17: Transmission

⊲ Lines
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line
Equations +
Solution to
Transmission Line
Equations
Forward Wave
Forward + Ba kward
Waves
Power Flow
Ree tions
Ree tion 17: Transmission Lines
Coe ients
Driving a line
Multiple Ree tions
Transmission Line
Chara teristi s +
Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  1 / 13

 Transmission Lines

17: Transmission
Lines
⊲ Transmission Lines
Transmission Line
Equations +
Solution to
Transmission Line
Equations
Forward Wave
Forward + Ba kward
Waves Previously assume that any hange in v0 (t) appears instantly at vL (t).
Power Flow
Ree tions
Ree tion This is not true.
Coe ients
Driving a line
Multiple Ree tions If fa t signals travel at around half the speed of light (c = 30 m/ns).
Transmission Line
Chara teristi s +
Summary Reason: all wires have apa itan e to ground and to neighbouring
ondu tors and also self-indu tan e. It takes time to hange the urrent
through an indu tor or voltage a ross a apa itor.

A transmission line is a wire with a uniform goemetry along its length: the
apa itan e and indu tan e of any segment is proportional to its length.
We represent as a large number of small indu tors and apa itors spa ed
along the line.
The signal speed along a transmisison line is predi table.

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  2 / 13

 Transmission Line Equations +

17: Transmission
Lines A short se tion of line δx long:
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line v(x, t) and i(x, t) depend on both
⊲ Equations +
Solution to position and time.
Transmission Line
Equations
Forward Wave Small δx ⇒ ignore 2nd order derivatives:
Forward + Ba kward
Waves ∂v(x,t) ∂v(x+δx,t) ∂v
Power Flow ∂t = ∂t , ∂t .
Ree tions
Ree tion Basi Equations
Coe ients
Driving a line KVL: v(x, t) = V2 + v(x + δx, t) + V1
Multiple Ree tions KCL: i(x, t) = iC + i(x + δx, t)
Transmission Line
Chara teristi s
Summary
+ Capa itor equation: C ∂v
∂t = iC = i(x, t) − i(x + δx, t) = − ∂i
∂x δx
Indu tor equation (L1 and L2 have the same urrent):
∂i ∂v
(L1 + L2 ) ∂t = V1 + V2 = v(x, t) − v(x + δx, t) = − ∂x δx
Transmission Line Equations

C
C0 ∂v
∂t = − ∂i
∂x where C0 = δx is the apa itan e per unit length
∂i ∂v L1 +L2
L0 ∂t = − ∂x (Farads/m) and L0 = δx is the total
indu tan e per unit length (Henries/m).

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  3 / 13

[Partial Derivatives℄
When we dierentiate a fun tion of two variables, we keep one of the variables xed while dierentiating
with respe t to the other; this is alled a partial derivative and is written with a urly version of the
letter  d. Thus

∂v v(x + δx, t) − v(x, t) ∂v v(x, t + δt) − v(x, t)

, lim and , lim .
∂x δx→0 δx ∂t δt→0 δt
Higher order derivatives may be obtained by dierentiating the partial derivatives again to give

∂2v ∂2v ∂2v

     
∂ ∂v ∂ ∂v ∂ ∂v
, , , and , .
∂x2 ∂x ∂x ∂t2 ∂t ∂t ∂x∂t ∂x ∂t
Provided the se ond order partial derivatives are ontinuous, the order of dierentiation doesn't matter
2 2
∂ v ∂ v
so that
∂x∂t
= ∂t∂x
.

∂v(x,t)
+ O δx2


If we take the normal Taylor series with respe t to x, v(x + δx, t) = v(x, t) + ∂x
δx ,
and dierentiate ea h term with respe t to t, we get

∂v(x + δx, t) ∂v(x, t) ∂ 2 v(x, t)

δx + O δx2 .


= +
∂t ∂t ∂t∂x
∂v(x+δx, t) ∂v(x,t)
If δx → 0, then we get
∂t
→ ∂t
as assumed on the previous slide.

