Unit.

1
Chapter-I
THE EMERGENCE OF RAJPUT
The Gurjara-Pratiharas, Art and Architecture
Structure
1.1.1. Objectives
1.1.2. Introduction
1.1.3. Emergence of Rajput
1.1.3.1. Descendants of the Kshatriyas
1.1.3.2. Foreign Origin
1.1.3.3. Agnikula Theory
1.1.4. The Gurjara-Pratihara
1.1.5. Origin of the Pratiharas
1.1.6. Political History of the Dynasty
1.1.6.1. Nagabhatta I
1.1.6.2. Vatsaraja
1.1.6.3. Nagabhatta II
1.1.6.4. Mihirbhoj
1.1.6.5. Mahendrapala and his successor
1.1.7. Decline of Pratihara Dynasty
1.1.8. Administration of the Pratihara
1.1.9. Social Condition
1.1.10. Economy in Pratihara Empire
1.1.11. Religion in India during the Pratihara Period
1.1.12. Art & Architecture under the Gurjara Pratihara
1.1.13. Legacy
1.1.14. Conclusion
1.1.15. Summary
1.1.16. Exercise
1.1.17. Further Readings

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1.1.1. Objectives
This chapter deals with the history of India in the post-Harshavardhana era. Here a discussion on
the emergence of Rajput and particularly the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty and their contribution to various
fields of India will be discussed. After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
 identify the different Rajput clan in India which emerged during post-Harsha era.
 examine the various theory regarding origin of Rajput clan in India;
 discuss the origin and polity of Gurjara-Pratihara in Indian history;
 evaluate the cultural activities of the Gurjara-Pratihara;and
 assess the significance of Gurjara-Pratihara in Indian history.
1.1.2. Introduction
The period between 750 and 1200 C.E is referred to as an early medieval period of Indian
History. During this time the whole country was divided into numerous regional states which were busy
fighting with each other. Though politically divided, during this period India witnessed a growth of new
and rich cultural activities in the fields of art, literature and language. Indian political history in the post
Harshavardhan, was marked by the growth of three important political powers in India. These were
Gurjara Pratiharas in north India, Palas in eastern India and Rashtrakutas in South India. These powers
were constantly fighting with each other with a aim to set up their control on Gangetic region in
northern India. This armed conflict among these three powers is known as ‗Tripartite struggle‘. In this
unit in three different chapter we will discuss about the above mentioned three ruling dynasties in
separately. This chapter will discuss the emergence of Rajput clan with special reference to the Gurjara-
Pratihara in the polity of India and their contribution to the various fields of Indian history.
1.1.3. Emergence of Rajput
The anarchy and confusion which followed Harsha's death is the transitional period of Indian
history. This period was marked by the rise of the Rajput clans who began to play a significant part in
the history of northern and western India from the 8th century C.E onwards. The term Rajput denotes a
tribe or clan, the members of which claimed themselves as Kshatriyas belonging to the 'solar' or lunar'
dynasties. There is a keen controversy among scholars regarding the origin of the Rajputs. Inspite of
painstaking researches on the subject, there is a lot of obscurity around it. In the absence of any definite
theory on the origin of the Rajputs, we can merely some of the views put forth by historian on this
aspect of Indian history.
1.1.3.1. Descendants of the Kshatriyas:
Various suppositions regarding origin of Rajputs have been put forward. The term Rajputs
seems to be the corrupt from of "Rajaputra". A different observation is that Rajputs are the descendants
of Brahmin or Kshatriya families. On the basis of ancient inscriptions they have rejected the story of
sacrificial- fire pit and also the view of the foreign origin of the Rajputs. They believe that the founder of
Chauhans, the Gehlots, the Pallavas, the Kadambas, the Pratiharas and the Parmaras were Brahmins. In
the accounts of Bana and Indian Puranas, "Rajaputra" is mentioned as a highborn Kshatriya. According
to the contemporary literary sources, the Rajputs were originated from the highborn Kshatriyas. The
centuries between the death of Harsha and the Turkish conquest was marked by the ascendancy of the
Rajputs. The entire northern India was disintegrated and came under the sway of the different houses of
the Rajput. The Rajputs are usually a social group of northern India and Gujarat flourished during the
period. The Rajputs were the dominant martial and land-owning community of northern India. The
period is conveniently termed as the Rajput period of Indian history.
1.1.3.2. Foreign Origin:
Many historians believe that that they are the brood of distant invader like Sakas, Kushanas,
Huns who were Hinduized. The upper rank came to be known as Rajputs. Some scholars have opined
that Gurjaras entered India through Afghanistan, settled themselves in different parts of India and were

3
the ancestors of the Rajputs. However this theory had less acceptability. Other hypotheses, ascribing to
them a Scythian origin. Invasions of the Huns had an impact on Indian society socially and culturally
which also established many new ruling empires. Later, they mixed themselves in the Indian society and
almost lost their individuality. Certain customs like women's status in society, horse worship were
similar to clan of Shakas, Huns and Kushanas so their foreign origin is proved.
1.1.3.3. Agnikula Theory:
Chand Bardai, court poet of Prithviraja Chauhan state that Rajput's origin lies in sacrificial fire
pit. Sage Parasuram destroyed all the Kshatriyas and then the ancient sages performed a yajna on Mount
Abu to guard the Vedic religion. Out of that yajna four heroes were born and their progeny were the
Chauhans, Solanki, Parmara, and Pratihara. This is believed to be origin of Agnivanshi Rajputs.
