chapter1-kinematics_of_particles

Institute of health and safety-BATNA 2 MECHANICS OF PARTICLES
R
D DJIMLI Lynda Chapter I : Kinematics of particles
Chapter contents
1- Position vector in the diffrent coordinate systems ( cartesian, polar, cylindical and
spherical ).
2- Velocity and acceleration in diffrent coordinate systems.
3- Curvilinear coordinate
4- Relative motion
I. GENERALITIES
Kinematics is a part of mechanics dealing with the movement of bodies, without entering
into the relationship between the movement of the examined body (in particular of the point)
and the forces acting on it. In the case of kinematics, we will consider what happens to the
body in space over time. We will describe this type of relationship as the geometry of motion.
I-1 Time axis
Generally, time is always on the x-axis, because it allows for other quantities to be represented
as functions of time, which is useful in physics. Time is also, in most cases, independent of
other variables, which conventionally means that it should be on the x-axis.
Time axis
Figure1 Time axis
I-2 Reference frame ( frame of reference )
A frame of reference is needed to describe an object’s motion. It comprises a coordinate

system and a clock used to establish factors like location and velocity of moving objects. In
such frames, the three dimensions are commonly defined by means of axes and time with a
clock.
In the physical world, the frame of reference of an object is defined by the coordinate system
attached to it. The choice of the frame depends upon the problem at hand.
What is Frame of Reference?
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A frame of reference is a set of coordinate axes that define the position of a particle in two- or
three-dimensional space. The Cartesian coordinate system is the most basic frame of
reference, in which a particle’s position is specified by three coordinates x,y, and z.
Figure2 Reference frame

I-3 Movement of the body
Changing the position of this body in relation to another one taken from a stationary body
(reference body). In the case of mechanics, the Earth is usually taken as the reference frame.
I-4 Reference system

A system that is fixed and bound to a reference body. The most common reference system is
a rectangular coordinate system ( Cartesian system) .
x, y, z-coordinates of the moving point M with respect to the fixed coordinate system
(reference system).
I-5 Equations of trajectory
A trajectory is a path taken up by a moving particle that is following through space as a

function of time. Mathematically, a trajectory is described as a position of an object over a
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particular time. In order to describe the movement of this particle, it is necessary to determine
how particular coordinates change with time.
x = f (t ) , y = g (t ) , z = h (t )
We will call the above equations the kinematic equations of motion. In these equations the
time is a parameter. After removing time, we get the relations between the x, y, z coordinates
(i.e. the path of motion) called the equation of trajectory.
Path
Projection on the xoy plane
Figure 3 Trajectory of M
I-6 Position vector
The position vector of a particle is a vector drawn from the origin of the reference frame to
the particle. It expresses both the distance of the point M from the origin O and its direction
from the origin. In three dimensions, the position vector can be expressed as :
Where x , y , and z are the coordinates and is the orthonormal base of the
reference frame . The magnitude of the position vector gives the distance between
the point M and the origin O.
In general, an object's position vector will depend on the frame of reference; different frames
will lead to different values for the position vector.
I-7 Displacement vector
- Distance: Is the length of the path travelled by an object between two points in
space. From its definition, the distance is a scalar and it is always a positive quantity.
- Displacement: Is the change in the position of a particle . If at time 𝑡 = 𝑡1 𝑡he
object is at position 𝑂𝑀 , and at a later time 𝑡 = 𝑡2 ˃ 𝑡1 the object is at
position𝑂𝑀 ′. The displacement vector is defined as 𝑀𝑀′
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𝐌 𝐭𝟏
𝑂𝑀
𝑀𝑀′
𝑂𝑀 ′
𝐌′ 𝐭 𝟐
Figure 4 Displacement vector