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  note 1 of slide 3

[Deriving the Transmission Line Equations℄
This note provides slightly more detail about how we derive the transmission line equations. By ex-
panding v(x + δx, t) and i(x + δx, t) as Taylor Series in x, we an write

∂v ∂i
v(x + δx, t) = v(x, t) + δx (x, t) + O(δx2 ) and i(x + δx, t) = i(x, t) + δx (x, t) + O(δx2 ).
∂x ∂x
From the diagram on the previous page, the voltage a ross the apa itor is v(x + δx, t) and so the
apa itor equation is
∂v
C (x + δx, t) = i(x, t) − i(x + δx, t).
∂t
Substituting in the Taylor series expansions for v(x + δx, t) and i(x + δx, t) and also substituting
C = C0 δx results in

∂2v
 
∂v ∂i
C0 δx (x, t) + δx (x, t) + O(δx2 ) = −δx (x, t) − O(δx2 )
∂t ∂x∂t ∂x
∂2v
 
∂v ∂i
⇒ C0 (x, t) + δx (x, t) + O(δx2 ) = − (x, t) − O(δx).
∂t ∂x∂t ∂x
Finally, we let δx → 0 and so all the terms that are O(δx) or smaller disappear whi h leaves

∂v ∂i
C0 (x, t) = − (x, t).
∂t ∂x
∂i ∂v
The indu tor equation, L0 ∂t = − ∂x , an be derived in a similar way.

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  note 2 of slide 3

 Solution to Transmission Line Equations

17: Transmission
Lines Transmission Line Equations: C0 ∂v
∂t = − ∂i
∂x
∂i
L0 ∂t ∂v
= − ∂x
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line
Equations +
Solution to
General solution: v(t, x) = f (t − ux ) + g(t + ux )
Transmission Line
⊲ Equations x
f (t− u x
)−g(t+ u )
Forward Wave i(t, x) = Z0
Forward + Ba kward
Waves q q
Power Flow 1 L0
where u= L0 C0 and Z0 = C0 .
Ree tions
Ree tion
Coe ients
Driving a line u is the propagation velo ity and Z0 is the hara teristi impedan e .
Multiple Ree tions
Transmission Line
Chara teristi s +
f () and g() an be any dierentiable fun tions.
Summary
Verify by substitution:
x x
 
∂i −f ′ (t− u )−g ′ (t+ u ) 1
− ∂x =− Z0 × u

x x
= C0 ∂v
′ ′


= C0 f (t − u) + g (t + u) ∂t

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  4 / 13

 Forward Wave

17: Transmission Suppose:

Lines
Transmission Lines u = 15 cm/ns
Transmission Line
Equations + and g(t) ≡ 0
Solution to x


Transmission Line ⇒ v(x, t) = f t − u
Equations
⊲ Forward Wave • At x = 0 m [N℄,
Forward + Ba kward f(t-0/u) f(t-45/u) f(t-90/u)
Waves vS (t) = f (t − u0 )
Power Flow
Ree tions
Ree tion • At x = 45 m [N℄, 0 2 4 6 8 10
Coe ients Time (ns)
Driving a line v(45, t) = f (t − 45
u )
Multiple Ree tions 45 45
Transmission Line f (t − u ) is exa tly the same as f (t) but delayed by
u =3 ns.
Chara teristi s +
Summary • x = 90 m [N℄, vR (t) = f (t − 90
At
u ); now delayed by 6 ns.
Waveform at x = 0 ompletely determines the waveform everywhere else.

Snapshot at t0 = 4 ns:
t = 4 ns f(4-x/u)
the waveform has just
arrived at the point
0 20 40 60 80
x = ut0 = 60 m. Position (cm)

f (t − ux ) is a wave travelling forward (i.e. towards +x) along the line.

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  5 / 13

 Forward + Ba kward Waves

17: Transmission
Lines Similarly g(t + ux ) is a wave travelling ba kwards, i.e. in the −x dire tion.
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line
Equations +
v(x, t) =
Solution to f (t − ux ) + g(t + ux )
Transmission Line
Equations
Forward Wave At x = 0 m [N℄,
Forward +
⊲ Ba kward Waves vS (t) = f (t) + g(t)
Power Flow
Ree tions
Ree tion
Coe ients At x = 45 m [N℄, g is only 1 ns behind f and they add together.
Driving a line At x = 90 m [N℄, g starts at t=1 and f starts at t = 6.
Multiple Ree tions
Transmission Line
Chara teristi s +
A verti al line on the diagram
Summary
gives a snapshot of the entire
line at a time instant t.
f and g rst meet at t = 3.5
and x = 52.5.
Magi ally, f and g pass
through ea h other entirely
unaltered.