Suryavanshi Rajputs trace their ancestry to the Sun. They ruled Mewar, Marwar, and Amber.
Chandravanshi Rajputs descended from Moon. Gujarat, Jaisalmer was ruled by Chandravanshi Rajputs.
Whatever the origin is, the Rajputs were believed till date as one of the virulent warrior tribes
ever ruled in India. They never originated as a tribe or a single community. They were a collection of
clans ruling different regions. The term Rajput as it is used today refers to the set of intermarrying royal
clans. "It is their war like occupation coupled with their aristocratic rank that gave them a distinctive
common feature and made the Brahmins recognize them as Kshatriyas." In a broad spectrum no single
origin-theory can be held to be authoritative.
1.1.4. The Gurjara-Pratihara
Of all the Rajput clans that ruled in India, the Pratiharas had the most dazzling record. The
command of the Pratihars was obeyed from Punjab to Central India and from Kathiwar to North Bengal.
For three centuries, they stood as the bulwark of India‘s defence against the Muslim invaders. They
revived the dream of the political unification of India after the fall of Harsha‘s dynasty.
1.1.5. Origin of the Pratiharas
According to epigraphic evidence, the Pratiharas were descendants of Lakshamana of the solar
race of the great epic, the Ramayana. Some scholars opine that they were a branch of the Gurjara race.
They are mentioned in the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II, the records of Hieun Tsang and the
Hashacharita of Bana. It is known from the Rashtrakuta record that the Pratiaharas belonged to the
Gurjara stock. It is also held by some scholars that the Gurjras were central Asiatic nomads who
accompanied the Hunas into India. Some others are of the opinion that the Gurjaras were of indigenous
origin. Another opinion is that the Pratiharas were a tribe of the land called Gurjaradesa. The expression
Gurjara-Pratihara family of the Gurjara country was possessed by the Pratiharas since the time of
Vatsaraja. Whatsoever may be the fact that the Gurjaras came into prominence about the second half of
the 6th century C.E. they took advantage of the downfall of the Gupta Empire to establish their political
authority. Their most important kingdom was that founded in the heart of Rajputna near Jodhpur and
gradually advanced towards the South and took hold of Avanti and later on conquered Kannauj. The
Avanti branch of the Pratiharas has become famous by their success over the Arab Muslims.
The Gurjara Pratihara dynasty was founded by Nagabhatta I in the region of Malwa in the eighth
century C.E. He belonged to a Rajput clan. Later one of his successors, Vatsaraja extended his rule over
to a large part of North India and made Kannauj in western Uttara Pradesh his capital. Vatsaraja‘s policy
of expansion brought him in conflict with Dharamapala, the Pala King of Bengal and Bihar. Soon, the
Rashtrakuta king Dhruva from south India jumped into the fight. And thus began what is known as
‗Tripartite Struggle‘ i.e struggle among three powers. It continued for about the next hundred and fifty
years under various succeeding kings with ups and downs. The Gurjara-Pratiharas, however, could
continue to maintain their hold over Kannauj till the last. One of the important kings of this dynasty was
Mihira Bhoja (ninth century). He was highly praised by an Arabian scholar Sulaiman for keeping his
empire safe from robbers.

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1.1.6. Political History of the Dynasty
The Pratihara Kings ruled from 6th century till the end of 11th century C.E. Among Pratihara
Kings, their kingdom was laid by Harichandra near modern Jodhpur in the mid sixth century C.E.
Harichandra was a Brahmin who had two wives, one was Brahamana and the other one was a Kshatriya.
His sons from his Brahamana wife were called Pratihara Brahmins while his sons from his Kshatriya
wife established the ruling dynasty of the Pratiharas. His four sons established a separate kingdom for
themselves. Their dominion was concentrated in Jodhpur, Nandipura, Broach, Ujjayani and nearby
areas.
1.1.6.1. Nagabhatta I
The foundation of Pratihara dynasty's magnitude was positioned by Nagabhatta I, who ruled
between 730-756 C.E. His rule was prominent because of his successful confrontation with the Arabs.
He established an empire extending from Gujarat to Gwalior and defied the Arab invasions towards
further east of Sindh. He fought against King Dantidurga the Rashtrakuta ruler as well and was defeated.
Conversely the success of Dantidurga was short-term and Nagabhatta left for his successors a far-
reaching empire which included Gujarat, Malwa and parts of Rajputana. Nagabhatta I was succeeded
by his brother's sons, Kakkuka and Devaraja.
1.1.6.2. Vatsaraja
Devaraja was succeeded by his son Vatsaraja who proved to be an influential ruler. He ruled
from C.E 775 to 805. He seems to have consolidated his position and made Ujjain as his capital. He was
in the verge of his imperial career in Western India. He in trying to be ruler of Northern India annexed
the territories upto Kanauj and central Rajputra by defeating Bhandi, the ruling dynasty probably related
to the Vardhanas. His ambition to capture Kannauj led him into conflicts with the Pala ruler Dharmapala
of Bengal and the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva. He succeeded in defeating Dharmapala in the Doab region
and vanquished Northern India including the Ganga Yamuna valley. Dhurva defeated him later on and
captured Kannauj. Vatsraja was succeeded by Nagabhata II.
