Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali (IAST: Patañjali yoga-

sūtras) is a collection of Sanskrit sutras (aphorisms) on
the theory and practice of yoga – 195 sutras (according
to Vyāsa and Krishnamacharya) and 196 sutras
(according to others, including BKS Iyengar). The Yoga
Sutras were compiled in the early centuries CE, by the
sage Patanjali in India who synthesized and organized
knowledge about yoga from much older
traditions. [1][2][3]

The Yoga Sutras is best known for its reference to

ashtanga, eight elements of practice culminating in
samadhi. The eight elements are yama (abstinences),
niyama (observances), asana (yoga posture), pranayama
(breath control), pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses),
dharana (concentration of the mind), dhyana
(meditation) and samadhi (absorption or stillness). The
main aim of practice is kaivalya, discernment of
purusha, the witness-consciousness, as distinct from Some pages from a historic Yogasutra
prakriti, the cognitive apparatus, and disentanglement of manuscript (Sanskrit, Devanagari). The verses
purusha from prakriti's muddled defilements. are highlighted and are embedded inside the
bhasya (commentary).
The Yoga Sutras built on Samkhya notions of purusha
and prakriti, and is often seen as complementary to it. It
is closely related to Buddhism, incorporating some of its terminology. Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta, as
well as Jainism and Buddhism, can be seen as representing different manifestations of a broad stream of
ascetic traditions in ancient India, in contrast to the Bhakti traditions and Vedic ritualism which were
prevalent at the time.

The contemporary Yoga tradition holds the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali to be one of the foundational texts of
classical Yoga philosophy.[4][5] However, the appropriation – and misappropriation – of the Yoga Sutras
and its influence on later systematizations of yoga has been questioned by David Gordon White,[6] who
argues that the text fell into relative obscurity for nearly 700 years
from the 12th to 19th century, and made a comeback in the late
19th century due to the efforts of Swami Vivekananda, the
Theosophical Society and others. It gained prominence as a classic
in the 20th century.[6]

Author and dating

Author
The colophons of manuscripts of the Yoga Sutras attribute the
work to Patanjali.[7][8][9][10] The identity of Patañjali has been the
subject of academic debate because an author of the same name is
credited with the authorship of the classic text on Sanskrit
Statue of Patañjali, its traditional
grammar named Mahābhāṣya that is firmly datable to the second
snake form indicating kundalini or
century BC. Although some scholars argue that this is the same an incarnation of Shesha
Patanjali who authored the Yoga Sutras, the two works are
completely different in subject matter, and Indologist Louis Renou
has shown that there are significant differences in language, grammar and vocabulary.[11] Before the time
of Bhoja (11th century), no known text conflates the identity of the two authors.[note 1]

Dating
Philipp A. Maas assessed Patañjali's Pātañjalayogaśāstra's date to be about 400 CE, based on
synchronisms between its arguments and those of Vasubandhu, on tracing the history of the commentaries
on it published in the first millennium CE, on the opinions of earlier Sanskrit commentators, on the
testimony of manuscript colophons and on a review of extant literature.[14][15] This dating for the
Pātañjalayogaśāstra was proposed as early as 1914 by Woods[16] and has been accepted widely by
academic scholars of the history of Indian philosophical thought.[17][18]

Edwin Bryant, on the other hand, surveyed the major commentators in his translation of the Yoga
Sūtras.[19] He observed that "Most scholars date the text shortly after the turn of the Common Era (circa
first to second century), but that it has been placed as early as several centuries before that."[20] Bryant
concluded that "A number of scholars have dated the Yoga Sūtras as late as the fourth or fifth century CE,
but these arguments have all been challenged. ... All such arguments [for a late date] are problematic."[21]

Michele Desmarais summarized a wide variety of dates assigned to Yogasutra, ranging from 500 BCE to
3rd century CE, noting that there is a paucity of evidence for any certainty. She stated the text may have
been composed at an earlier date given conflicting theories on how to date it, but latter dates are more
commonly accepted by scholars.[22]

Compilation
The Yoga Sutras are a composite of various traditions.[2][3][1] The levels of samādhi taught in the text
resemble the Buddhist jhanas.[23][24] According to Feuerstein, the Yoga Sutras are a condensation of two
different traditions, namely "eight limb yoga" (aṣṭāṅga yoga) and action yoga (Kriya yoga).[25] The kriya
yoga part is contained in chapter 1, chapter 2 sutras 1–27, chapter 3 except sutra 54, and chapter 4.[2] The
"eight limb yoga" is described in chapter 2 sutras 28–55, and chapter 3 sutras 3 and 54.[2]

There are numerous parallels in the ancient Samkhya, Yoga and Abhidharma schools of thought,
particularly from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century AD, notes Larson.[26] Patanjali's Yoga Sutras
may be a synthesis of these three traditions. From the Samkhya school of Hinduism, Yoga Sutras adopt
the "reflective discernment" (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism,
and its three epistemic methods to gaining reliable knowledge.[26] From Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of
nirodhasamadhi, suggests Larson, Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness.
However, unlike Buddhism, which avoids stating whether self and soul exist, Yoga is physicalist and
realist, like Samkhya, believing that each individual has a self and soul.[26] The third concept that Yoga
Sutras synthesizes into its philosophy is the ancient ascetic traditions of isolation, meditation and
introspection, as well as the yoga ideas from the 1st millennium BCE Indian texts such as Katha
Upanishad, Shvetashvatara Upanishad and Maitri Upanishad.[26]

According to Wujastyk, referencing Maas, Patanjali integrated yoga from older traditions in
Pātañjalayogaśāstra, and added his own explanatory passages to create the unified work that, since 1100
CE, has been considered the work of two people.[1] Together the compilation of Patanjali's sutras and the
Vyasabhasya, is called Pātañjalayogaśāstra.[27]

Yogabhashya
The Yogabhashya is a commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali, traditionally attributed to the
legendary Vedic sage Vyasa who is said to have composed the Mahabharata. This commentary is
indispensable for the understanding of the aphoristic and terse Yoga sutras, and the study of the sutras has
always referred to the Yogabhashya.[28] Some scholars see Vyasa as a later 4th or 5th century AD
commentator (as opposed to the ancient mythic figure).[28]