I-8 Velocity :
Velocity is a crucial topic in physics. Many qualities of a body, such as kinetic energy is
influenced by its velocity. The term velocity describes how quickly or slowly an object is
moving. It can be defined as the rate of change of the object’s position with respect to
time and frame of reference. It is critical to have a thorough knowledge of the notions of
instantaneous velocity and average velocity.
Average Velocity
The average velocity is calculated by dividing the change in total displacement by the
total time taken. The average velocity of an item is always less than or equal to its average
speed :
∆𝑂𝑀
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡
Instantaneous Velocity
The rate of change of position over a relatively short time span is called instantaneous
velocity or the velocity of an object at that instant of time. The instantaneous velocity may be
calculated by multiplying the object’s instantaneous speed by the direction in which it is
traveling at the time.
It’s also calculated as the average velocity divided by the minimum period. The ratio of
total displacement to total time can be used to compute average velocity. The displacement is
proportional to the time interval. The limit of this ratio between time and displacement is
known as instantaneous velocity.
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∆𝑂𝑀
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
Then :
𝑑𝑂𝑀
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
Where :
𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 : is Instantaneous velocity at time t
𝑂𝑀 : denotes position vector
t : denotes time
I-9 Acceleration
Acceleration is the change in velocity divided by a period of time during which the change
occurs. The SI units of velocity are m/s and the SI units for time are s, so the SI units for
acceleration are m/s2. Average acceleration is given by
∆𝑉
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡
Average acceleration is distinguished from instantaneous acceleration, which is acceleration at
a specific instant in time.
∆𝑉
𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = lim∆𝑡→0
∆𝑡
Then :
𝑑𝑉
𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
Attention !
Speed and velocity both measure an object’s rate of motion. However, speed is a scalar
quantity, which means that it can be described with a numerical value. Velocity is a vector
quantity, which depends on direction as well as magnitude.
- speed : the rate of distance traveled by a moving object over time

- velocity : the rate of displacement of a moving object over time
Basically, an object’s speed tells you how fast it’s going. Its velocity tells you how fast it’s going
in a certain direction. You use speed measurements in your daily life, but physicists depend
on velocity measurements more frequently in their work.
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II- COORDINATE SYSTEMS
II-1 Cartesian coordinate system

In the reference frame a particle is identified by its space coordinates
corresponding to the algebraic measure of the projection of M successively on the 3
axes of the reference frame. These 3 coordinates are of the same nature and homogeneous at
a length.
The orthonormal base associated with this axis system is denoted . It is
a basis that does not change over time: these vectors keep the same direction and the same
norm over time. We still say that the base is fixed in the frame. These vectors can be
represented anywhere in space but in general they are represented at the origin point O.
Knowing the position vector also makes it possible to locate the particle M. The
components of this vector, in the Cartesian base correspond to the coordinates
of the point M:
are the Cartesian coordinates of the point M .

are the components of the position vector in the Cartesian basis.
Velocity
The position vector is a function of time and the instantaneous velocity

then corresponds to the time derivative of the position vector:
Important :
The velocity vector is a vector tangent to the trajectory at the point considered.
Trajectory of the particle M
Figure 5 Velocity
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The base is made up of “fixed” vectors in the reference frame: their

direction, their direction, their norm do not change over time. Using the expression of the
position vector in Cartesian coordinates and the rules for deriving a sum of functions, we
have:
Note: By convention and to simplify the expression, the “derivation of a variable with
respect to time” is noted by the variable surmounted by a point for the first derivative, 2
points for the second derivative, etc :
The value corresponds to the magnitude of the velocity :
Acceleration :
The acceleration vector corresponds to the time derivative of the velocity, that is to say
also to the second derivative of the position vector:
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II-2 Polar coordinate system ( in a plan )

The particle is perfectly located if we know the distance (Greek letter
rho) and the angle (Greek letter theta) that the segment makes with the axis (see figure)
Cercle of
radius R=1
Figure 6 : the polar coordinates and the associated basis
The length of the segment corresponds to the radial coordinate ( denoted or

). The angle is the angular coordinate. This angle is measured relative to the abscissa
axis
The position vector can be written :