1.1.6.3. Nagabhatta II
Nagabhatta II who succeeded Vatsaraja revived the lost prestige of the empire by conquering
Sindh, Andhra, Vidarbha. After the defeat of Vatsaraja by Dhruva the Pratihara empire was limited only
to Rajputana. Nagabhatta II revived the policy of conquest and extension of the empire. He defeated the
rulers of Andhra, Saindhava, Vidarbha and Kalinga. He subdued Matsayas in the North, Vatsas in the
East and Turuskka (Muslims) in the West. Dharmapala had defeated Indrayudh and made Chakrayudh,
his brother, the ruler of Kannauj. Nagabhatta attacked Kannauj and after defeating Chakrayudha
occupied it. He also succeeded in defeating Dharmapala and entered into his territories as far as Munger
in Bihar. But he could not enjoy his success for long. Nagabhata II was initially defeated by the
Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III, but later recovered Malwa from the Rashtrakutas. He rebuilt the great
Shiva temple at Somnath in Gujarat, which had been demolished in an Arab raid from Sindh. Kannauj
became the center of the Gurjar Pratihara state, which covered much of northern India during the peak
of their power. Rambhadra, the son and successor of Nagabhatta II proved incapable and lost some of
his territories, probably, to Pala ruler, Devapal. He was succeeded by his son Mihirbhoj who proved to
be an ambitious ruler.
1.1.6.4. Mihirbhoj
Mihirabhoja ascended the throne on 836 C.E. He was a very brave and powerful king. A
glorious chapter of the history of the Pratiharas begins with the accession of Mihirabhoja. He
reorganized and consolidated the empire inherited from his ancestors and ushered in an era of prosperity
of the Pratiharas. He is credited with many conquests; the prominent among them are follows.
Conquest of Bundelkhanda: During the reign of Mihirabhoja's father, Bundelkhanda had
become independent. That is why Ramabhadra could not certify and continue the charity given by

5
Nagabhata in Kalanjaramandal, but Mihirabhoja again started it. This indicates that he had re conquered
Bundelkhanda and king Jayasakti had accepted his suzerainty as well.
Conquest of Rajputana: Varaha, Daulatpur and Kahala inscriptions indicate that he had brought
Rajputana and several other provinces under his control. It can also be stated that king Kakkata of
Mandsor branch of the Pratiharas who was the samanta of Nagabhata again became the ruler of this
region. Kakkata had fought against the Gaudas in Mudoggiri. Bahuka was his son who had killed
Nandabala and Mayra and had defeated the kings of nine Mandals. Bahuka had also become
independent but Mihirabhoja again brought him under his control. Pratapgarh inscription mentions the
following words. It also confirms the control of Mihirbhoja over the southern portion of Rajputana.
Chatasu inscription of Jaipur also let the reader know that Mihirbhoja had compelled Harsha Gupta,
who had defeated the gauda King, to accept his sovereignty. Harsha Guhila had presented many horses
to Mihirabhoja.
Conquest of Punjab: 'Rajatarangini' of Kalahana and Pahewa inscription indicate that Karnal
region of the eastern Punjab was under the control of Mihirabhoja. However, it is stated that when
Mihirabhoja was in the wars of eastern India, king Sankarvarman of Kashmir had brought this region
under his control. But even after that some portion of the Karnal region remained under the control of
Mihirabhoja.
Conquest of western India: According to one copper plate one samanta Balavarman had
defeated Vishad and killed Jajjap and other kings and thus drove away the Hunas.
Conquest of central India: The inscriptions found at Gwalior and Deogarh of central India
indicate that Deogarh i.e. Jhansi region and Gwalior region were being governed by the representatives
of Mihirabhoja.
War with the Rashtrakutas: During the reign of Mihirabhoja, Amoghavarsa and Krishna II
were the Rashtrakuta kings who were ruling over Kannauj. These were weak rulers and hence
Mihirabhoja captured Kannauj and extended his empire up to river Narmada. In the course of time,
however, Dhruva II, the Gujarat samanta of Amonghvarsa defeated Mihirabhoja in the battle and had
driven him away. The war between Rashtrakutas and Bhoja continued for several years and both tried to
bring the province of Avanti under their control. Even the last years of the reign of Mihirabhoja passed
in these wars.
War with the Palas: King Devapala of the Pala dynasty was a brave and powerful king during
the reign of Mihirbhoja. His inscriptions refer that he realized tributes and taxes from the Kings of the
territories from Himalaya to Vindyachal and from the eastern frontier to the western frontier of northern
India. Though these descriptions seem to be an exaggeration, yet the power of Devapela was so strong
that it appears that both Bhoja and Palas must have shared victories as well as defeats in their wars with
each other. The historian expresses different views with regard to the final victory. But according to
Gwalior prasasti, in the end, Bhoja has defeated the son of Devapala.
Other conquests: Mihirabhoja had also conquered many other provinces. He had attacked
Karnal, western and southern Saurashtra etc. The Arab travelling Suleman has praised his big army and
his efficient administration.
Mihirabhoja was the most powerful ruler of the Pratihara dynasty. His empire extended from the
Terai of Himalay to Bundelkhanda and Kausambhi, to the frontier of Pala kingdom in the east, and
Saurashtra in the west. A large portion of Rajasthan was also under his control. Some of the coins of
Mihirabhoja that are found can be mentioned as alloyed silver which indicates that on account of
constant wars his economic condition had become bad. He was the worshipper of Vishnu and Shiva.
