CLICK HERE 🎠 GET PREMIUM

Biology
 THE OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

• The topography of Ethiopia is largely determined by the

• The uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian swell and the subsequent outpouring,

spreading and thick accumulation of Trapean lava have given rise to an
outward sloping highland plateau and mountains.
• The major faulting resulted in the division of the plateau into two broad units
and the formation of a great structural valley.
• Faulting elsewhere and on the floor guided part of the course of some rivers.
• They also formed depressions on which lakes were subsequently created.
• Geomorphic processes brought some modification to the structural landform by
river dissection and roughening on the highlands, and deposition on the lower
areas.
General Characteristics of the Ethiopian Physiography
• The Ethiopian landform is characterized by great diversity.
• There are flat-topped plateaus, high and rugged mountains,
deep river gorges and vast plains.
• Altitude ranges from 125 meters below sea level (Kobar Sink) to
the highest mountain in Ethiopia, Mount Ras Dashen (4,620
m.a.s.l), which is the fourth highest mountain in Africa.
• Ethiopia has the largest proportion of elevated landmass in the
African continent.
• It is sometimes described as the Roof of East Africa
.
• More than 50% of the Ethiopian landmass is above 1,000 meters
of elevation; and above 1,500 meters makes 44% of the country.
• Half of this, in turn, is at more than 2,000 meters above sea level.
• Most of the Ethiopian Highlands are part of central and northern
Ethiopia, and its northernmost portion extends into Eritrea.
❑ The highland core, on the other hand, is encircled by
semi-arid and lowlands.
❑ The Ethiopian Highlands are rugged mass of mountains,
situated in the Horn of Africa.
❑ They are the most significant physical features of the
country, which form the largest continuous area of its
elevation in the continent.
❑ They have been dissected by several rivers and ravines
which have cut deep gorges.
❑ They have been divided into several regions and
mountain systems.
❑ Most of the country consists of high plateau and
mountain ranges that are sources of many rivers and
streams that made the country to be described as the
“Water Tower of East Africa”.
• The diversity in topography is accompanied
by differences in other natural features
such as soil, climate, vegetation and wild
life.
• Likewise, the socio-cultural and economic
phenomena are also affected by the
topography.
• Taking the 1,000 meters contour line for the
highland-lowland demarcation, one observes
the following contrasting features between
the Ethiopian highlands and lowlands:
Characteristics of Ethiopian highlands:
▪ Moderate and high amount of rainfall
(>600 mm per year).
▪ Lower mean annual temperature (<200C).
▪ The climate is favourable for biotic life.
▪ Rain-fed agriculture is possible.
▪ Free from tropical diseases.
▪ Attractive for human habitation and
densely settled.
❑The cumulative effect of all this is that, the
highlands have been significant throughout
Ethiopian history in the economic, cultural and
political life of the people.
❑These highlands make up nearly 56% of the area
of the Ethiopia.
❑This is further subdivided into
( ), which make up 35% and
m.a.s.l) constituting
nearly 22%.
• In contrast to the highlands, the remaining 44% of
the Ethiopian lowlands are characterized by:
❖Fewer amounts of rainfall and higher temperature.
❖High prevalence of tropical diseases.
❖Lower population densities.
❖Nomadic and semi-nomadic economic life.
❖Vast plain lands favorable for irrigation agriculture
along the lower river basins.
3.2. The Physiographic Divisions of Ethiopia

• Following the structural divisions brought about by

the geologic processes of the Cenozoic Era,
units can be identified in
Ethiopia. These are:

