as demonstrated by Ortiz-Barajas et al. (2020). This coffee (Hidayat et al., 2020). This strategic practice witnessed a substantial
husk flour enhances the nutritional content and imparts a distinct flavor 20–30% reduction in the application of chemical fertilizers. Contrary to
to various culinary products, including baked goods and snacks, offering plots without such nutrient-rich compost, the compost not only
consumers a healthier alternative with added nutritional value. Studies improved soil fertility but also increased mineral nutrient levels in coffee
like "Utilization of Coffee Husks to Prepare Functional Products" (2021) leaves and promoted overall coffee plant growth (Dzung, 2012). Beyond
highlight the potential of coffee husks to improve lipid profiles and serve its agronomic advantages, coffee husk compost effectively reduces waste
as functional food ingredients, further expanding the scope of their ap buildup while fostering sustainable farming practices, addressing envi
plications in food production. ronmental pollution concerns in rural regions.
Furthermore, extracts derived from coffee husks contain beneficial Innovative research by Fitriani et al. (2020) has concentrated on
substances such as phenolic compounds and caffeine, as indicated by De efficiently using coffee husk waste in the coffee-rich region of Lampung.
Farias Marques et al. (2022), offering opportunities for developing di In order to address the underutilization of coffee husk waste, this
etary supplements and functional food and beverage items. These ex method utilizes the potential of native bacteria found in pineapple liquid
tracts not only possess antioxidant and stimulating properties but also waste, notably Pumakkal. The manufacture of coffee skin compost using
contribute to the creation of innovative food products with potential various starter formulas and a detailed assessment of the compost’s
health benefits. quality are the two main components of this study. Among these for
Overall, the utilization of coffee husks in food production represents mulations, KC was shown to be the best starter for coffee skin compost.
a creative and sustainable approach to food innovation (Lachenmeier Meanwhile, Jibril & Bekele (2022) present a noteworthy field experi
et al., 2021). By adding different flavors, textures, and nutritional ad ment carried out in Ethiopia that sought to determine the substantial
vantages, coffee husks contribute to reducing waste in the coffee pro effects of various ratios of coffee husk compost and blended NPSB fer
duction process while offering consumers novel and nutritious food tilizer on soil qualities in a potato field.
options. This innovative approach not only meets consumer demand for This thorough study used a randomized complete block design with
healthier and more sustainable food choices but also creates new mar three replications to carefully assess the impacts of four coffee husk
kets and business opportunities within the food industry, contributing to compost rates (ranging from 0 to 7.5 t/ha) and four NPSB fertilizer rates
socio-economic development and environmental sustainability. Addi (ranging from 0 to 187.5 kg/ha). The findings showed that both coffee
tionally, the incorporation of coffee husks into animal feed formulations husk compost and NPSB fertilizer had a significant impact on a number
in the feed industry offers practical benefits such as cost-effectiveness, of soil properties, such as pH, organic carbon (OC), cation exchange
sustainable ingredients, and improved animal welfare, ultimately capacity, and others. In particular, the application of 112.5 kg NPSB/ha
enhancing productivity and reducing health issues in livestock (Orope and 7.5 t coffee husk compost/ha resulted in significant improvements
za-Mariano et al., 2022). in soil pH, OC%, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available
The utilization of coffee waste in animal feed presents both positive sulfur, as well as a significant decrease in exchangeable acidity and an
impacts and challenges. Despite its potential benefits, coffee waste increase in cation exchange capacity and exchangeable bases (Chali and
contains caffeine, tannin, and alkaloids, which can be harmful to animal Wakgari, 2021). This comprehensive study offers useful insights into
health and reduce the appeal of the diet (Lee et al., 2023). The suitability how the thoughtful application of coffee husk compost and NPSB fer
of coffee waste for animal feed varies depending on the species and the tilizers can drastically alter soil parameters and provide recommenda
processing methods applied. Ruminant animals, equipped with efficient tions for environmentally friendly agriculture methods.
fiber-digesting digestive systems, may derive more benefit from coffee These results highlight the several advantages of using coffee husk as
waste compared to non-ruminant animals, although outcomes may vary. an organic fertilizer, including improved soil health, a decreased reli
Implementing chemical treatments or the silage process can enhance the ance on chemical fertilizers, increased crop growth, and ecologically
digestibility and utilization of coffee husks or pulp in both ruminant and responsible waste management. The use of coffee husk waste as an
non-ruminant diets (Oropeza-Mariano et al., 2022). Various approaches, organic fertilizer not only promotes environmental conservation efforts
including drying, silage production, physical methods like percolation, but also strengthens sustainable agriculture practices.
chemical processes such as alcohol extraction, and microbiological By encouraging plant growth and enhancing soil health, coffee
techniques involving fermentation, have been investigated to address husk—hailed as a highly efficient mulching material—plays a crucial