From the above account it appears that Mihirbhoj made Kannauj his capital and succeeded in
consolidating Pratihara power and influence in Malwa, Rajputana and Madhyadesh. He had to face
continuously defeats in the hands of Devapal, King Dhruva and King Kokkalla. These consecutive
trounce resulted in weakening his grasp over Rajputana and even the feudatory Pratihara ruler of
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Jodhpur became independent. The death of Devapal, ruler of Bengal and, thereafter, weakness of his
successors gave Mihirbhoj an opportunity to restore his strength towards the east and south due to the
policies undertaken by Rashtrakuta ruler. He conquered part of Western Kingdom by defeating the Pala
king Narayanapala. Yet again he took offensive against the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna II and defeated
him on the banks of the Narmada. Subsequently he occupied Malwa and Kathiawar. He had an
extensive empire which included Kathiawar, territories up to the Punjab in the North-West, Malwa and
Madhyadesh. He had consolidated his power in Rajputana and the Kalachuris of Bihar and Chandelas of
Bundelkhand had accepted his sovereignty. He made conquests in Punjab, Oudh and other Northern
territories. Mihirbhoja was not only a great conqueror but also a great lover of art and literature. He was
a great patron of men and letters. Poet Rajasekhara adorned his court. Consequently his reign was
regarded as the glorious period of Pratihara ascendency.
1.1.6.5. Mahendrapala and his successor
Mahendrapala succeeded to the throne of his father, Mihirbhoja. He succeeded in maintaining
the empire of his father and also extended it further by annexing Magadha and parts of Northern Bengal.
He lost some parts to the Kings of Kashmir. It is believed that his empire extended from the Himalayas
to the Vindhyas and from the Eastern to the Western ocean. After death of Mahendrapala, a war of
succession took place which substantially weakened the power of the dynasty.
Mahendrapala was succeeded by his son Bhoja II but his cousin, Mahipala, shortly dethroned
him and became the ruler of Kannauj. During his period, the Rashtrakutas King, Indra III defeated
Mahipala of Kannauj. After Indra III retiring to the south, Mahipala again consolidated his position. In
the period in-between the Pala rulers captured some eastern parts of his empire and occupied the forts of
Kalinjar and Chitrakuta. His period marked the beginning of the decline of the power of Pratiharas.
Mahipala was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala II. He ruled only for a year. Afterwards, we
find no less than four successors during a period of fifteen years. Devapala, Vinayakapala II, Mahipala
II and Vijayapala ruled in succession over the throne of Kannauj but none of them proved to be a
capable ruler. Rather, the quick succession of these rulers proves that family feuds had started among
the Pratiharas. This resulted in the disintegration of the Pratihara Empire during the reign of Devapala.
1.1.7. Decline of Pratihara Dynasty
Several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjar
Pratiharas during war of succession and they declare their independence, notably the Paramaras of
Malwa, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand, and the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal. The Rashtrakuta emperor
Indra III briefly captured Kannauj, and although the Pratiharas regained the city, their position continued
to weaken in the 10th century, partly as a result of the drain of simultaneously fighting off Turkic attacks
from the west and the Pala advances in the east. The Gurjar-Pratiharas lost control of Rajasthan to their
feudatories, and the Chandelas captured the strategic fortress of Gwalior in central India, 950 C.E. By
the end of the tenth century the Gurjar Pratihara domains had dwindled to a small state centered on
Kannauj. Mahmud of Ghazni sacked Kannauj in 1018 C.E, and the Pratihara ruler Rajapala fled. The
Chandela ruler Gauda captured and killed Rajapala, placing Rajapala's son Trilochanpala on the throne
as a proxy. Jasapala, the last Gurjara ruler of Kanauj, died in 1036 C.E. With this the Gurjara-Pratihara
went into the historical horizon of India.
1.1.8. Administration of the Pratihara
In the Gurjara-Pratihara history, king occupied the highest position in the state and had
enormous powers, kings adopted big titles such as 'Parmeshwara', 'Maharajadhiraja', 'Parambhaterak'.
The appointment of the samantas and singing on giants and charities were also the works of the kings.
The samantas used to give military help to their Kings and fought for them the advice of the high
officers was taken in matters of administration. However, there is no reference of mantriparishad or
ministers in the inscriptions of that period. There are eight types of different officers in the
administration of the Pratiharas such as Kottapala; highest officer of the fort, Tantrapala; representative
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of the king in samanta states, Dandapashika was highest officer of the police, Dandanayaka look after
the military and justice department, Dutaka carry order and grants of the king to specified persons,
Bhangika was the officer who wrote order of charities and grants, Vynaharina was probably some legal
expert and used to provide legal advice and finally Baladhikrat was the chief of army.
The entire state was divided into many bhuktis. There were many mandals in each bhukti and
each mandala had several cities and many villages as well. Thus the Pratiharas had organized their
empire into different units for administrative convenience. The samantas were called Maha
samantahipati or Maha Pratihara. The villages were locally administered. The elders of the villages were
called Mahattar who looked after the administration of the village. Gramapati was an officer of the state
who advised in matters of village administration. The administration of the city was looked after by
councils which are referred as Goshthi, Panchakula, Sanviyaka and Uttar sobha in the inscriptions of the
Pratiharas. Thus the administration of the Pratiharas was quite efficient. It was on account of the
efficient administration that the Pratiharas were able to defend India from the attacks of the Arabs.