The unit vector is according to the direction O to M : it is the radial vector (according to
the radius).
A new direct orthonormal basis ( ) is obtained by associating with the unit vector
directly perpendicular (in the trigonometric sense): it is the orthoradial vector (perpendicular
to the radius)
The base of the polar coordinate system is a base defined from the position
of the particle . If the point M is moving the vector ( and therefore ) changes
direction: the base is “mobile” in the frame. These vectors can be represented anywhere in
space but they are often represented either at the origin O point or at the point M itself.
Relation between polar coordinates an cartesian ones

With the notations in Figure 3, the relationships between the Cartesian and polar
coordinate systems are:
Cartesian polar crossing
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Velocity
The base ( ) is made up of “moving” vectors in the frame: these vectors change
direction over time. Using the expression of the position vector in polar coordinates and the
rules for deriving a product of functions, we have:
From the expression of the vector , it appears as a function of the angular coordinate
itself a function of time during the movement of the particle M.
The derivation of a compound function allows us to write:
The quantity characterizes the variation of the polar angle over time and corresponds to the
definition of angular speed (rad/s). It is often noted (Greek letter omega) and is expressed in
radian/second. Using the expression again, the speed is then written:
The quantities and are respectively the radial and orthoradial components of the
velocity in the polar base.
Acceleration
From the definition of the acceleration vector and the expression of the velocity we have:
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Using the usual rules for deriving a product and the expressions above we have :
By grouping and ordering the different results we obtain the expression:
The first term : corresponds to the radial component of the acceleration

called the Normal acceleration denoted aN
Le second terme corresponds to the orthoradiale component called

the Tangential acceleration denoted aT
II-3 Cylindrical coordinates
To obtain the cylindrical coordinate system, simply complete the polar coordinate
system in the plane( ) with a third axis .
Figure 7: cylindrical system and its associated basie
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The projection of on the axis gives the dimension z . The projection P of the point
M in the plane is located in polar coordinates .
The cylindrical coordinates of are :
The compenents of the position vector sont : .
Velocity
Simply add the component along the axis to the polar coordinate system to obtain
the expression of the velocity. The basis vector does not depend on time we have:
Acceleration
Simply add the term corresponding to the derivation of the rating and we have:
II-4 Spherical coordinates

Spherical coordinates (see figure 8 ) allow you to locate a point on a sphere of radius
It is typically the location of a point on the Earth for which it is then sufficient to specify two
angles: latitude and longitude.
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Figure 8 : the spherical system and its associated base
Spherical coordinates :
- The radial coordinate corresponds to the distance from the origin O of the
mark to the point M.
- The angular coordinate corresponds to the angle which made OM with the
axis Oz . This angle, between 0 and , is called colatitude (complementary
angle of latitude) or zenith.
- The angular coordinate corresponds to the angle made by the plane defined
by the axis Oz and OM with the axis Ox. This angle, between 0 and , is
called longitude or azimuth.
Spherical basis
The position vector is used to define the first vector of the base:
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- The unit vector is according to the direction from O to M : it is the radial

vector (according to the radius).
- When only the angle varies , the point M describes a semi-circle of radius
The unit vector is tangent to this semicircle.
- When only the angle varies the point describes a circle of radius .
The unit vector is tangent to this circle (following a parallel) oriented like .
The vectors form a direct orthonormal basis. This base is “mobile” in the
reference frame.
Velocity
The expression of the velocity can be obtained from the expression of the elementary
displacement . Using Figure 9, an elementary movement can be devided into:
- Radial elementary displacement according to (the point moves away
from the origin) The radial coordinate changes from to
- Elementary displacement according to ( the point moves on the meridian)
The colatitude changes from to .
- Elementary displacement according to (the point moves
along the parallel) The longitude changes from to .
We therefore obtain the expression:
Relation between spherical coordinates an cartesian ones