Vyasa is, however, not the only commentator on the text. Another well-known commentator on the Yoga
Sutras is Vachaspati Mishra, who had also written commentaries on other schools of Indian philosophy
such as Vedanta, Samkhya, Nyaya, and Mimamsa. After Vyasa, it is believed that Vachaspati Mishra’s
commentary is the "next most authoritative."[29] Other commentators include Bhoja Rāja, Vijñānabhikṣu,
and Rāmānanda Sarasvatī. Vijñānabhikṣu, according to Bryant, wrote the "most insightful and useful
commentary after that of Vyasa's." Bhoja Rāja and Rāmānanda Sarasvatī's commentaries follow the
previous commentaries, without expanding much on what their predecessors have said. Hariharānanda
Āraṇya, in contrast to the above figures, is a modern commentator on the text. Bryant explains that, even
though "his is a standpoint exposed to Western thought", it is still "thoroughly grounded in tradition".[30]

Scholars hold that both texts, the sutras and the commentary were written by one person. According to
Philipp A. Maas, based on a study of the original manuscripts, Patañjali's composition was entitled
Pātañjalayogaśāstra ("The Treatise on Yoga according to Patañjali") and consisted of both Sūtras and
Bhāṣya. This means that the Bhāṣya was in fact Patañjali's own work.[31]

The practice of writing a set of aphorisms with the author's own explanation was well known at the time
of Patañjali, as for example in Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośabhāṣya (that, incidentally, Patañjali quotes).
These research findings change the historical understanding of the yoga tradition, since they allow us to
take the Bhāṣya as Patañjali's very own explanation of the meaning of his somewhat cryptic
sūtras.[31][note 2]
The Yogabhashya states that 'yoga' in the Yoga Sutras has the meaning of 'samadhi'. Another commentary
(the Vivarana) by a certain Shankara, confirms the interpretation of yogah samadhih (YBh. I.1): 'yoga' in
Patañjali's sutra has the meaning of 'integration'.[32] This Shankara may or may not have been the famed
Vedantic scholar Adi Shankara (8th or 9th century). Scholarly opinion is still open on this issue.[28]

Contents

Patañjali divided his Yoga Sutras into four chapters or books (Sanskrit Pada), containing in all 196
aphorisms, divided as follows:[33][34]

Samadhi Pada
Samadhi Pada[35][36] (51 sutras). Samadhi is a state of direct and reliable perception
(pramāṇa) where "the seer" (Purusha, pure consciousness, the Self) abides in itself.
Samadhi is the main technique the yogi learns by which to calm the workings of the mind,
whereafter Kaivalya, the isolation of 'the seer' from the impurities of the mind, is attained.
The author describes yoga and then the nature and the means of attaining samādhi.

This chapter contains the famous definitional verse (YS 1.2): "Yogaś citta-vritti-
nirodhaḥ" ("Yoga is the restriction of the fluctuations of mindstuff").[35] When the mind
is stilled, the seer or real Self is revealed:

1.3. Then the Seer is established in his own essential and fundamental nature.
1.4. In other states there is assimilation (of the Seer) with the modifications (of
the mind).[37]

YS 1.33–39 mentions seven practices to still the mind, the seventh being meditative
absorption (YS 1.39), which is further explained in YS 1.40–51 and YS 3.1–12.
YS 1.23 offers an alternative, less arduous method to attain samadhi via the path of
bhakti, or surrender to Ishvara. Some scholars believe this to be Patanjali's "favored"
approach.[38]

Sadhana Pada
Sadhana Pada[35][36] (55 sutras). Sadhana is the Sanskrit for "practice" or "discipline,"
aiming at discriminative discernment, to discern the Seer (consciousness) from its objects
and the hindrances. Here the author outlines two systems of Yoga: Kriyā Yoga and Aṣṭāṅga
Yoga ('Eightlimbed Yoga').

Kriya Yoga

Kriyā Yoga in the Yoga Sūtras is a preparation for Aṣṭāṅga Yoga (with three special
elements of the Niyamas (2nd limb)):[39]

2.3 tapas – austerity[39]

2.4 svādhyāya – self-study of the scriptures[39]
 2.5 īśvara praṇidhāna – devotion to god or pure consciousness[39]

Ashtanga Yoga

Aṣṭānga Yoga is the yoga of eight limbs. In chapter 2, five "indirect aids" for
purification and aiding insight are outlined:

1. Yama – restraints or ethics of behaviour; Yama consists of:

1.1 Ahimsa (Non violence)

1.2 Satya (Truthfulness)
1.3 Asteya (Non stealing)
1.4 Brahmacharya (Chastity)
1.5 Aparigraha (Non possession)

2. Niyama – observances; Niyama consists of:

2.1 Saucha (Cleanliness)

2.2 Santosha (Contentment)
2.3 Tapas (Austerity)
2.4 Svadhyaya (Selfstudy)
2.5 Ishvara Pranidhana (Devotion to the Lord)

3. Āsana – A physical posture in which one can be steady and comfortable.[40]

4. Prāṇāyāma – control of the prana(breath)
5. Pratyahara – withdrawal of the senses
6. Dhāraṇā – concentration
7. Dhyāna – meditation
8. Samādhi – absorption

Vibhuti Pada
Vibhuti Pada[35][36] (56 sutras).[41] Vibhuti is the Sanskrit word for "power" or
"manifestation". In chapter 3, the last three limbs of Aṣṭānga Yoga, known as samyama, are
outlined:

6. Dhāraṇā - concentration
7. Dhyāna – meditation
8. Samādhi – absorption

Besides insight into pure awareness (purusha), samyama gives 'supra-normal powers'
(Sanskrit: siddhi), as the yogi gains access to and unites with the tattvas, the constituents
of prakriti.[42] The text warns (III.38) that these powers can become an obstacle to the yogi
who seeks liberation.

Kaivalya Pada
Kaivalya Pada[35][36] (34 sutras). Kaivalya, "isolation", of the Seer from the contents of the
mind so it is no longer disturbed by the movements of the mind. It stands for emancipation
 or liberation, and is used where other texts often employ the term moksha (liberation). The
Kaivalya Pada describes the process of liberation and the reality of the Seer.