1.1.9. Social Condition
Caste system was prevalent in Indian during Gurjara-Pratihara period and the reference of all the
four caste of the Vedic period is found in the inscription as well. The inscription refers the Brahmans as
Vipra and several Prakrit wards are used for Kshatriyas. The people of each caste were divided into
different classes. Chaturveda and Bhatta groups were prominent among the Brahmans. Among the
Vaishyas the Kanchuka and Vakata groups were prominent. The Arab writer Ibda Khurdadab has
referred seven castes in the time of the Pratiharas. According to him, there existed the classes of
Savakufria, Brahman, Kataria, Sudaria, Bandalia and Labla. King was selected from the Savakufria
class whereas people of Brahman class did not take wine and married their sons with the daughters of
the Kataria class. The Kataria classes were regarded as Kshatriyas. The people of Sudaria were regarded
as Sudras and usually did farming or cattle rearing. Basuria class was the Vaishya class whose duty was
to serve other classes. The people of Sandila class did the work of Chandals. Lahuda class constituted of
low and wandering tribe.
The above description of the Arab writer indicates that the Vaishyas did the work of the Sudars
and the Sudar did the work of the Vishyas. It appears that the caste system was slowly and gradually
breaking in a nice manner. The Brahmans started marrying kashatriya girls and the vaishyas performed
the work of the sudras as well.
The Muslim attacks had begun during this period and many Hindus of the conquered states had
been becoming the followers of Islam. It also appears that the Hindu society had allowed the
purification of such Hindus. Smriti Ghandrayana Vrat, 'Biladuri' and the writings of Aluberni and other
Muslim writers also confirm this fact.
Some references of the inter caste marriage have also been found. The prominent Sanskrit
scholar Rajasekhar had married Kshatriya girl named Avanti Sundari. Kings and the rich classes
practiced polygamy. However, usually men had only one wife. It can also be known from some
reference where on the death of their husbands, women had burnt themselves along with their husbands.
Thus sati pratha was there though it was not very much prevalent.
There was no purdah system among the women of the royal families. According to Rajasekhar
women learnt music, dancing and paintings. Women were very much fond of ornaments and also used
oils and cosmetics. People of the rich families used to wear very thin clothes. The Arab writer Sulaman
has written that in this period, silk used to be so thin and delicate that clothes made of it could pass
through a ring.
1.1.10. Economy in Pratihara Empire
Economy in Pratihara Empire was largely based on agriculture. The major expenditure of
government during the Pratihara Empire was on the royal household and the army. Economy in
Pratihara Empire was mainly dependent on agricultural production. Thus, the major source of
8
government revenue at that time was the tax derived from the bulk of agricultural production. The
feudal levies due from subordinates to the Gurjara king were supplemented by standing armies
garrisoned on the frontiers. The use of money was strongly implied by such a system. The maintenance
of large permanent military forces required the regular disbursement of pay or expenses in the form of
ready cash. The forms of money needed to fulfill two conditions: sufficiently high value units to be
easily transportable from point of collection to point of disbursement; yet sufficiently low value units to
meet the modest salary or expenditure levels of individual soldiers.
Gurjara Pratiharas ruled over an empire which encompassed at one time or another parts of
present-day Gujarat, Rajasthan, Malwa and the Ganga basin from Punjabto Bihar. The commercial
enterprises of the Gurjara Pratihara kingdom were considered to be both users of money on a regular
basis and source of revenue through taxes. Some historiographers have interpreted the period as one in
which commerce was moribund, with trade highly localised and dispersed to the village level, where
barter relationships replaced monetary exchanges. Historians have further used the term 'feudalism' to
describe the political, economic and social process of the Pratihara Empire. The period was
characterised by the decentralisation of governmental authority, devolution of economic activity from
international to local scale, and de-urbanisation. This interpretation is heavily reliant upon the evidence
of land-grants, a biased sample which encourages over-estimation of the strength or prevalence of a
trend.
Moreover, regarding the economy and trade in Pratihara Empire, Arab travellers of the ninth and
tenth centuries described a number of trade goods originating in various parts of the subcontinent, which
moved to market by a variety of pack animals. Indeed, one of the most consistently demanded trade
item have been the horse itself. Historians have also confirmed that an active exchange of products
internal to Indian kingdoms, as well as between these states, and outside, existed during the time of the
Gurjara-Pratihara Empire. The Arab geographers have also mentioned the types of coins used during
that period.
Several archaeological factors confirm that there was a regular and well-used medium of
exchange in the Gurjara-Pratihara dominions during the ninth and tenth centuries. Inscriptional evidence
confirms this surmise. An epigraph from Bharatpur records the distribution of coins called drammas by
King Bhoja in C.E 905-6. The Siyadoni inscription from Jhansi District recorded a number of donations
by individuals to temple deities from 902 to 967 C.E. Two specific denominations of coins are notable,
the Vigrahapala Dramma and the Adivardha Dramma. There seems to have been no gold coinage in the
Gurjara- Pratihara dominions. The smallest purchases were made not with copper and this was the major
medium of exchange during that period.
1.1.11. Religion in India during the Pratihara Period
This age was the age of the progress of the Brahminical religion. Vaishnava, Shaiva, Sakta and
Surya were the important sects of Brahmanism where the Brahmin enjoyed the first class. This age was
the age of the progress of the Brahminical religion. Different sects of Brahmanism further progressed
during this period. Vaishnava, Shaiva, Sakta and Surya were the prominent sects of Brahmanism, which
were prevalent during this period. The people of these sects considered the construction of temples and
statues a sacred duty. The kings and other rich persons gave donations to the temples for their expenses.
The followers of Shaiva religion worshipped Siva with different names such as Indra, Sankar, Pashupati,
Yoga swami, Shambhu etc. Kings such as Vatsaraja, Mahendrapala and Trilochanapala were the
worshippers of Siva. The statues of Vishnu, Surya, Brahma were also established in the Siva temples.