1. The Western highlands and lowlands

2. The South-eastern (Eastern) highlands and lowlands

3. The Rift Valley

3.2.1. The Western Highlands and Lowlands
• This physiographic unit includes all the area west of
the Rift Valley.
• It extends from north to south encompassing nearly
the whole western half of Ethiopia.
• It makes up about 44% of the area of the country.
• In the east the western escarpment of the Rift Valley
bound it whereas westward, the land gradually
descends in altitude until it merges into the western
foothills and lowlands, along the Sudan and South
Sudan border.
• This region is further subdivided into four groups of
highlands (76.3%) and four groups of lowlands
(23.7%) (See Fig. 3.1).
The Western Highlands
a. The Tigray Plateau
❑It extends from the Tekeze gorge in the south to
central Eritrean highlands.
❑The Tigray plateau is separated from the Eritrean
plateau by the Mereb River.
❑It lies to the southeast of the upper course of the
Mereb/Gash River and to the northeast of Tekeze
River Gorge.
❑It constitutes about 13% of the area of the region.
❑It is an elongated highland with most of the land
being in between 1,000 and 2,000 meters above sea
level.
❑The right bank tributaries of Tekeze drain this plateau.
❑Long period of denudation has created residual
features of granite hills, rugged topography, and
Ambas.
❑There are high mountains in this plateau with
elevations of over 3000 meters, namely Mount Tsibet
(3988 m.a.s.l), Mount Ambalage (3291 m.a.s.l), and
Mount Assimba (3248 m.a.s.l).
❑The famous monastery at Debre-Damo, a tableland
that can only be climbed by a rope pulley is also
located in this
b. North Central Massifs
❑This Physiographic division is the largest in the western
highlands.
❑Much of its northern and southern limit follows the
Abay and Tekeze gorges.
❑The Abay, Tekeze and their tributaries have cut into this
region a maze of gorges, steep sided river valleys,
dividing the land into many isolated plateau blocks,
precipitous tablelands and other rugged surface forms.
❑But much of these plateau and tablelands are still capped
by the Trappean lava.
❑In its central part, the physiographic unit also
accommodates the Lake Tana basin surrounded by plains
of Fogera and Dembia in the north and an upland plain in
its south.
❑ Fifty-eight percent of the region is at an altitude of more
than 2,000 meters, making it, next to the Shewan Plateau,
the second highest physiographic division.
❑ The region consists of the Gonder, Wello and Gojjam
Massifs.
❑ Out of the 26 mountain peaks with altitude of more than
4,000m.a.s.l in Ethiopia, 19 mountain peaks are found in
this physiographic region.
❑ Among these, the most popular ones include Mount Ras
Dashen (4,620 m.a.s.l), Mount Weynobar/Ancua (4462
m.a.s.l), Mount KidisYared (4453 m.a.s.l), and Mount
Bwahit (4437 m.a.s.l) in the Simen Mountain System.
❑ Mount Guna (4,231m.a.s.l) in the Debre Tabour Mountain
System, Abune Yoseph (4,260 m.a.s.l) in the Lasta
highlands of Wello and Mount Birhan (4,154 m.a.s.l) in the
Choke Mountain System in Gojjam are also part of Simen
Mountain System. These mountains have steep cliffs and
rugged terrain that provide scenic views to climbers
❑The Mountain systems in Gonder and Gojjam are
separated from the eastern group of mountains in
Wello by impenetrable and deep gorges.
❑At one point though, they are connected by
YejuWadla Delanta land bridge (ridge).
❑This land bridge has been significant in history. It
served as a route of penetration by the Turks,
Portuguese, and Italians etc.
❑The Woreta-Debre Tabor-Woldya road constructed
to link the northwestern region with Asseb through
Woldya and Dessie took advantage of this land
bridge.
•
• The Shewan plateau is bounded by the Rift Valley
in the east and southeast, by the Abay gorge in its
northern and western limit, and the Omo gorge in
the south and west.
• This plateau occupies a central geographical
position in Ethiopia. With only 11% of the area of
the whole physiographic region, the Shewa Plateau
is the smallest of the Western highlands.
• Nearly three-fourth of its area is at an altitude of
more than 2,000 meters above sea level. It has,
therefore, the largest proportion of elevated ground.
• The Shewa plateau is drained, outward in all directions
by the tributaries of Abay, Omo, and Awash. It,
therefore, forms a water divide for these three river
basins.
• The tributaries of Abay-Guder, Muger, Jema etc. have
cut deep gorges and steep sided river valleys.
• They have created several tablelands and isolated
plateau units in the north.
• Similarly, the tributaries of Omo and Awash have
dissected the other sides of the plateau.
• Otherwise, this plateau has relatively extensive flat-