The projection of the point on the axis gives :
if is the projection of on the plan we have :

the coordinates and of the point are those of the point so :
The unit vector according to has the expression :
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the unit vector est directement perpendiculaire à . It do the angle with the
axis and can be written as :
The unit vector has the expression :
And finally , the unit vector is directly orthogonal to and written :
Then the expression of the velocity will be done by :
Acceleration
The acceleration vector corresponds to the time derivative of the velocity, that is to say also to
the second derivative of the position vector :
The acceleration in spherical coordinates is written in the form :
𝑎 = 𝑟 − 𝑟𝜃 2 − 𝑟 𝜑2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑢𝑟 + 𝑟𝜃 + 2𝑟 𝜃 − 𝑟𝜑 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑢𝜃

+ 𝑟𝜑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 2𝑟𝜑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 2𝑟𝜃𝜑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑢𝜑
II-5 Curvilinear coordinate

When we vary the position of the point M in an elementary way by describing the
trajectory, the curvilinear abscissa of the point M goes from s to s + ds between the instant
t and the instant t + dt (see figure 11). The elementary displacement of the point M is tangent
to the trajectory and is then written:
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Trajectory of M
Figure 9 : Déplacement élémentaire dans le repère de Frenet
The velocity has the expression :
The quantity corresponds to the algebraic value of the velocity (positive if the point
moves in the chosen positive direction)
In the Frenet base the speed is written:
And the acceleration :
The expression of the acceleration in the Frenet base is :
Noticed
We can verify that this result is always true whatever the concavity of the trajectory.
- The normal component of the acceleration is always positive: it is always

turned towards the center of curvature of the trajectory at the point considered.
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It indicates that the direction of the speed vector changes and is all the more important
as the radius of curvature RC is small (sharp turn). If the movement is rectilinear
(infinite radius of curvature) this term is zero.
- The tangential component of the acceleration indicates whether the value of

the speed changes. If the movement is uniform this term is zero.
Figure 10 : Frenet base and elementary displacement
III MOVEMENTS
III-1 Rectilinear Movement
III-1-1 Uniform Rectilinear Movements URM :

A body has constant velocity motion or uniform rectilinear motion when its trajectory
is a straight line and its velocity is constant. This implies that it covers equal distances in equal
times.
It is characterized by:
- a rectilinear trajectory (a straight line)

- a constant speed (v = cte)
- zero acceleration (a = 0)
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Velocity vector characteristics for uniform rectilinear motion
Its norm is constant and equal to the initial speed at the origin of the times: v = v 0 .
Its direction is constant and corresponds to the direction of the movement
Position of a point in uniform rectilinear motion
Since the movement takes place along a straight line we can choose a reference in
which the latter coincides with the abscissa axis. We then have OM = x
Since in this case the speed of the point M corresponds to the derivative of its abscissa x as a
function of time then reciprocally the abscissa x corresponds to an antiderivative of the speed
The time equation of the position is written :
So generally :
We distinguish two cases:
- if the speed is oriented in the same direction as the abscissa axis then vo > o and the
abscissa is an increasing function.
- if the speed vo is oriented in the direction opposite to the abscissa axis then vo < o and
the abscissa is a decreasing function.
Acceleration of a point in uniform rectilinear motion

Acceleration is the time derivative of the velocity. The latter beingconstant then its derivative
is zero. The acceleration is therefore zero: a = 0
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Graphs to describe URM :
x[ m]
x(t0)
III-1-2 Uniformly Varied Rectilinear Motion (UVRM)