the negative impacts of caffeine and tannins present in coffee waste and part in modernizing agricultural methods (Munirwan et al., 2022).
197
Coffee husks have many benefits for plants and the soil they grow in and assisting both rural and urban areas.
when used as mulch. These husks act as a barrier, providing insulating Researchers combined coffee husk (SC), green waste (GW), and rice
and reducing soil surface water evaporation. The hydration and health husk biochar (B) in a different endeavor to generate vermicompost that
of plants depend on this firm control of moisture regulation. In addition, would be used to feed coffee plants. For two months, different amounts
used coffee grounds used as mulch act as a strong foe against unwelcome of SC, GW, and biochar (6%, 8%, and 10% biochar) underwent vermi
weeds by blocking sunlight and preventing weed seed germination composting. Through SEM EDX and chemical analysis, the produced
(Hirooka et al., 2022). vermicompost was determined to be mature and of good quality, as
Additionally, coffee husk mulch functions as a time-released fertil evidenced by its organic carbon content, C:N ratio, total nitrogen,
izer that gradually breaks down (Bomfim et al., 2023). These husks serve phosphorus, potassium content, and pH. After that, coffee plants were
as a beacon for increased soil fertility because when they decompose cultivated using this superior vermicompost, with variables including
over time, they release organic matter and vital nutrients into the soil. leaf count, plant height, stem diameter, and shoot dried weight being
The addition of organic matter improves soil structure, allowing for measured (Zulhipri et al., 2021).
better water penetration and encouraging strong root growth. Earth Further insights revealed the potential of coffee pulp as an effective
worms and helpful bacteria that participate in nutrient recycling and substrate for vermicomposting, accommodating both native and alien
general soil rejuvenation are stimulated by the decomposition process earthworm species, including Perionyx ceylanensis and Eudrilus eugeniae.
(The Importance of Soil Organic Matter, n.d.). Vermicomposting of spent coffee grounds (SCG) and coffee silverskin
Furthermore, mulch made from coffee husks has two uses in agri (CS) combined with mature horse manure (HM) was observed over a 60-
culture. First of all, it serves as a natural insulator, efficiently controlling day period in an enlightening laboratory investigation by Eisenia andrei
soil temperature and assuring stability against temperature extremes. earthworms. This experiment, which investigated biological factors and
This is especially helpful in areas with severe summers or icy winters toxicity, produced encouraging findings, with the best results being
since it creates a nourishing environment for plant roots (Moreno-R found at residue proportions of 25% SCG, 25%, or 50% CS. All treat
amon et al., 2014). Second, this frequently disregarded mulch provides ments, encouragingly, demonstrated non-toxic qualities, attesting to the
built-in defense against particular pathogens and pests. Caffeine and viability of vermicomposting SCG and CS as important composting
polyphenols, two substances present in coffee husks, act both as strong components (González-Moreno et al., 2020).
insecticides and antifungal agents, protecting plants from common pests The narrative doesn’t end here; it just starts. Through vermi
and diseases (Green et al., 2015). composting, coffee waste has made strides in lowering phytotoxic
In order to understand how different mulching techniques, affect the compounds, fostering the growth of coffee seedlings. When compared to
dynamics of the two-spotted spider mite, related mites, and a fungal their peers maintained alone in potting mixes, seedlings given a 40%
pathogen in strawberry fields, De Cassia Neves Esteca et al. (2018) set vermicompost treatment showed remarkable growth potential. Tran
out on a research project. The use of dehydrated coffee husk and pulp scriptome sequencing revealed increased expression of particular pro
(DCHP) as an organic substitute for conventional polyethylene film teins linked to DNA replication in the vermicompost-treated seedlings in
mulching was compared to it. The beneficial predatory mites found a seamless merging of scientific and molecular investigations (Lalitha
refuge in strawberry plants, drastically reducing the incidence of Soumya et al., 2023). The overwhelming agreement that has been
two-spotted spider mite infestations. This information came to light in reached by these research highlights the potential of coffee by-products,
support of DCHP mulching. Notably, adding DCHP to the natural particularly coffee husk, as a key component of sustainable agriculture.
vegetation floor did not increase the diversity of mites, highlighting the These by-products are prepared to improve soil fertility by composting
need for more research to fully realize the benefits of organic mulching or vermicomposting, encourage plant growth, and bestow copious har
for enhancing biological pest control in agriculture (Costa et al., 2014). vests, ensuring a bright future for the agricultural environment.
Overall, coffee husk mulch is a highly effective and environmentally Coffee husks are versatile enough to be used as cattle bedding,
friendly option for improving soil fertility, preserving moisture, pre providing a safe and affordable option. These common leftovers from
venting invasive weeds, regulating temperature fluctuations, and adding coffee beans’ outer layers have exceptional absorbency, effectively
a layer of natural defense against pests and diseases (Hirooka et al., wicking away moisture and urine to keep a resting place for animals