topped uplands, giving it the appearance of a true
plateau.
• The highest mountain in the Shewan plateau is Mount
Abuye-Meda (4,000 m.a.s.l) in Northern Shewa,
Mount Guraghe in the south is 3,721 meters high.
• This Physiographic subdivision consists of the
highlands of Wellega, Illuababora, Jimma, Kaffa,
Gamo and Gofa.
• This region is separated from the adjacent
highlands by the Abay and Omo river valleys.
• It extends from the Abay gorge in the north to the
Kenya border and Chew Bahir in the south.
• It accounts for 22.7% of the area of the region.
• The region is the second largest in the Western
highlands.
• About 70% of its area is lies within 1,000-2,000
meters altitude.
• The southwestern plateau is the wettest in Ethiopia.
It is drained by Dabus, Deddessa (tributaries of
Abay), Baro, Akobo and the Ghibe/Omo rivers.
• The numerous streams have cut these highlands to
produce the most dissected and rugged terrain that
accommodates the most numerous and diverse
ethnic linguistic groups in Ethiopia.
• With a height of 4,200 meters above sea level,
Guge Mountain is the highest peak in this
physiographic subdivision.
• These are the western foothills and border plains that
extend from Western Tigray in the north to southern
Gamo-Gofa in the South.
• In certain places, ridges or part of the highlands
protrude into the lowlands, interrupting their
continuity.
• They make 11% of the area of the physiographic
region.
• The general elevation ranges between 500 and 1000
meters above sea level.
• This physiographic sub-region is further subdivided
into four by the protruding ridges.
• These are Tekeze lowland, Abay-Dinder lowland,
Baro lowland, and Ghibe lowland from north to
south.
• With the exception of the Baro lowland, the region
is generally characterized by arid or semi-arid
conditions.
• Pastoral or semi-pastoral economic activities
dominate the area.
• As one moves northwards, the degree of aridity
increases, making rain-fed agriculture more
difficult.
• Since one or two rivers cross all of these lowlands,
irrigation agriculture is highly feasible.
• For example, the has an extensive
flat area suitable for mechanized agriculture.
• The Ghibe/Omo lowland, which includes the lower
Ghibe/Omo Valley and the northern section of the
Turkana basin, is classified in the Western
lowlands from its geographical location.
• But structurally it also belongs to the Rift Valley. It
is an area, which is both faulted and tectonically
depressed.
• In the Western lowlands, there are small but
important towns.
• Their importance could be related to agriculture,
history, or are simply border towns and frontier
ports.
• These are Humera, Metema, Omedla, Kurmuk,
Gambella etc.
• This physiographic region is the in
terms of area.
• It accounts for 37% of the area of Ethiopia.
• The highlands make up 46% of the physiographic
division while the rest is lowland.
• In the west and north, the eastern escarpment of
the Rift Valley makes the western and northern
limit.
• In many places the land raises so abruptly that
from the edge of the plateau one literally looks
down the Rift Valley.
• From here, the land gradually descends
southeastward into the southeastern lowlands and
then to the plains of Somalia.
• These are further subdivided into two units of
highlands and two units of extensive lowlands.
• These are briefly discussed as follows.
A. The Arsi-Bale-Sidama Highlands
• These highlands are found to the east of the Lakes
Region.
• They are located in the south western section of
the physiographic region.
• They make up 28.5% of the area of the region and
62% of the south - Eastern Highlands.
• The Arsi Highlands are made up of flat rolling
uplands and dissected mountains.
• The well-known mountains in this area are Mount
Kaka (4,180 m.a.s.l), Mount Bada (4,139 m.a.s.l)
and Mount Chilalo (4,036 m.a.s.l).
• The Bale highlands are separated from the Arsi
highlands by the head and main stream of
Wabishebelle.
• They consist of a platform looking basaltic plateau
in the north-central part and high mountain
massif to the south.
• The Afro-Alpine summit of is
found on the latter group.
• The highest mountain peaks in this region are
Tulu-Demtu (4,377 m.a.s.l) and Mount Batu
(4,307 m.a.s.l).
• Erosion features belonging to Pleistocene glaciation
but later modified by fluvial processes are seen in
the trough-like gorges, hanging valleys, and
depressions.
• The Arsi-Bale Highlands are important grains
producing areas with still high potential.
• The Sidama Highlands are separated from the
Bale Highlands by the Ghenale river valley.
• They occupy the southwestern corner of this
region.
• The prominent feature here is the Jemjem plateau,