The accelerated movement is a movement in which velocity changes with time. If there
is an increase in velocity, the acceleration is positive and If the velocity diminishes, the
acceleration is negative (deceleration).
Characteristics of the acceleration vector for uniformly varied rectilinear motion
Its norm is constant and equal to the initial acceleration: a = a 0. Its direction corresponds to
that of the movement.
Speed of a uniformly varied moving point
Since acceleration corresponds to the time derivative of speed , then speed is a primitive of
acceleration:
ax=
The speed of a point in uniformly accelerated motion is therefore a function of time:
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v = axt + vo where ax = a0 is the acceleration at t = 0 s

vo is the speed at t = 0 s
Remarks
If the speed is zero at t = 0 then the speed is a linear function of time
Position of a point in uniformly varied motion
Since velocity is a time derivative of position , then position is a primitive of velocity.
v = axt + vo
Therefore the primitive corresponding to the abscissa has the form:
x = ½ axt2 + vot + x0
With ax = a0 acceleration of the mobile
vo initial speed at t = 0
x0 initial abscissa at t = 0
Graphs to describe UVRM :
x[ m]
x(t0)
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III-2 Circular movement

The trajectory of the point is a circle characterized by its center O and its radius R . It
is logical to choose the origin of the reference frame in the center of the circle and the axis Oz
perpendicular to the plane containing the trajectory. The polar coordinate system is well
suited for this type of movement. The time equations of motion can be written = const
and The shape of the function will qualify the type of circular motion.
Depending on the form of the function the movement will be said to be circular and:
• Uniform if and = constante
• Uniformly varied (accelerated or decelerated) if = constant either and
 Sinusoïdal if
III-2-1 Uniform Circular Movement UCM :

The time equation is obtained by integration of the equation :
With, at the initial moment (initial elongation),

We have:
The velocity is written
Figure 11: Velocity and acceleration in the case of uniform circular motion
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The acceleration is written

The expression for the acceleration vector is simplified. The angular speed being constant,
the tangential component of the acceleration vector is zero. All that remains is the normal
component:
III-2-2 Uniformly Varied Circular Motion: UVCM

The kinematic characteristics of uniformly varied circular motion are: (the angular
acceleration is constant and is equal to the initial angular acceleration).
The time equation for elongation is then obtained by integrating the time equation for angular
velocity:
Which gives :
The linear velocity is written using the expression in polar coordinates which gives:
This result can be found using the expression for the speed in polar coordinates by setting
.
The derivative of the velocity vector reveals two terms.
We have the linear acceleration:
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Figure 12: Velocity and acceleration vectors in the case of an UVCM.
IV- RELATIVE MOTION
Consider :
- R a fixed reference frame

- R1, a movining reference frame
- A particle M, in motion, defined by its coordinates ( x,y,z ) in the frame R and by
( x1, y1, z1) in the frame R1
By changing coordinates we can go from the movement of M relative to R1 to the movement

of M relative to R.
Simply apply the vector relationship: 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑂𝑂1 +𝑂1𝑀
To study this movement, we use the following definitions:
- R is the absolute reference or absolute frame of reference and ; the movement of

point M relative to “R” is called absolute movement.
- R1 is the relative reference or relative frame of reference and ; the movement of point
M relative to “R1” is called relative movement.
- The movement of “R1” relative to “R” is called drive movement
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Reference frame definitions
- Inertial Reference Frame: An inertial reference frame is non-accelerating and non-

rotating. For now, we will also assume that it is non-moving.
- Non-Inertial Reference Frame: A non-inertial reference frame has an origin that
accelerates and/or axes that rotate.
- Body-fixed Reference Frame: A body-fixed reference frame is fixed to a body that is
usually moving.
R1
Composition of velocities :
We have :
Va is the absolute velocity of M
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We know that in the reference frame R1:
Then :
Is the absolute velocity
Is the relative velocity
Composition of accelerations
𝑎𝑎
𝑎𝑎
𝑎𝑎
→ →
𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑟
→ 24
𝑎𝑐
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Motion Relative to Translating Axes