Philosophy

Metaphysics
The metaphysics of Patanjali is built on the same dualist foundation as the Samkhya school.[web 1] The
universe is conceptualized as of two realities in Samkhya-Yoga schools: Puruṣa (consciousness) and
prakriti (mind, cognition, emotions, and matter). It considers consciousness and matter, self/soul and
body as two different realities.[43][44] Jiva (a living being) is considered as a state in which puruṣa is
bonded to prakriti in some form, in various permutations and combinations of various elements, senses,
feelings, activity and mind.[45] During the state of imbalance or ignorance, one of more constituents
overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage. The end of this bondage is called Kaivalya, liberation,
or moksha by both Yoga and Samkhya school.[46] The ethical theory of Yoga school is based on Yamas
and Niyama, as well as elements of the Guṇa theory of Samkhya.[web 1]

Patanjali adopts the theory of Guṇa from Samkhya.[web 1] Guṇas theory states that three gunas (innate
tendency, attributes) are present in different proportions in all beings, and these three are sattva guna
(goodness, constructive, harmonious), rajas guna (passion, active, confused), and tamas guna (darkness,
destructive, chaotic).[47][48] These three are present in every being but in different proportions, and the
fundamental nature and psychological dispositions of beings is a consequence of the relative proportion
of these three gunas.[web 1] When sattva guna predominates in an individual, the qualities of lucidity,
wisdom, constructiveness, harmony, and peacefulness manifest themselves; when rajas is predominant,
attachment, craving, passion-driven activity and restlessness manifest; and when tamas predominates in
an individual, ignorance, delusion, destructive behavior, lethargy, and suffering manifest. The theory
underpins the philosophy of mind in the Yoga school of Hinduism.[web 1]

Soteriology

According to Bryant, the purpose of

yoga is liberation from suffering, by 1.2. Yoga is the inhibition of the modifications of the mind.
means of discriminative 1.3. Then the Seer is established in his own essential and
discernment. The eight limbs are fundamental nature.
"the means of achieving 1.4. In other states there is assimilation (of the Seer) with the
discriminative discernment," the modifications (of the mind).
"uncoupling of puruṣa from all
connection with prakṛti and all Yoga Sutra of Patanjali[37]
involvement with the citta." Bryant
states that, to Patanjali, Yoga-
practice "essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free
from all modes of active or discursive thought, and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is
unaware of any object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed
with any other object."[49][50]
While the Samkhya school suggests that jnana (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha, Patanjali
suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's
approach to knowledge is the path to moksha.[web 1] Patanjali holds that avidya, ignorance is the cause of
all five kleshas, which are the cause of suffering and saṁsāra.[web 1] Liberation, like many other schools,
is removal of ignorance, which is achieved through discriminating discernment, knowledge and self-
awareness. The Yoga Sūtras is the Yoga school's treatise on how to accomplish this.[web 1] Samādhi is the
state where ecstatic awareness develops, state Yoga scholars, and this is how one starts the process of
becoming aware of Purusa and true Self. It further claims that this awareness is eternal, and once this
awareness is achieved, a person cannot ever cease being aware; this is moksha, the soteriological goal in
Hinduism.[web 1]

Book 3 of Patanjali's Yogasutra is dedicated to soteriological aspects of yoga philosophy. Patanjali begins
by stating that all limbs of yoga are a necessary foundation to reaching the state of self-awareness,
freedom and liberation. He refers to the three last limbs of yoga as samyama, in verses III.4 to III.5, and
calls it the technology for "discerning principle" and mastery of citta and self-knowledge.[51][52] In verse
III.12, the Yogasutras state that this discerning principle then empowers one to perfect sant (tranquility)
and udita (reason) in one's mind and spirit, through intentness. This leads to one's ability to discern the
difference between sabda (word), artha (meaning) and pratyaya (understanding), and this ability
empowers one to compassionately comprehend the cry/speech of all living beings.[53][54] Once a yogi
reaches this state of samyama, it leads to unusual powers, intuition, self-knowledge, freedoms and
kaivalya, the redemptive goal of the yogi.[53]

Epistemology
The epistemology in Patanjali's system of Yoga, like the Sāmkhya school of Indian philosophy, relies on
three of six Pramanas, as the means of gaining reliable knowledge.[55] These included Pratyakṣa
(perception), Anumāṇa (inference) and Sabda (Āgama or Āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable
sources).[56][57][58]

Patanjali's system, like the Samkhya school, considers Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam (direct sense perception),
Anumāna (inference), and Śabda or Āptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the only
valid means of knowledge or Pramana.[56] Unlike few other schools of Hinduism such as Advaita
Vedanta, Yoga did not adopt the following three Pramanas: Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy),
Arthāpatti (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive
proof).[57]

Of the three pramanas that it accepts as valid, pratyakṣa (perception) is the most important according to
Yoga Sutras. It is superior to the other two sources because testimony (sabda) and inference (anumāna)
are ultimately dependent on a prior perception. Bryant distinguishes Yoga school from the Vedānta,
Nyaya and Mīmāṃsā in their prioritizing of different pramanas. The Mīmāṃsā school prioritizes
testimony and the Nyaya school prioritizes inference. The Vedānta school has as its main source
testimony from the Upaniṣads, whereas the Yoga school ascribes supreme authoritativeness to "direct,
personal experience". Bryant argues that because of its favoring of direct experience the Yoga Sutras will
"remain a perennial source of interest to the empirical dispositions of the modern world".[58]

God
Patanjali differs from the closely related non-theistic/atheistic Samkhya school by incorporating what
some scholars have called a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god"
(Ishvara).[59][60][61][62] Hindu scholars such as the 8th century Adi Sankara, as well as many modern
academic scholars describe Yoga school as "Samkhya school with God."[60][63][64]

The Yogasutras of Patanjali use the term Isvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45.
Ever since the Sutra's release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is Isvara?
These commentaries range from defining Isvara from a "personal god" to "special self" to "anything that
has spiritual significance to the individual".[60][65] Whicher states that while Patanjali's terse verses can
be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of Isvara in Yoga philosophy functions
as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".[66]
Whereas the purusa (spirit, or true self) of the yogin is bound to the prakriti – the material body subject to
karmas and kleshas, the special purusa called Isvara is immaterial and ultimately free.