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  6 / 13

 Power Flow

17: Transmission x

x


Lines Dene fx (t) = f t − u andgx (t) = g t + u to be the forward and
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line ba kward waveforms at any point, x.
Equations +
Solution to i is always
Transmission Line
Equations measured in the
Forward Wave
Forward + Ba kward +ve x dire tion.
Waves
⊲ Power Flow
Ree tions
Ree tion Then vx (t) = fx (t) + gx (t) ix (t) = Z0−1 (fx (t) − gx (t)).
and
Coe ients
Driving a line Note: Knowing the waveform fx (t) or gx (t) at any position x, tells you it at
Multiple Ree tions y−x

y−x


Transmission Line all other positions: fy (t) = fx t − and gy (t) = gx t + .
u u
Chara teristi s +
Summary
Power Flow

The power transferred into the shaded region a ross the boundary at x is
Px (t) = vx (t)ix (t) = Z0−1 (fx (t) + gx (t)) (fx (t) − gx (t))
fx2 (t) 2
gx (t)
= Z0 − Z0
fx arries power into shaded area and gx arries power out independently.
Power travels in the same dire tion as the wave.
The same power as would be absorbed by a [ ti ious℄ resistor of value Z0 .

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  7 / 13

 Ree tions

17: Transmission vx = fx + gx
Lines
Transmission Lines ix = Z0−1 (fx − gx )
Transmission Line
Equations +
Solution to
Transmission Line
Equations
Forward Wave
Forward + Ba kward
Waves From Ohm's law at x = L, we have vL (t) = iL (t)RL
Power Flow −1
⊲ Ree tions Hen e (fL (t) + gL (t)) = Z0 (fL (t) − gL (t)) RL
Ree tion From this: gL (t) =
RL −Z0
Coe ients RL +Z0 × fL (t)
Driving a line
Multiple Ree tions We dene the ree tion oe ient : ρL = gL (t)
fL (t) = RL −Z0
RL +Z0 = +0.5
Transmission Line
Chara teristi s + Substituting gL (t) = ρL fL (t) gives
Summary
vL (t) = (1 + ρL ) fL (t) and iL (t) = (1 − ρL ) Z0−1 fL (t)
v0(t) i0(t)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Time (ns) Time (ns)

2L 2L


At sour e end: g0 (t) = ρL f0 t − u i.e. delayed by
u = 12 ns.
Note that the ree ted urrent has been multiplied by −ρ.

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  8 / 13

 Ree tion Coe ients

17: Transmission R
−1 1
Lines ρ= R−Z0
= Z0
Transmission Lines R+Z0 R
Z0 +1
Transmission Line 0

ρ
Equations + vL (t)
Solution to f (t) = 1 + ρ
Transmission Line iL (t)Z0 -1
0 1 2 3 4 5
f (t) = 1 − ρ
Equations RZ-1
Forward Wave
0

Forward + Ba kward ρ depends on the ratio

R
Waves Z0 .
Power Flow
Ree tions R vL (t) iL (t)Z0
Ree tion Z0 ρ f (t) f (t) Comment
⊲ Coe ients
Driving a line ∞ +1 2 0 Open vL = 2f , iL ≡ 0
ir uit:
Multiple Ree tions 3 +0.5 1.5 0.5 R > Z0 ⇒ ρ > 0
Transmission Line
Chara teristi s + 1 0 1 1 Mat hed: No ree tion at all
Summary 1
3 −0.5 0.5 1.5 R < Z0 ⇒ ρ < 0
2f
0 −1 0 2 Short ir uit: vL ≡ 0, iL =
Z0

vL 1+ρ
Note: Reverse mapping is R= iL = 1−ρ × Z0
Remember: ρ ∈ {−1, +1} and in reases with R.

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  9 / 13

 Driving a line

17: Transmission
Lines
Transmission Lines vx = fx + gx
Transmission Line
Equations + ix = fxZ−g x
Solution to 0
Transmission Line
Equations
Forward Wave
Forward + Ba kward
Waves From Ohm's law at x = 0, we have v0 (t) = vS (t) − i0 (t)RS where RS is
Power Flow
Ree tions the Thévenin resistan e of the voltage sour e.
Ree tion
Coe ients Substituting v0 (t) = f0 + g0 and i0 (t) = f0 −g0
leads to:
⊲ Driving a line Z0
Multiple Ree tions
Transmission Line Z0 RS −Z0
Chara teristi s +
f0 (t) = RS +Z0 vS (t) + RS +Z0 g0 (t) , τ0 vS (t) + ρ0 g0 (t)
Summary
So f0 (t) is the superposition of two terms:

Z0
(1) Input vS (t) multiplied by τ0 = RS +Z0 whi h is the same as a
potential divider if you repla e the line with a [ ti ious℄ resistor Z0 .
(2) The in oming ba kward wave, g0 (t), multiplied by a ree tion
RS −Z0
oe ient: ρ0 = RS +Z0 .
100 20−100
For RS = 20: τ0 = 20+100 = 0.83 and ρ0 = 20+100 = −0.67.