an important coffee growing area.
• Rivers Wabishebelle and Ghenale along with their
tributaries have dissected this physiographic region.
• Specially, Weyb River, tributary of Ghenale, has
cut an underground passage (Sof Omar cave)
through the Mesozoic Limestone rocks.
• The cave is found near Bale Mountains.
• It is one of the World's most spectacular and
extensive underground caverns creating a
magnificent view accessible only by an
underground stream.
❑This plateau is a north-easterly extension of the
south-eastern highlands.
❑It extends from the Chercher highlands in the
south-west to Jigjiga in the east.
❑It makes up 38% of the South Eastern highlands
and 17.4% of the whole physiographic region.
❑It has the smallest proportion of upper highland
(>2,000 meters).
❑It is a low lying and elongated region.
• Rising sharply from the Rift Valley floor, it
immediately but gently descends east and
southeastward.
• The left-bank tributaries of Wabishebelle drain it.
• Much of the Trappean lava is removed and the
Mesozoic rocks are extensively exposed.
• The highest mountain here is
(3,381 m.a.s.l).
• The Southeastern lowlands are located in the
southeastern part of the country and they are the most
extensive lowlands in Ethiopia.
• They make up 54% of the area of the physiographic
region and around one-fifth of the country.
• This region is divided into Wabishebelle plain (60%)
and the Ghenale Plain (40%).
• They include the plains of Ogaden, Elkere, and
Borena.
• Southeast-ward sloping plains characterize these
lowlands.
• These extensive plains are interrupted here and there,
by low hills, low ridges, inselbergs and by shallow and
broad river valleys and depressions.
• Because of the harsh climatic conditions, these
lowlands are little used and support very small
population.
• They are sparsely inhabited by pastoral and semi-
pastoral communities.
• The economic potential for this region includes
animal husbandry, irrigation, agriculture and
perhaps exploitation of petroleum and natural gas.
• The Rift Valley is a tectonically formed structural
depression.
• It is bounded by two major and more or less parallel
escarpments.
• The formation of the Rift Valley has separated the
Ethiopian Highlands and Lowlands in to two.
• It extends from the Afar triangle in the north to Chew
Bahir for about 1,700 km2.
• It covers 18% of the area of Ethiopia.
• It is elongated and funnel shaped, with a NE-SW
orientation.
• It opens out in the Afar Triangle, where it is the
widest, and narrows down to the south.
• The floor of the Rift Valley is made up of
interconnected troughs, grabens and depressions.
• Volcanic rocks, fluvial and lacustrine deposits
cover the floor.
• In many places, numerous volcanic domes, hills
and cinder cones rise from the floor.
• Altitude in the floor ranges from 125 meters below
sea level at Dallol Depression, to as high as 2,000
meters above sea level in the Lakes region.
• The bounding escarpments are also of varying
heights.
• From the floor to the edge of the escarpment, the
heights vary from 200 to 1500 meters.
• Because of its altitudinal variation and positional
differences, the
.
• Similarly, the social and economic life reflects this
pattern.
• There are places, which are desolate and sparsely
inhabited by pastoralists where as in others parts
people practice some rain-fed agriculture.
• The Rift Valley is further subdivided into three
physiographic sub-regions.
• These are the Afar Triangle, the Main Ethiopian
Rift, and the Chew Bahir Rift.
• A brief description of each sub-division is given
below.
i. The Afar Triangle
• The Afar Triangle is the and of
the Rift Valley.
• It makes up 54% of the Rift Valley area.
• It is bounded by the high western and eastern
escarpments in the west and east respectively, and
by the Afar and Aisha Horst in the northeast.
• The area is generally of low altitude (300-700
meters).
• Quite different is the morphology of the Afar
depression, triangular-shape lowland, where
elevation drops uniformly from approximately
1,000 meters in the southwest to below sea level in
the north (Danakil depression) and in the east,
where the shores of Lake Asal, fluctuating at
around 125 meters below sea level, represent the
lowest sub aerial point of the African continent.
• The depression, which hosts one of the most hostile
environments on Earth (maximum temperatures can exceed
50°C during the summer wet season; Dallol, at the northern
tip of Afar.
• The area is characterized by faulted depressions (grabens),
volcanic hills, active volcanoes, volcanic ridges, lava fields
and low lava platforms.
• Lakes (Abe, Asale, and Afrera) occupy some of these basins.
• A prominent feature in this region is the