Besides this there were other small sects who worshipped different goddesses. The most prominent
among these goddesses were Durga, Chamunda, Bhagavati and Kali. Surya and vinayaka were also
worshipped at some places. From the religious point of view the Pratihara kings were tolerant and had
allowed the people to follow any acts they looked. But as a whole they cannot be said to have followed a

9
policy of religious toleration. It is because that though within a religion people was free to follow any
sect. There are also some references of the persecutions of the followers of other religion.
Besides idol worship, Yajanas and giving of charity at religious places were also prominent. It is
always learnt from an inscription that on the day of Sankranti, Trilochanapala had given in charity a
village to 6,000 Brahman after worshipping lord siva. Milladitya had made a pilgrimage to hardwar.
Buddhism and Jainism: Buddhism was on the decline during this period and the number of its followers
was diminishing. So was the case with the followers of Jainism whose followers mostly lived in
Rajputana, Gujarat and Deogarh.
Thus it can be seen that while Jainism and Buddhism were declining. Brahmanism was
progressing during the period of Pratiharas. Besides, the followers of Islam were also coming to India
and were making converts to their religion.
1.1.12. Art & Architecture under the Gurjara Pratihara
The Gurjara-Pratihara rulers were great patrons of arts, architecture and literature. Mihir Bhoj,
was the most outstanding ruler of the dynasty. Notable sculptures of this period include Viswaroopa
form of Vishnu and Marriage of Siva and Parvati from Kannauj. Beautifully carved panels are also seen
on the walls of temples standing at Osian, Abhaneri and Kotah. The female figure named as Sursundari
exhibited in Gwalior Museum is one of the most charming sculptures of the Gurjara-Pratihara art. The
most important groups of architectural works generally credited to the early Pratiharas are at Osian in
the heart of Gurjara, to the east in the great fort at Chittor and at Roda in the south by the border of
modern Gujarat - which the Pratiharas had absorbed by the end of the 8th century. They had also
reached north-central India, where several temples around Gwalior are comparable to the later works at
Osian. The extraordinary Teli-ka-Mandir in Gwalior fort is the oldest surviving large-scale Pratihara
work.
The early works at Osian have five-bay mulaprasadas with porch and open hall but no vestibule
or ambulatory and several have five-shrine complexes (pancha-yatana) like Hari-Hara I. In addition to
ghana-dwaras for the principal manifestations of the deity in the central projections there are usually
aedicule with purna-kalasha pilasters and high mesh-like pediments for dikpalas in the outer bays and
for subsidiary deities in the intermediate ones, though occasionally the latter have pillar motifs instead or
are left unrelieved - as in a subsidiary shrine of Hari-Hara I and the Surya Temple respectively. Open
halls are surrounded by vedika with 'seat-back' coping supporting truncated purna-kalasha columns and
their internal pillars, square with projections, often have purna-kalasha for both capital and base to
provide the extra height needed in the centre of halls, as in the Surya Temple and Hari-Hara I. The
shrine portal of Hari-Hara III is typical of non-architectonic compositions with lotus, pearl and mithuna
jambs rising from Ganga and Yamuna and dikpalas, but Surya's richly incised pilasters support a
prasada. Porches and the balconies of Hari-Hara III-have flat roofs and even the later halls have two or
three superimposed slabs without additional superstructure. Early ceilings are flat, later ones corbelled
and embellished with carving, Hari-Hara III's nine-square hall is unique in having curved side vaults.
Most of the works at Roda have five-bay mulaprasadas without ambulatory, like the temples at
Osian, but they generally have only a porch. Sometimes with platform, they have socles unlike those of
early Pratihara works elsewhere. For instance one piece of architecture in Roda, has a slab-like plinth
with a semi-kumbha, a recessed zone and a festooned floor slab surmounted by a minor padma, all
below a heavy dado which includes khura, kaiasha and kapota. Walls are usually relieved only by
ghana-dwaras. Roda III has a beaded valance all round and fluted padma-kumbha pillars in the
intermediate recessions, which recall north-west Deccani rather than Gupta forms. Shikharas are all of
the Latina variety, similar in their stunted profile and bold central bands to the predominant type at
Osian. Porches sometimes have pitched roofs in superimposed tiers with bold blind dormers, like those
of the Maitrakas. Pillars are usually exquisite examples of the square type with purna-kalasha capitals
and the sanctuary portals of Roda IV and III well represent respectively the non-architectonic and
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architectonic approaches - the deeply carved pilasters of the latter, conforming to the type of the
attached pillars outside, bearing a particularly elegant suite of five niches assimilated to the prasada
motif.
Dedicated to a Shakti cult, the Teli-ka-Mandir at Gwalior consists of an elevated rectangular
mulaprasada and a double oblong shikhara and a closed portico. The sides have three bays, though there
are small intermediate recessions and the central zone steps out in diminishing planes below the bizarre
superimposed horseshoe window motifs of the shikhara's two levels. There are two principal projections
to the back with ghana-dwaras bearing tiered kapotas and miniature lunettes, like those of the sides,
flanked by aedicule with various shikhara-like superstructures. On a simple platform and stepped base
the unorthodox dado has a double recession with kaiasha and kapota. The stepped superstructure over
the portico is modern but the Kameshvara at Auwa - the Teli-ka-Mandir's contemporary - has one of the
earliest surviving examples of a Phamsana roof, for which precedents may most plausibly be found in
the Maitraka tradition.