2022; Moreno-Ramon et al., 2014; Costa et al., 2014). The fact that it clean and dry (Makkar, 2016). Beyond its ability to wick away moisture,
first appeared as a byproduct of coffee processing solidifies its position coffee husks act as a natural insulator, expertly controlling temperature
as an environmentally friendly mulching champion for a variety of for animal comfort. They go a step further in odor control, making them
agricultural and horticultural uses. a perfect option for bedding for cattle. The fact that coffee husks are
Coffee husk is a valuable organic component used in the creation of inexpensively abundant and readily available is maybe what appeals to
vermicompost, a method that uses earthworms to transform organic farmers the most. Their organic nature guarantees eventual biodegra
waste into compost that is rich in nutrients (Shemekite et al., 2014). dation, which enriches composting or manure piles. Coffee husks shine
Coffee husk is a great addition to vermicomposting systems because it as a beacon of hope for farmers as the search for eco-friendly bedding
has a high carbon-to-nitrogen ratio and fosters the growth of microor substitutes heats up. Notably, continuing studies intend to explore
ganisms and earthworms. Numerous advantages result from using coffee deeper into the best use of coffee husks for livestock bedding, examining
husk (Oliveira and Franca, 2015). In the beginning, it improves the their long-term effects on animal health and overall farm sustainability
structure and aeration of compost, avoiding compaction and promoting (Oropeza-Mariano et al., 2022).
ideal airflow. Second, it supplies earthworms with vital carbon and Coffee husks, chopped straw, and a pellet bedding blend of straw and
energy, enabling them to decompose organic materials like coffee husks coffee husks all received high marks in a study that evaluated several
and other materials effectively. Additionally, the decomposition of bedding materials for broiler chicks. Straw dominated in terms of crude
coffee husk releases minerals and organic substances that are easily fiber content, but coffee husks stood out for having a higher nitrogen
absorbed by plants. As a powerful soil additive, this nutrient-rich ver concentration (Hubert et al., 2019). Notably, the coffee husks group’s
micompost increases soil fertility, fosters plant growth, and supports bedding had the lowest pH level. The feed conversion ratio (FCR) of the
sustainable agriculture (Dadi et al., 2019). The efficacy of coffee husk pellet bedding group briefly declined, but it later significantly improved.
and pulp in standalone or co-composted scenarios with source-separated Additionally, the pellet bedding group had a considerably decreased
municipal solid waste (SSMSW) was established in a study by Dadi et al. incidence of footpad dermatitis (FPD). When compared to chickens
(2019). As a consequence, mature and stable compost was created, resting on coffee husks, chickens resting on pellet bedding showed a
which when combined with the soil in the area produced a healthy higher slaughter yield and a lower weight/liver proportion. This shows
cabbage crop, providing a promising answer to agricultural problems that coffee husks have a beneficial effect on lowering FPD and
198
strengthening bedding with nutrients appropriate for fertilization 10. Conclusion and future recommendations
post-rearing (Biesek et al., 2023).
Another investigation focused on the possibility that coffee husk The use of coffee husk waste in a variety of applications holds
consumption by horses could result in intoxication. Intoxication symp exciting prospects for sustainability and efficient waste management. Its
toms in horses have been documented by field vets in cases when they application in various sectors, including pharmaceuticals, agriculture,
ate coffee husks used as bedding (Cangussu et al., 2021). While being fed biosorption, renewable energy, packaging materials, and building block
coast cross hay, horses were given access to coffee husks. Clinical manufacturing, demonstrates its adaptability. By harnessing the unique
symptoms such as increased excitability, agitation, trembling in the qualities of coffee husk and incorporating it into multiple industries, we
muscles, and accelerated heart and breathing rates were seen. After can significantly improve waste reduction, mitigate environmental
56 hours of husk eating, there was a considerable increase in caffeine impact, and promote sustainable practices (Munirwan et al., 2022)
concentrations, according to an analysis of the levels in plasma and (Rebollo-Hernanz et al., 2023).
urine before and after ingestion. These results highlight the toxicity of However, it is essential to expand our exploration of coffee husk
coffee husks for horses and highlight the dangers of feeding or utilizing applications in specific fields with significant social, economic, and
them as bedding (Delfiol et al., 2012). environmental impacts (Král et al., 2023). In agriculture, there is a
A study that employed coffee husks as flooring for stabled boars compelling opportunity to further develop innovative practices utilizing
revealed intriguing findings. This unconventional choice resulted in coffee husks as organic fertilizers and mulching materials. This can
elevated salivary cortisol levels and induced alterations in various enhance soil health, increase crop yields, and improve farmer liveli
behavioral patterns among the boars (Teles et al., 2017). Although the hoods while reducing reliance on chemical inputs and minimizing
use of coffee husks did not significantly affect body surface temperature, environmental degradation (Situmeang et al., 2023). Moreover, the food