Patanjali defines Isvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self/Spirit (पुरुषविशेष,
puruṣa-viśeṣa)."[67][note 3]} This sutra adds the characteristics of Isvara as that special Self/Spirit which
is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, klesha), one's circumstances
created by past or one's current actions (कर्म, karma), one's life fruits (विपाक, vipâka), and one's
psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).[69][70]

Philosophical roots and influences

The Yoga Sutras incorporated the teachings of many other Indian
philosophical systems prevalent at the time. According to Zimmer,
Samkhya and Yoga are two of several schools of philosophy that
originated over the centuries that had common roots in the pre-
Aryan cultures and traditions of India.[71][note 4][note 5] Yet, the
orthodox Hindu philosophies of Samkhya, Yoga, Vedānta, as well
as the non-orthodox Nastika systems of Jainism and Buddhism
can all be seen as representing one stream of spiritual activity in
ancient India, in contrast to the Bhakti traditions and Vedic
ritualism which were also prevalent at the same time. The
Vedanta-Sramana traditions, iconolatry and Vedic rituals can be
identified with the Jnana marga, Bhakti marga and the Karma The fusion of Dharana, Dhyana and
marga respectively that are outlined in the Bhagavad Gita. Samadhi is Samyama – the path to
Kaivalya in Yoga school.

Samkhya
The Yoga Sutras are built on a foundation of Samkhya philosophy, and are generally seen as the practice
while Samkhya is the theory. The influence of Samkhya is so pervasive in the Sutras that the historian
Surendranath Dasgupta went so far as to deny independent categorization to Patañjali's system, preferring
to refer to it as Patanjala Samkhya, similar to the position taken by the Jain writer Haribhadra in his
commentary on Yoga.[75] Patañjali's Yoga Sutras accept the Samkhya's division of the world and
phenomena into twenty-five tattvas or principles, of which one is Purusha meaning Self or
consciousness, the others being Prakriti (primal nature), Buddhi (intellect or will), Ahamkara (ego),
Manas (mind), five buddhindriyas (sensory capabilities), five karmendriyas (action-capabilities) and ten
elements.[76][77] The second part of the Sutras, the Sadhana, also summarizes the Samkhya perspectives
about all seen activity lying within the realm of the three Gunas of Sattva (illumination), Rajas (passion)
and Tamas (lethargy).[78]

The Yoga Sutras diverge from early Samkhya by the addition of the principle of Isvara or God, as
exemplified by Sutra 1.23 – "Iśvara pranidhãnãt vã", which is interpreted to mean that surrender to God is
one way to liberation.[76][79] Isvara is defined here as "a distinct Consciousness, untouched by afflictions,
actions, fruitions or their residue".[80] In the sutras, it is suggested that devotion to Isvara, represented by
the mystical syllable Om may be the most efficient method of achieving the goal of Yoga.[81] This
syllable Om is a central element of Hinduism, appearing in all the Upanishads, including the earliest
Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka Upanishads, and expounded upon in the Mandukya Upanishad.[82]

Another divergence from Samkhya is that while the Samkhya holds that knowledge is the means to
liberation, Patañjali's Yoga insists on the methods of concentration and active striving. The aim of Yoga is
to free the individual from the clutches of the matter, and considers intellectual knowledge alone to be
inadequate for the purpose – which is different from the position taken by Samkhya.[76]

However, the essential similarities between the Samkhya and Patañjali's system remained even after the
addition of the Isvara principle,[83] with Max Müller noting that "the two philosophies were in popular
parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...."[84] The
Bhagavad Gita, one of the chief scriptures of Hinduism, is considered to be based on this synthetic
Samkhya-Yoga system.[85][86]

The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali is a foundational text of the Yoga philosophy school of Hinduism.[4][5]

Buddhism
While there are differences between Buddhist tenets and the views presented in the Yoga Sutras, scholars
have noted striking similarities between Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and the teachings in Buddhist
texts.[87][88][89]

Karel Werner writes, "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes
there is much in the Yoga Sutras that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the Pāli Canon and even
more so from the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and from Sautrāntika."[90] He adds, "upon the whole it
[Patanjali's Yoga sutras] is more elaborate and summarizes the actual technique of Yoga procedures more
exactly than the Buddhist exposition".[91] However, states Werner, "The Buddha was the founder of his
system, even though, admittedly, he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under
various Yoga teachers of his time. Patanjali is neither a founder nor a leader of a new movement. (...) The
ingenuity of his [Patanjali's] achievement lies in the thoroughness and completeness with which all the
important stages of Yoga practice and mental experiences are included in his scheme, and in their
systematic presentation in a succinct treatise."[91] Werner adds that the ideas of existence and the focus on
"Self, Soul" in Patajali's Yogasutra are different from the "no Self" precepts of Buddhism.[92]

According to David Gordon White, the language of the Yoga Sutras is often closer to "Buddhist Hybrid
Sanskrit, the Sanskrit of the early Mahayana Buddhist scriptures, than to the classical Sanskrit of other
Hindu scriptures".[93] He adds, historical evidence suggests that yoga philosophical systems influenced,
and were influenced by, other philosophical systems in India such as early Buddhism and Jainism.[94]
White mentions controversies about the Yoga Sutras.[87] A significant minority of scholars, notes White
for example, believes that Vyasa lived a few centuries after Patanjali and his "Hindu-izing" commentary
subverted Yoga Sutras' original "Buddhist" teachings; while the majority scholarly view disagrees with
this view.[95]

Scholars also note differences between the conceptual frameworks of the Yoga Sutras and those in
Buddhist texts.[88][89] Robert Thurman writes that Patañjali was influenced by the success of the Buddhist
monastic system to formulate his own matrix for the version of thought he considered orthodox.[96] The
Yoga Sutra, especially the fourth segment of Kaivalya Pada, contains several polemical verses critical of
Buddhism, particularly the Vijñānavāda school of Vasubandhu.[97]

Barbara Miller also notes numerous similarities the difference between Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and
teachings in Buddhist texts:

In Samkhya and Yoga, as in Buddhism and Jainism, the most salient characteristic of existence
is duhkha or suffering. According to Buddhism, the origin of suffering is desire; according to
Yoga, it is the connection between the observer (Purusha) with the observed (Prakrti). In both
systems, the origin of duhkha is ignorance. There are also similarities in the means of
deliverance recommended by the two systems. In Buddhism, the aspirant is asked to follow the
eightfold path, which culminates in right meditation or samadhi. In Yoga, the aspirant is asked
to follow a somewhat different eight fold path, which also culminates in samadhi.[88]

Miller also notes differences between Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and teachings in Buddhist texts:

..the aim of yoga meditation is conceived in terms that a Buddhist would not accept: as the
separation of an eternal conscious self from unconscious matter. The purpose of Patanjali's
Yoga is to bring about this separation by means of understanding, devotion and practice."[88]