• Separated from the Red Sea by a 200 meters high land

barrier, much of it lies below sea level.
• A larger part of this is covered by thick and extensive salt
plain.
• Lake Asale and Lake Afrera occupy the lowest parts of this
sunken depression.
• The Afar Triangle is generally hot and dry.
• The only respite one gets in the Southern part is
from the waters of the Awash River.
• The economic importance of this region includes
salt extraction, irrigation along the Awash River
and electric potential from geothermal energy.
• It refers to the narrow belt of the Rift Valley that
extends from Awash River in the north to Lake Chamo
in the south.
• It is bounded by the western and eastern escarpments.
With the exception of the Arbaminch area, the
bounding escarpments are generally low.
• This part of the Rift Valley is the narrowest and the
highest.
• It has an average width of 50-80 kilometers and
general elevation of 1,000-2,000 meters above sea
level.
• The floor in many places is dotted by cinder cones and
volcanic mountains. The big ones include Mount
Fentale, Boseti-guda (near Adama), Aletu (north of
Lake Ziway) and Chebi (north of Lake Hawasa).
• The northern section has more of these cinder cones
and lava fields. The prominent features, however, are
the numerous lakes formed on tectonic sags and fault
depressions.
• Because of altitude, the lakes region of the Main
Ethiopian Rift is generally milder and watery. Here
rain-fed agriculture is practiced.
• Other resource bases include the recreational value of
the lakes, the agricultural importance of some streams
and lakes, and the geothermal energy potential.
iii. The Chew Bahir Rift
• This is the smallest and the southern-most part of
the Rift Valley. Gneissic highlands of Konso and
the surrounding highlands separate it from the Main
Ethiopian Rift to the north.
• The characteristic feature of this region is the broad
and shallow depression, which is a marshy area
covered by tall grass, into which the Segen and
Woito streams empty.
• The highly dissected character of the landscape
over much of the country‟s territory along with the
limited extent to which flat surfaces are present
influence the various socioeconomic aspects of
Ethiopia as presented hereunder.
1. Agricultural practices
• Relief influences farm size and shape in that in an
area of rugged terrain the farmlands are small in
size and fragmented and tend to be irregular in
shape.
 Choice of farming techniques and farm
implements are highly influenced by relief as in
rugged terrain mechanized farming techniques
are difficult to practice.
 Relief influences crop production as some
corps are well adapted to higher altitudes
(barley, wheat) and others to low altitude
(sorghum, maize).
 The practice of animal husbandry is also
influenced by relief as most equines and sheep
are reared in the higher altitudes and camels and
goat are well adapted to lower altitudes
 Highlands of Ethiopia that experience a
temperate type of climatic condition that are
mainly free from most of the tropical diseases are
densely settled.
 Rugged and difficult terrain hinders the
development of settlement and its expansion.
 The highlands of Ethiopia are characterized by
sedentary life and permanent settlements while
lowlands that are inhabited by pastoralists have
temporary settlements.
3. Transportation and communication
 The highly dissected nature of the landscape is a
barrier to the development of internal surface
transportation that resulted in the long-term
isolation of many communities
 The difficult terrain makes infrastructure
development and maintenance costly.
 TV and radio communications are also highly
influenced by relief.
 The rugged topography rendered rivers less
navigable due to the waterfalls, deep gorges and
steep cliffs.
4. Hydroelectric power potential
The great difference in altitude coupled with high
rainfall created suitable conditions for a very high
potential for the production of hydroelectric power
in Ethiopia.
5. Socio-cultural feeling
The rugged terrain as a result of excessive surface
dissection resulted in the long-term isolation of
communities that led to the occurrence of cultural
diversity.
People who live in the highlands have been identifying
themselves as degegnas (mountaineers) and those who
live in the lowlands as kollegnas (lowlanders).
6. Impacts on climate
• The climate of Ethiopia is a result of the tropical
position of the country and the great altitudinal
variation of the general topography.
• Highlands with higher amount of rainfall and lower
rate of evapo-transpiration tend to be moisture surplus
compared to the moisture deficit lowlands.
7. Impacts on soil
•  Steep mountain slopes provide low angle of rest,
unstable surface materials and subject to degradation
processes and relatively form shallow and little developed
soils.
8. Impacts on natural vegetation
•  Relief through its effect on climate and hydrology
affect the type of natural vegetation grown in an area.
Review Questions
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What are the impacts of relief on the biophysical
and socioeconomic conditions of Ethiopia?
2. Discuss the physiographic characteristics of the
southeastern highlands and lowlands.