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  10 / 13

 Multiple Ree tions

17: Transmission
Lines ρ0 = − 23
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line ρL = 12
Equations +
Solution to
vx = fx + gx
Transmission Line
Equations
Forward Wave Ea h extra bit of f0 is f 0(t)
Forward + Ba kward 2L
Waves delayed by
u (=12 ns)
Power Flow
and multiplied by ρL ρ0 :
Ree tions 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (ns)
Ree tion
Coe ients f0 (t)
Driving a line P= ∞ i i 2Li

gL(t)

Multiple i=0 τ0 ρL ρ0 vS t− u
⊲ Ree tions
Transmission Line L


Chara teristi s + gL (t) = ρL f0 t − u
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (ns)
Summary
v0(t)

v0 (t) =
L


f0 (t) + gL t − u
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (ns)

vL (t) = vL(t)

L


f0 t − u + gL (t)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (ns)

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  11 / 13

 Transmission Line Chara teristi s +

17: Transmission
Lines Integrated ir uits & Printed ir uit boards
Transmission Lines High speed digital or high frequen y analog
Transmission Line
Equations + inter onne tions
Solution to
Transmission Line Z0 ≈ 100 Ω, u ≈ 15 m/ns.
Equations
Forward Wave
Forward + Ba kward Long Cables
Waves
Power Flow Coaxial able ( oax): unaa ted by external elds;
Ree tions use for antennae and instrumentation.
Ree tion
Coe ients Z0 = 50 or 75 Ω, u ≈ 25 m/ns.
Driving a line
Multiple Ree tions Twisted Pairs: heaper and thinner than oax and
Transmission Line
⊲ Chara teristi s + resistant to magneti elds; use for omputer network
Summary
and telephone abling. Z0 ≈ 100 Ω, u ≈ 19 m/ns.

When do you have to bother?

Answer: long ables or high frequen ies. You an ompletely ignore
u
transmission line ee ts if length ≪ frequency = wavelength.
• Audio (<20 kHz) never matters.
• Computers (1 GHz) usually matters.
• Radio/TV usually matters.

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  12 / 13

[Transmission Line Grounds℄
For long oaxial or twisted pair ables, the ground wire has signi ant indu tan e and so its two ends
are not ne essarily at the same voltage. This means that vx (t), fx (t) andgx (t) are measured relative
to the ground at position x as shown. It follows that potential dieren es like vR (t) = vA (t) − vB (t)
make sense but talking about vA (t) on its own is meaningless.

Integrated ir uits and printed ir uit boards normally have a low impedan e ground plane overing
the entire ir uit; in a multilayer printed ir uit board this typi ally forms one entire layer. In this ase
we have a single ground referen e for the whole ir uit and it now makes sense to talk about the voltage
at a node and to say vR (t) = vA (t).

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  note 1 of slide 12

 Summary

17: Transmission
Lines • Signals travel at around u ≈ 21 c = 15 m/ns.
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line Only matters for high frequen ies or long ables.
Equations +
Solution to • Forward and ba kward waves travel along the line:
Transmission Line
Equations x

x


Forward Wave fx (t) = f0 t − u and gx (t) = g0 t + u
Forward + Ba kward
Waves ◦ Knowing fx and gx at any single x position tells you everything
Power Flow
Ree tions • Voltage and urrent are: vx = fx + gx and ix = fx −gx
Ree tion Z0
Coe ients
Driving a line • R at x = L links the forward and ba kward waves:
Terminating line with
Multiple Ree tions
Transmission Line
Chara teristi s +
◦ ba kward wave is gL = ρL fL where ρL = R−Z R+Z0
0

⊲ Summary ◦ the ree tion oe ient, ρL ∈ {−1, +1} and in reases with R
◦ R = Z0 avoids ree tions: mat hed termination.
◦ Ree tions go on for ever unless one or both ends are mat hed.
◦ f is innite sum of opies of the input signal delayed su essively
2L
by the round-trip delay,
u , and multiplied by ρL ρ0 .

E1.1 Analysis of Cir uits (2017-10213) Transmission Lines: 17  13 / 13