According to Michele Desmarias, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras accept the concept of a Self or soul behind the
operational mind, while Buddhists do not accept such a Self exists. The role of Self is central to the idea
of Saṃyoga, Citta, Self-awareness and other concepts in Chapters 2 through 4 of the Yoga sutras,
according to Desmarias.[89]

Jainism
The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali bear an uncanny resemblance to the five
major vows of Jainism, indicating influence of Jainism.[98][99][100] Three other teachings closely
associated with Jainism also make an appearance in Yoga: the doctrine of "colours" in karma (lesya); the
Telos of isolation (kevala in Jainism and Kaivalyam in Yoga); and the practice of nonviolence (ahimsa),
though nonviolence (ahimsa) made its first appearance in Indian philosophy-cum-religion in the Hindu
texts known as the Upanishads [the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE, one of the
oldest Upanishads, has the earliest evidence for the use of the word Ahimsa in the sense familiar in
Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (sarvabhuta) and the practitioner of
Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of metempsychosis/reincarnation (CU 8.15.1).[101] It also names
Ahimsa as one of five essential virtues].[102]

Influence
The contemporary Yoga tradition holds the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali to be one of the foundational texts of
classical Yoga philosophy.[4][5] However, the appropriation – and misappropriation – of the Yoga Sutras
and its influence on later systematizations of yoga has been questioned by David Gordon White,[6] who
has argued that the text fell into relative obscurity for nearly 700 years from the 12th to 19th century, and
made a comeback in late 19th century due to the efforts of Swami Vivekananda, the Theosophical Society
and others. It gained prominence as a classic in the 20th century.[6] Its influence was reaffirmed by James
Mallinson.[103]

Before the 20th century, history indicates that the medieval Indian yoga scene was dominated by the
various other texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Vasistha, texts attributed to Yajnavalkya and
Hiranyagarbha, as well as literature on hatha yoga, tantric yoga and Pashupata Shaivism yoga rather than
the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali.[104] Much about yoga is written in the Mokṣadharma section of the epic
Mahābhārata.[105] The members of the Jaina faith had their own, different literature on yoga,[106] and
Buddhist yoga stems from pre-Patanjali sources.[107]

Some of the major commentaries on the Yoga Sutras were written between the ninth and sixteenth
century.[108] After the twelfth century, the school started to decline, and commentaries on Patanjali's Yoga
philosophy were few.[108] By the sixteenth century Patanjali's Yoga philosophy had virtually become
extinct.[108] The manuscript of the Yoga Sutras was no longer copied, since few read the text, and it was
seldom taught.[109]

According to David Gordon White, the popularity of the Yoga Sutras is recent, "miraculously
rehabilitated" by Swami Vivekananda after having been ignored for seven centuries.[110] It was with the
rediscovery by a British Orientalist in the early 1800s that wider interest in the Yoga Sutras arose in the
West.[109] Popular interest arose in the 19th century, when the practice of yoga according to the Yoga
Sutras became regarded as the science of yoga and the "supreme contemplative path to self-realization"
by Swami Vivekananda, following Helena Blavatsky, president of the Theosophical Society.[111] It has
become a celebrated text in the West, states White, because of "Big Yoga – the corporate yoga
subculture".[110]

Translations and commentaries

The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali was the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been
translated into about forty Indian languages and two non-Indian languages: Old Javanese and Arabic.[110]

In early 11th century, the Persian scholar Al Biruni (973–1050 CE) visited India, lived with
Hindus for 16 years, and with their help translated several significant Sanskrit works into
Arabic and Persian languages. One of these was Patanjali's Yogasutras. His translation
included the text and a thitherto unknown Sanskrit commentary.[28][112][113] Al Biruni's
translation preserved many of the core themes of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism, but certain
 sutras and analytical commentaries were restated making it more consistent with Islamic
monotheistic theology.[112][114] Al Biruni's version of Yoga Sutras reached Persia and
Arabian peninsula by about 1050 AD.
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali was translated into Old Javanese by Indonesian Hindus, and
the text was called Dharma Patanjala.[115] The surviving text has been dated to about 1450
CE; however, it is unclear if this text is a copy of an earlier translation and whether other
translations existed in Indonesia. This translation shares ideas found in other Indian
translations particularly those in the Śaiva traditions, and some in Al Biruni translation, but it
is also significantly different in parts from the 11th century Arabic translation.[115] The most
complete copy of the Dharma Patañjala manuscript is now held at the Staatsbibliothek in
Berlin.[116]
By the early 21st century, scholars had located 37 editions of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras published between
1874 and 1992, and 82 different manuscripts, from various locations in India, Nepal, Pakistan, Europe
and the United States, many in Sanskrit, some in different North and South Indian languages.[117][118]
The numerous historical variants show that the text was a living document and it was changed as these
manuscripts were transmitted or translated, with some ancient and medieval manuscripts marked with
"corrections" in the margin of the pages and elsewhere by unknown authors and for unclear reasons. This
has made the chronological study of Yoga school of philosophy a difficult task.[117]

Many commentaries have been written on the Yoga Sutras.[note 6]

Medieval commentaries
Medieval commentaries on the Yoga sutras include:

Vyasa (AD 4th or 5th Century), as mentioned above, has been attributed authorship of the
commentary Yogabhāṣya, the first medieval commentary on the Yoga Sutras, and the one
upon which all subsequent medieval commentaries were based. However, some scholars
have argued that this commentary was written by Patanjali himself.[119]
Adi Shankara (AD 8th Century) is said to have authored the commentary Vivaraṇa, although
the authorship of this commentary is debated.[120]
Vācaspati Miśra (AD 900–980) who composed the commentary Tattvavaiśāradī, described
as the "most significant early subcommentary".[121]
Bhoja Raja's Raja-Martanda, 11th century.
Vijnanabhiksu's 16th century Yogabhashyavarttika or simply Yogavarttika ("Explanation of
the Commentary on the Yoga Sutras" of Vyasa). The writer was a Vaishnava philosopher
and exegete who tried to harmonize Samkhya and Vedanta and held the Bhedabheda
view.[28]
Ramananda Sarasvati's Yogamani-Prabha (16th century).