Thus, in these early works the various elements of the mature northern complex had appeared-
Latina mulaprasadas with varied planes accommodating ambulatories, balconies, open halls with full
vedika and closed ones matching the mulaprasada, Phamsana roofs, richly faceted supports with varied
purna-kalasha or padma-kumbha capitals. In the next phase of their development the Pratiharas turned
their attention to the elaboration of the socle and the superstructure.
The Ghateshwara at Baroli has a Phamsana in two registers over its square, portico with parapets
bearing elaborate aedicule and miniature Latina shikharas at the corners. In this and several other
features the Baroli temple anticipates the sumptuous practice of the Chandellas in particular: the
shikhara is taller, more elegantly curved than hitherto, and has central bands which penetrate up into the
zone of the amalaka's base; there is now a vestibule crowned by a high and elaborate gable composition
in which a variety of miniature shrine forms play an important part; apsaras adorn alternative facets of
octagonal pillars whose capitals incorporate graded rings, stepped friezes and convoluted brackets;
undulating arches are suspended from the columns at the entrance.
The partly excavated Gyaraspur Temple is more advanced in plan, with ambulatory as well as
vestibule and closed hall with balconies and porch making it cruciform. Its shikhara, with nine
miniature Latina forms clustered about its base, is perhaps the oldest surviving Sekhari example in the
central domain of the Pratihara Empire. The roofs of both hall and porch are Phamsana. The dado with
kaiasha and kapota is raised on a high podium.
The Ambika Matha at Jagat is an early and exquisite example of the further elaboration and
synthesis of the various elements so far encountered: five-bay mulaprasada, with ambulatory, and
equilateral projections suggesting a diagonal as well as octagonal grouping of facade elements in
response to the clustered composition of its Sekhari shikhara; Phamsana-roofed, cruciform closed hall
with richly detailed aedicule matching those of the mulaprasada; porch with high vedika, seat-like
coping and prominent chadya, elaborately carved purna-kalasha pillars with prominent bracket capitals;
five-jamb portal with niches virtually obscured by the vibrant figures spilling from them; gorgeous
ceilings; a base differentiated between the two main parts of the temple, including major and minor
padmas, karnaka or kumbha, and friezes of elephants and krittimukhas below a dado with superimposed
khura, kumbha, kalasha and kapota.
Likewise, the Vishnu and Someshwara Temples at Kiradu may be taken as representative of the
still more sumptuous culmination of the Pratihara tradition. The latter is distinguished by the octagonal
arrangement of the many-faceted pillars which define the central space of its hall. It also has one of the
earliest-known seven-bay mulaprasadas with a socle expanded to include three friezes of human figures,
horses and elephants. The slightly earlier, but equally splendid, Vishnu Temple is also notable for the
Samvarana roof of its hall - one of the earliest known examples of the type, clearly revealing its
evolution from the Phamsana form.
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1.1.13. Legacy
Pointing out the importance of the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire in the history of India, Dr. R.C.
Majumdar has observed, "The Gurjara Pratihara Empire which continued in full glory for nearly a
century, was the last great empire in Northern India before the Muslim conquest. This honour is
accorded to the empire of Harsha by many historians of repute, but without any real justification, for the
Pratihara Empire was probably larger, certainly not less in extent, rivalled the Gupta Empire and
brought political unity and its attendant blessings upon a large part of Northern India. But its chief credit
lies in its succecessful resistance to the foreign invasions from the west, from the days of Junaid. This
was frankly recognised by the Arab writers themselves."
Historians of India, since the days of Eliphinstone, have wondered at the slow progress of
Muslim invaders in India, as compared with their rapid advance in other parts of the world. Arguments
of doubtful validity have often been put forward to explain this unique phenomenon. Currently it is
believed that it was the power of the Gurjara Pratihara army that effectively barred the progress of the
Muslims beyond the confines of Sindh, their first conquest for nearly three hundred years. In the light of
later events this might be regarded as the "Chief contribution of the Gurjara Pratiharas to the history of
India".
1.1.14. Conclusion
The Pratiharas sustained the dignity of a great empire in North India for about a century and
fulfilled their duty to fight against foreign attackers. The empire of the Pratiharas proved more resilient
as compared to the Palas and the Rashtrakutas. After the fall of the empire of King Harsha, Pratiharas
played an important role in unification of Northern India. There was no dearth of genius during the reign
of Pratiharas. They were considerate towards the welfare of their subjects. The Pratihara Kings were
patrons of art and letters. Rajashekhara, the well known Sanskrit writer was renowned in the court of
Bhoja I and Mahendrapala, his son. The decline in the power and authority of Pratiharas was due to the
assault of Rashtrakutas, revolt of Vassal chiefs, and undoubtedly foray of Muslims. Towards the end of
tenth century, the prestige of the Pratiharas came to an end.
1.1.15. Summary
 The Gurjara Pratihara, often simply called Pratihara Empire, was an imperial Indian dynasty
that ruled much of Northern India from the 6th to the 11th centuries.
 Kannauj was the capital of imperial Gurjara Pratiharas. The Gurjara Pratihara rulers in the
tenth century was entitled as Maharajadhiraja of Aryavarta.
 The word "Pratihara" means protector or "who takes over the enemy or opponent" and was
used by the Gurjara-Pratihara rulers as self-designation. I
 The Pratihara rulers claim descent from the Hindu mythological character Lakshmana, who
had performed the duty of a guardian ("pratihara") for his elder brother Rama. They were thus
Suryavansh dynasty according to traditional Indology.