the results highlight the need to consider any possible unfavourable industry stands to benefit from the development of novel products
impacts on animal welfare when evaluating their use. Coffee husks have derived from coffee husks, such as antioxidant-rich extracts, gluten-free
a variety of uses in livestock bedding, which highlights both opportu flour, and alternative beverages (Klingel et al., 2020). These innovations
nities and concerns. In order to maintain animal welfare, careful eval not only offer healthier options for consumers but also create new
uation and prudent application are essential. market opportunities and contribute to sustainable food production
The utilization of coffee husk in agriculture brings about significant practices.
socio-economic and environmental impacts, such as providing addi To fully leverage the potential of coffee husk waste within a circular
tional revenue streams for farmers and mitigating waste generation. bioeconomy framework, several pivotal recommendations emerge.
Moreover, it also contributes to sustainable farming practices. By These encompass prioritizing innovative conversion technologies, so
repurposing coffee husk waste as organic fertilizer and mulch, farmers lidifying sustainable supply chains, bolstering consumer awareness, and
can reduce their reliance on costly chemical fertilizers and synthetic rigorously monitoring environmental and socio-economic impacts. This
mulching materials (Situmeang et al., 2023). This transition towards necessitates intensified research and development endeavors aimed at
organic farming practices not only reduces input costs for farmers but refining extraction techniques, elevating product standards, and opti
also minimizes the environmental footprint associated with chemical mizing resource utilization. Furthermore, fostering collaboration among
runoff and plastic waste from conventional agricultural practices. diverse stakeholders—comprising researchers, industry counterparts,
Additionally, the incorporation of coffee husk compost and mulch en policymakers, and local communities—is imperative for establishing
hances soil health and fertility, leading to improved crop yields and resilient supply chains and infrastructures conducive to the valorization
income generation for farmers (Jiang et al., 2023). Moreover, the of coffee husk. Through collaboration, we can expedite the journey to
adoption of coffee husk as livestock bedding provides a cost-effective wards a future characterized by sustainability and equity, where coffee
and eco-friendly alternative, contributing to animal welfare and husk waste plays a pivotal role in advancing environmental stewardship
reducing the environmental burden associated with conventional and promoting socio-economic development.
bedding materials (Lee et al., 2023). Overall, the integration of coffee
husk into agricultural practices fosters sustainable development by Funding
promoting resource efficiency, environmental conservation, and
socio-economic resilience within farming communities. Not applicable
Despite its potential benefits, coffee husk utilization is not without
challenges. Variability in nutrient content and decomposition rates may CRediT authorship contribution statement
pose difficulties in achieving consistent results across different batches
of husks. However, standardized processing techniques, quality control Seeram Ramakrishna: Conceptualization, Visualization. Amirul Al
measures, exploration of nutrient content, and optimization of compo Ashraf Abdullah: Conceptualization, Visualization. Kavin Tamil
sition can ultimately maximize its potential benefits in agriculture. selvan: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Sub
Moreover, proper management practices are essential to prevent ramanian Sundarajan: Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
contamination and ensure the effectiveness of coffee husk-based tech editing. Sevakumaran Vigneswari: Conceptualization, Supervision,
niques. Additionally, the scalability of these practices on a larger agri Visualization, Writing – review & editing.
cultural scale may be hindered by logistical constraints, including
sourcing an adequate supply of husks and managing transportation lo
gistics (Kadam et al., 2024). When compared to conventional agricul Declaration of Competing Interest
tural practices, coffee husk-based techniques offer several advantages,
including reduced environmental impact and potential cost savings The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
(Peixoto et al., 2022). However, it’s essential to acknowledge that interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
conventional methods may still have certain merits, such as greater the work reported in this paper.
consistency in nutrient content and faster application times. A balanced
approach involves weighing the benefits and drawbacks of each Acknowledgements
approach and considering the specific needs and constraints of indi
vidual farming operations. We thank Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) for the academic fellow
provided to the author Vigneswari S. We would like to thank Ram Kumar
Arivanandan for his input on these topics.
199
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Food and Bioproducts Processing 145 (2024) 187–202

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food and Bioproducts Processing

Sustainable valorisation of coffee husk into value added product in the

1. Introduction Interestingly, the annual production of coffee yields approximately

Fig. 2. Cross sectional view of coffee cherry (Created using Canva.com).

prospective energy source. With a low ash level of 5.79%, cocopeat

Tata Coffee India (Mobikasa, 2021)

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