Modern translations and commentary

Countless commentaries on the Yoga Sutras are available today. The Sutras, with commentaries, have
been published by a number of successful teachers of Yoga, as well as by academicians seeking to clarify
issues of textual variation. There are also other versions from a variety of sources available on the
Internet.[note 7] The many versions display a wide variation, particularly in translation. The text has not
been submitted in its entirety to any rigorous textual analysis, and the contextual meaning of many of the
Sanskrit words and phrases remains a matter of some dispute.[122] Modern translations and interpretations
include:

1852, 1853: First translation of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali in English containing first two
chapters by J.R. Ballantyne published by The Benaras College, in 1872 Govind Deva
Shastri completed remaining two chapters.
1882, 1885:The whole complete book was published in 1882 and final revised edition
published in 1885. The Yoga Philosophy with comments of Bhojaraja, J.R Ballantyne,
Govind Shastri Deva, edited by Tookaram Tatya, Bombay Theosophical publication fund.
1883: Yoga Aporhism of Patanjali with the commentary of Bhoja Raja by Rajendra Lala
Mitra, Asiatic Society of Bengal
1890: The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali, by Manilal Nabhubhai Dvivedi, Bombay Theosophical
publication fund.
1896: Swami Vivekananda, Raja Yoga provides translation and an in-depth explanation of
Yoga Sutra.
1907: Ganganath Jha's Yoga Sutras with the Yogabhashya attributed to Vyasa into English
in its entirety.[123] With notes drawn from Vācaspati Miśra's Tattvavaiśāradī amongst other
important texts in the Yoga commentarial tradition.
1912: Charles Johnston Dublin University: The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: The Book of the
Spiritual Man (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Yoga_Sutras?uselang=ja).
1914: The Yoga System of Patanjali with comment of Yoga Bhasya and explanation of Tatva
Vicardi by James Haughton Woods, Harvard University Press
1924: Patanjali Yoga Sutras with commentary of Vyasa and gloss of Vachaspati Mishra by
Rama Prasad
1953: Swami Prabhavananda, Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras, India.
1961: I. K. Taimni, The Science of Yoga (https://archive.org/details/TheScienceOfYoga)
commentary with Sutras in Sanskrit and translation and commentary in English.[124][125]
1963: Swami Hariharananda Aranya's Bhasvati.
1976: Swami Satyananda, Four Chapters of Freedom. Yoga Publications Trust, Munger,
Bihar, India.[126]
1978: Swami Satchidananda, The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Integral Yoga, Yogaville.
1978: P. Y. Deshpande, The Authentic Yoga, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: A Heartfulness
publication in January 2021
1989: Georg Feuerstein, The Yoga-Sûtra of Patanjali: A New Translation and Commentary,
Inner Traditions International; Rochester, Vermont.
1993: B. K. S. Iyengar, Light on the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali. HarperCollins.
1996: Barbara Stoler Miller, The Yoga Sutras Attributed to Patanjali; "Yoga – Discipline of
Freedom. University of California Press, Berkeley.
1998: Osho, The Path of Yoga: Commentaries on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, Rebel
Publishing House, Mumbai, India.
2002: Alistair Shearer (https://alistairshearer.co.uk/), The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali,
Goodreads[127]
2003: Chip Hartranft, The Yoga-Sutra of Patanjali: A New Translation with Commentary,
Shambhala Classics, Boulder, Colorado.
2009: Edwin F. Bryant's The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: A New Edition, Translation, and
Commentary. North Point Press, New York.
2013: Swami Kriyananda, Demystifying Patanjali: The Yoga Sutras – The Wisdom of
Paramhansa Yogananda. Crystal Clarity Publishers, Nevada City.
 2022: Viswanatha Thalakola, The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Made Simple. Amazon KDP
Select, Seattle.[128]
2023: Anandmurti Gurumaa, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Goodreads.[129]
2023: Ravi Shankar, Patanjali Yoga Sutras.[130]

See also

Hinduism portal

India portal

Patanjali
Samkhya

Notes
1. Radhakrishnan and Moore attribute the text to the grammarian Patañjali, dating it as 2nd
century BC, during the Maurya Empire (322–185 BC).[12] Scholars such as S.N. Dasgupta,
(Yoga-As Philosophy and Religion Port Washington: Kennikat Press, 1924) claim this is the
same Patañjali who authored the Mahabhasya, a treatise on Sanskrit grammar. For an
argument about the philosophical nature of Sanskrit grammarian thought see: Lata, Bidyut
(editor); Panini to Patañjali: A Grammatical March. New Delhi, 2004. Against these older
views, Axel Michaels disagrees that the work was written by Patañjali, characterizing it
instead as a collection of fragments and traditions of texts stemming from the 2nd or 3rd
century.[13]
2. See James Woods, The yoga-system of Patañjali; or, The ancient Hindu doctrine of
concentration of mind, embracing the mnemonic rules, called Yoga-sutras, of Patañjali, and
the comment, called Yoga-bhashya (1914), archive.org (https://archive.org/details/yogasyste
mofpata00wooduoft) for a complete translation
3. क्लेशकर्मविपाकाशयैरपरामृष्टः[68] पुरुषविशेष ईश्वरः ॥२४॥
4. Zimmer: "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the
cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India –
being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya,
and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems."[72]
5. Zimmer's point of view is supported by other scholars, such as Niniam Smart, in Doctrine
and argument in Indian Philosophy, 1964, p.27-32 & p.76,[73] and S.K. Belvakar & R.D.
Ranade in History of Indian philosophy, 1974 (1927), p.81 & p.303-409.[74]
6. For an overview of the scope of earlier commentaries: Complete Commentary by Sankara
on the Yoga Sutras: Vivarana Sub-commentary to Vyasabhasya on the Yoga Sutras of
Patanjali Tr.fr. Sanskrit, Trevor Leggett, Rev. Ed. Routledge (1990) ISBN 978-0-7103-0277-
9.
7. A list of 22 Classical commentaries can be found among the listings of essential Yoga texts
at mantra.org).Mantra.org.in, Fundamental Texts of Yoga (http://www.mantra.org.in/yoga/my
web/fundamental_texts_of_yoga.htm)