 Harichandra is said to have laid the foundation of this dynasty in the 6th century C.E. He
created a small kingdom at Bhinmal near about 550 C.E. after the fall of Gupta Empire.
 Nagabhata I extended his control east and south from Mandor, conquering Malwa as far as
Gwalior and the port of Bharuch in Gujarat. He established his capital at Avanti in Malwa, and
checked the expansion of the Arabs, who had established themselves in Sind.
 Nagabhata I was followed by two weak successors, who were in turn succeeded by Vatsraja
(775-805 C.E).
 Vatsraja ambitions for capturing Kannauj, brought the Pratiharas into conflict with the Pala
dynasty of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of the northern Deccan, with whom they would contest
for primacy in northern India for the next two centuries.

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  Vatsraja successfully challenged and defeated the Pala ruler Dharmapala and Danti durga the
Rashtrakuta king for control of Kannauj. In about 786 C.E the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva
crossed the Narmada River into Malwa, defeated Vatsraja and from there tried to capture
Kannauj. Vatsraja was defeated by Dhruva around 800 C.E.
 Vatsraja was succeeded by Nagabhata II. Nagabhata II was initially defeated by the
Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III, but later recovered Malwa from the Rashtrakutas, conquered
Kannauj and the Indo-Gangetic Plain as far as Bihar from the Palas, and again checked the
Muslims in the west.
 Bhoja I or Mihir Bhoja expanded the Gurjar dominions west to the border of Sind, east to
Bengal, and south to the Narmada. He was the greatest among the Pratihara rulers and was
also a great patron of art and letter.
 After Bhoja, many rulers such as Mahenderpal-I, Bhoja II, Mahipala-I, Rajapala, Trilochanpala
ruled as kings. Jasapala, was the last Gurjar ruler of Kanauj, died in 1036.
 Weak rulers provided opportunity to the feudatories of the empire, who declare their
independence. Repeated Turkis invasion also resulted in the decline of the Pratihara kingdom.
 The Gurjara-Pratihara rulers were great patrons of arts, architecture and literature. Mihir
Bhoj, was the most outstanding ruler of the dynasty. Several fine sculptures and temple at Osian
in Rajasthan speaks us about the growth of art activities under Pratihara kingdom.
 Under the Pratihara rule economic condition of people was prosperous, social life was peaceful
and religious life was harmonious.
 The Gurjara Pratihara Empire which continued in full glory for nearly a century was the last
great empire in Northern India before the Muslim conquest. The Pratihara Empire was
probably larger, certainly not less in extent, rivalled the Gupta Empire and brought political
unity and its attendant blessings upon a large part of Northern India.
 The Pratihara successfully resisted the foreign invasions from the west, from the days of Junaid,
which was frankly recognised by the Arab writers themselves.
1.1.16. Exercise
 Write an essay on the India during post Harsa period.
 Give an account on the theories of origin of the Rajput in early medieval India.
 Discuss the political history of Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty.
 Describe the socio-religiopus and economic condition of Gurjara-Pratihara Empire.
 Write a note on the Art and Architecture flourished under Gurjara-Pratihara Empire.
1.1.17. Further Readings
 Chattopadhyaya, B.D., ‗Origins of the Rajputs: The Political, Economic and Social Processes in
Early Medieval Rajasthan‘, Indian Historical Review, vol. 3, 1976, pp. 59–82.
 Chattopadhyaya, B.D., The Making of Early Medieval India, OUP, Oxford, 1994.
 D‘Souza, E., Medieval India, Manan Prakashan, Mumbai, 2004.
 Kulke, H., (ed.), The State in India 1000-1700, New Delhi, 1995.
 Majumdar, R.C., Ancient India, 6th edn, Delhi, 1971.
 Puri, B.N., The History of the Gurjara-Pratihāras, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1958.
 Ray, H.C., Dynastic History of Northern India, Early and Medieval Period, 2 Vols, Calcutta,
1931-6.
 Sharma, D.R., Rajasthan through the Ages, Bikaner, 1966.
 Sharma, R.S., Early Medieval Indian Society: A Study in Feudalisation, Hyderabad, 2001.
 Thapar, R., Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, Allen Lane, London,2002.
*****

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 Unit.1
Chapter-II
THE RASHTRAKUTAS OF MANYAKHETA
Their Role in History, Contribution to Art and Culture.
Structure
1.2.0. Objectives
1.2.1. Introduction
1.2.2. Origin of the Rashtrakuta
1.2.3. Sources of Information
1.2.4. Political History of Rashtrakutas.
1.2.4.1. Dantidurga.
1.2.4.2. Krishnaraja-I.
1.2.4.3. Govindaraja II.
1.2.4.4. Dhruvaraja
1.2.4.5. Govindaraja III
1.2.4.6. Amoghavarsha
1.2.4.7. Krishna-II
1.2.4.8. Indraraja III
1.2.4.9. Govindaraja IV.
1.2.4.10. Baddiga.
1.2.4.11. Krishnaraja III
1.2.4.12. Khottiga
1.2.4.13. Karakaraja II.
1.2.5. Rashtrakuta Administration
1.2.6. Socio-Economic Condition
1.2.7. Religion and Literature
1.2.8. Rashtrakuta Art and Architecture
1.2.9. Conclusion
1.2.10. Summary
1.2.11. Exercise
1.2.12. Further Readings

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