In the course so far particle motion has been described using position vectors that were
referred to fixed reference frames. The positions, velocities and accelerations determined in
this way are referred to as absolute. Often it isn’t possible or convenient to use a fixed set of
axes for the observation of motion. Many problems are simplified considerably by the use of
a moving reference frame.
In the following we will restrict our attention to moving reference frames that translate but do
not rotate.
Consider two particles A and B moving along independent trajectories in the plane, and a
fixed reference O. Let rA and rB be the positions of particles A and B in the fixed reference.
Instead of observing the motion of particle A relative to the fixed reference as we have done
in the past, we will attach a non-rotating reference to particle B and observe the motion of A
relative to the moving reference at B.
We define its speed with respect to B to be :
Where
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The speed of B relative to the observer O :
And we define its speed with respect to A to be :
Then :
Note that , that is to say that the speed of A relative to B is equal to the speed
of B relative to A, but the two speeds are in opposite directions.
We obtain the two relative accelerations of the two moving material points by time deriving ,
each of the two expressions of the relative speeds posed previously:
𝑑𝑉𝐵
− 𝑑𝑡
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𝑑𝑉 𝐵𝐴 𝑑𝑉 𝐵 𝑑𝑉 𝐴
𝑎𝐵𝐴 = = −
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Here too, it should be noted that 𝑎𝐵𝐴 = −𝑎𝐴𝐵 that is to say that the two accelerations are
equal but in opposite directions.
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Institute of health and safety-BATNA 2 MECHANICS OF PARTICLES

I-1 Time axis

A frame of reference is needed to describe an object’s motion. It comprises a coordinate

Figure2 Reference frame

I-4 Reference system

I-5 Equations of trajectory

A trajectory is a path taken up by a moving particle that is following through space as a

Projection on the xoy plane

Figure 4 Displacement vector

𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 : is Instantaneous velocity at time t

𝑂𝑀 : denotes position vector

- speed : the rate of distance traveled by a moving object over time

II- COORDINATE SYSTEMS

II-1 Cartesian coordinate system

are the Cartesian coordinates of the point M .

The position vector is a function of time and the instantaneous velocity

Trajectory of the particle M

The base is made up of “fixed” vectors in the reference frame: their

The value corresponds to the magnitude of the velocity :

II-2 Polar coordinate system ( in a plan )

Figure 6 : the polar coordinates and the associated basis

The length of the segment corresponds to the radial coordinate ( denoted or

The position vector can be written :

Relation between polar coordinates an cartesian ones

By grouping and ordering the different results we obtain the expression:

The first term : corresponds to the radial component of the acceleration

Le second terme corresponds to the orthoradiale component called

II-3 Cylindrical coordinates

Figure 7: cylindrical system and its associated basie

The cylindrical coordinates of are :

The compenents of the position vector sont : .

II-4 Spherical coordinates

Figure 8 : the spherical system and its associated base

- The unit vector is according to the direction from O to M : it is the radial

Relation between spherical coordinates an cartesian ones

if is the projection of on the plan we have :

The unit vector according to has the expression :

The unit vector has the expression :

And finally , the unit vector is directly orthogonal to and written :

Then the expression of the velocity will be done by :

The acceleration in spherical coordinates is written in the form :

𝑎 = 𝑟 − 𝑟𝜃 2 − 𝑟 𝜑2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑢𝑟 + 𝑟𝜃 + 2𝑟 𝜃 − 𝑟𝜑 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑢𝜃

II-5 Curvilinear coordinate

Figure 9 : Déplacement élémentaire dans le repère de Frenet

The velocity has the expression :

In the Frenet base the speed is written:

And the acceleration :

The expression of the acceleration in the Frenet base is :

- The normal component of the acceleration is always positive: it is always

- The tangential component of the acceleration indicates whether the value of

Figure 10 : Frenet base and elementary displacement

III-1 Rectilinear Movement

III-1-1 Uniform Rectilinear Movements URM :

- a rectilinear trajectory (a straight line)

Velocity vector characteristics for uniform rectilinear motion

Its direction is constant and corresponds to the direction of the movement

Position of a point in uniform rectilinear motion

We distinguish two cases:

Acceleration of a point in uniform rectilinear motion

Graphs to describe URM :