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3. Tola, Dragonetti & Prithipaul 1987, p. x.
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9004212145, p. 195.
6. White 2014, p. xvi–xvii.
7. Tola, Dragonetti & Prithipaul 1987, p. xi.
8. Surendranath Dasgupta (1992). A History of Indian Philosophy (https://books.google.com/bo
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12. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1989, p. 453.
13. Michaels 2004, p. 267.
14. Maas, Philipp André; Patañjali; Hazel M. Hussong Fund (2006). Samādhipāda: das erste
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24. Crangle 1984, p. .
25. Feuerstein 1978, p. 108, Quote: "As I have shown in my own detailed examination of the
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On the one hand there is the Yoga of eight limbs or ashta-anga-yoga (written
ashtângayoga), and on the other, there is the Yoga of Action (kriyâ-yoga).".
26. Larson, pp. 43–45
27. Wujastyk 2011, p. 32-33.
28. Bryant, Edwin F. The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary;
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31. Maas 2006.
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33. Woods 2003, p. .
34. Iyengar 2002, p. .
35. Woods 2003.
36. Iyengar 2002.
37. Taimni 1961, p. 16-17.
38. Bryant 2009, p. 161.
39. "Intro Yoga Philosophy and Patanjali: What Is Kriya Yoga?" (https://www.yogajournal.com/yo
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41. Griffin, Mark (2 January 2012). Shaktipat: The Doorway to Enlightenment (https://books.goo
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42. Jacobsen 2011, p. 6.
43. Haney 2002, p. 17.
44. Isaac & Dangwal 1997, p. 339.
45. Samkhya – Hinduism (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/520526/Samkhya)
Encyclopædia Britannica (2014)
46. Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and
Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 36–47
47. Alban Widgery (1930), The principles of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, Vol.
40, No. 2, pages 234–237
48. James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen
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49. Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (http://www.iep.utm.e
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50. Bryant 2009, p. 10.
51. The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa – Book 3 (https://archiv
e.org/stream/yogadaranasutra00patagoog#page/n112/mode/2up) GN Jha (Translator);
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52. Gregor Maehle (2007), Ashtanga Yoga: Practice & Philosophy, ISBN 978-1577316060,
pages 237–238
53. The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa – Book 3 (https://archiv
e.org/stream/yogadaranasutra00patagoog#page/n126/mode/2up) GN Jha (Translator);
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54. The Yoga Philosophy (https://archive.org/stream/yogaphilosophyb00tatygoog#page/n158/m
ode/2up) TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives,
pages 108–109
55. John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in
English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238
56. Larson 1998, p. 9.

57. Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy
Perrett), Routledge, ISBN 978-0815336112, pages 245–248;
John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in
English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238
58. Bryant 2009, pp. 35–37.
59. Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience,
Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, page 39-41
60. Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga
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62. Roy Perrett (2007), Samkhya-Yoga Ethics, Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and
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Routledge, ISBN 978-0415648875, pages 31–46
65. *Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Parabhaktisutra, Aporisms on Sublime Devotion,
(Translator: A Chatterjee), in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math
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Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa Principle, in Divine
Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126–129
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67. Sanskrit Original with Translation 1: The Yoga Philosophy (https://archive.org/stream/yo

gaphilosophyb00tatygoog#page/n6/mode/2up) TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja
commentary; Harvard University Archives;
Translation 2: The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa (http
s://archive.org/stream/yogadaranasutra00patagoog#page/n4/mode/2up) GN Jha
(Translator), with notes; Harvard University Archives;
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00pata#page/n5/mode/2up) Charles Johnston (Translator)
68. पातञ्जलयोगप्रदीप, गीताप्रेस गोरखपुर, page 198
69. aparAmRSTa (http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=aparAmRSTa&script=&direction=S
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71. Zimmer 1951, p. 217, 314.
72. Zimmer 1951, p. 217.
73. Crangle 1994, p. 7.
74. Crangle 1994, p. 5-7.
75. p222. A history of Indian philosophy, Volume 1 By Surendranath Dasgupta
76. Indian Philosophy Vol 2, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. p.314
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78. Reconciling yogas: Haribhadra's collection of views on yoga. By Christopher Chapple,
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80. Reconciling yogas: Haribhadra's collection of views on yoga. By Christopher Chapple,
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provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its
elements, analyzing their manner of co-operation in a state of bondage ("bandha"), and
describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release ("mokṣa"), while Yoga
treats specifically of the dynamics of the process for the disentanglement, and outlines
practical techniques for the gaining of release, or "isolation-integration" ("kaivalya").
84. Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy," p. 104.
85. "Samkhya: Right Understanding – The Teachings of the Bhagavadgita – Chapter 3" (http://w
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Experience, New York University Press, ISBN 978-0814736500, pages 136–142
89. Michele Desmarais (2008), Changing Minds: Mind, Consciousness And Identity In
Patanjali'S Yoga-Sutra, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120833364, pages 72–81 with
footnotes
90. Karel Werner (1994), The Yogi and the Mystic. Routledge, ISBN 978-0700702725, page 26
91. Karel Werner (1998), Yoga and the Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-
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120–125, 139–145
93. White 2014, p. 10.
94. White 2014, p. 19.
95. White 2014, pp. 40–41, Quote: "A significant minority opinion, however, maintains that
Vyasa lived several centuries later, and that his "Hindu-izing" commentary, rather than
elucidating Patanjali’s text, actually subverted its original "Buddhist" teachings.".
96. Robert Thurman, The Central Philosophy of Tibet. Princeton University Press, 1984, page
34.
97. An outline of the religious literature of India, By John Nicol Farquhar p.132
98. Christopher Chapple (2008) Yoga and the Luminous: Patanjali's Spiritual Path to Freedom
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99. Zydenbos, Robert. Jainism Today and Its Future. München: Manya Verlag, (2006) p.66
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104. White 2014, p. xvi–xvii, 20–23.
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106. Williams, R. (1998). Jaina Yoga. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-8120807754.
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109. White 2014, p. 16.
110. White 2014, p. xvi.
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Yogasūtra (https://www.jstor.org/stable/611180), Bulletin of the School of Oriental and
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able/1579273), Oriens, Vol. 9, No. 2 (31 December 1956), pages 165–200 (in German)
114. Maas 2013, pp. 53–90.
115. Andrea Acri (2012), Yogasūtra 1.10, 1.21–23, and 2.9 in the Light of the Indo-Javanese
Dharma Pātañjala, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Volume 40, Issue 3, pages 259–276
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light of related old Javanese and Sanskrit texts, Doctoral dissertation, Leiden University
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117. Philipp Maas (2010), On the Written Transmission of the Pātañjalayogaśāstra (https://www.a
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Printed sources

Bryant, Edwin F. (2009), The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation and
Commentary, New York: North Point Press, ISBN 978-0865477360
Crangle, Eddie (1984), "A Comparison of Hindu and Buddhist Techniques of Attaining
Samādhi" (http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Articles/A%20Comparison%20of%2
0Hindu%20and%20Buddhist%20Techniques%20of%20Attaining%20Samadhi_Crangle_198
4.pdf) (PDF), in Hutch, R. A.; Fenner, P. G. (eds.), Under The Shade of the Coolibah Tree:
Australian Studies in Consciousness, University Press of America
Crangle, Edward Fitzpatrick (1994), The Origin and Development of Early Indian
Contemplative Practices, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag
Feuerstein, Georg (1978), Handboek voor Yoga (Dutch translation; English title "Textbook of
Yoga", Ankh-Hermes
Haney, William S. (2002), Culture and Consciousness: Literature Regained (https://books.go
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ISBN 1611481724
Isaac, J. R.; Dangwal, Ritu (1997), Proceedings. International conference on cognitive
systems (https://books.google.com/books?id=V9Z0dFN3DN0C), New Delhi: Allied
Publishers, ISBN 81-7023-746-7
Iyengar, B. K. S. (2002), Light on the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali, HarperCollins UK, ISBN 978-
0-00-714516-4
Jacobsen, Knut A., ed. (2011). Yoga Powers (https://books.google.com/books?id=rHXQsZiz
7PoC). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-9004212145.
Larson, Gerald James (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and
Meaning (https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih2aGLp4d1gC), London: Motilal
Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8
Maas, Philipp A. (2006), Samādhipāda. Das erste Kapitel des Pātañjalayogaśāstra zum
ersten Mal kritisch ediert. (Samādhipāda. The First Chapter of the Pātañjalayogaśās-tra for
the First Time Critically Edited)., Aachen: Shaker
 Maas, Philipp A. (2013). "A Concise Historiography of Classical Yoga Philosophy". In
Franco, Eli (ed.). Periodization and Historiography of Indian Philosophy (https://www.acade
mia.edu/3520571). Wien: "Sammlung de Nobili, Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Indologie und
Religionsforschung", Institut für Südasien-, Tibet- und Buddhismuskunde der Universität.
ISBN 978-3-900271-43-5. OCLC 859540980 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/859540980).
[twelve lectures held at the fourteenth World Sanskrit Conference (Kyoto, September 1–5,
2009)]
Mallinson, James; Singleton, Mark (2017). Roots of Yoga. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-241-
25304-5. OCLC 928480104 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/928480104).
Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press. ISBN 978-0-691-08953-9.
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Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, C. A. (1989) [1957]. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy (https://
archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
ISBN 978-0-691-01958-1.
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dies.org/wp-content/uploads/Science_of_Yoga-Taimni.pdf) (PDF)
Tola, Fernando; Dragonetti, Carmen; Prithipaul, K. Dad (1987), The Yogasūtras of Patañjali
on concentration of mind, Motilal Banarsidass
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Yoga, SUNY Press
White, David Gordon (2011), Yoga, Brief History of an Idea (Chapter 1 of "Yoga in practice")
(http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i9565.pdf) (PDF), Princeton University Press
White, David Gordon (2014), The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography, Princeton University
Press, ISBN 978-0691143774
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, translated by Woods, James Haughton, Courier Dover
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Web sources

1. Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (http://www.iep.utm.e
du/yoga/) IEP

General references

Müeller, Max (1899). Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and
Vaiseshika. Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7661-4296-1. Reprint edition;
Originally published under the title of The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy.
Ranganathan, Shyam (2008). Patañjali's Yoga Sūtra: Translation, Commentary and
Introduction. Delhi: Penguin Black Classics. ISBN 978-0-14-310219-9.
Sen, Amiya P. (2006). "Raja Yoga: The Science of Self-Realization". The Indispensable
Vivekananda. Orient Blackswan. pp. 219–227. ISBN 978-81-7824-130-2.
Sharma, Chandradhar (1987). An Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0365-7.
Vivekananda, Swami (1980). Raja Yoga. Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center. ISBN 0-
911206-23-X.
 Wood, Ernest (1951). Practical Yoga, Ancient and Modern, Being a New, Independent
Translation of Patanjali's Yoga Aphorisms. Rider and Company.

Further reading

History

White, David Gordon (2014). The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14377-4.

Translations

Bryant, Edwin F. (2009) The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. New York: North Point Press.
ISBN 978-0-86547-736-0

Practice and commentaries

Iyengar, B.K.S. (1993, 2002). Light on the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali. Hammersmith, London,
UK: Thorsons. ISBN 978-0-00-714516-4

External links
Overview

Edwin Bryant, The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (http://www.iep.utm.edu/yoga/), IEP

Manuscripts

Manuscript (https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b100839498) (Alfred Foucher) from

Bibliothèque Nationale de France

Translations

James Woods, The yoga-system of Patañjali; or, The ancient Hindu doctrine of
concentration of mind; Yoga-sutras, of Patañjali (1914) (https://archive.org/stream/yogasyste
mofpata00wooduoft#page/n5/mode/2up) Harvard University Press
The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali (http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/yogasutr.htm), translation by
BonGiovanni, at sacred-texts.com

Commentaries

Yoga Sutras with commentaries by Vyasa and Vachaspati Mishra (https://www.wisdomlib.or

g/hinduism/book/yoga-sutras-with-commentaries) English translation by Rama Prasada,
1925 (includes glossary and Sanskrit text references)
Patañjali – Yoga-Sutras: A word by word translation with grammar and comment (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20120202032732/http://www.ashtangayoga.info/philosophy/yoga-sutra-P
ata%C3%B1jali/)
Works by or about Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28Pata
njali+OR+Patañjali%29) at the Internet Archive
"The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (https://iep.utm.edu/yoga/)" Rutgers University
 "The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali | 195 Sutra - Chanting (Sanskrit) : By Vimal Sharma. (https://y
ogasutra195.com/)" Yoga Sutras of Sage Patanjali

Audiobooks

Yoga Sutras (https://librivox.org/search?title=Yoga+Sutras&author=Patanjali&reader=&ke

ywords=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=cat
alog_date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced) public domain audiobook at LibriVox

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