THE IMMUNE

RESPONSE
 Definition of Terms:
1. immunology - study of immune system and the immune response
2. immunogen - any substance capable of inducing an immune response,
whether humoral or cell-mediated or both
3. Antigen - a substance recognized by the immune system, whether by
the B cell or T cell, that serves as the target of the immune response but
may not necessarily lead to an immune response
4. Epitope - the structure in the antigen that is recognized by the B cell or
the T cell
5. Hapten - a substance that is of low molecular weight that can only
induce an immune response if bound to another substance that is
already immunogenic
 ANTIGENS
– is any macromolecule that activates the
immune system.

- Must be able to stimulate the immune

system and to react with different
components of the immune system.

- Most antigens have more than one

antigenic determinant or epitope.

- Antigens can either be free-floating

molecules or attached to the surface of some
larger structure such as cell.
 Properties of Antigens
There are several properties that an antigen
must possess to make it immunogenic:

a. foreignness and genetic composition

b. chemical composition and complexity
c. molecular size and stability
d. mode of entry of the antigen
 The Immune System
❏ – is a defense system responsible for specific responses by the host. It is capable of
recognizing self from non-self. It is characterized by the following:
❏ Specificity: the response is specific for a particular strain and is often based on slight
biochemical differences.
❏ Memory: long term immunity. Usually being exposed to an agent once is sufficient to
protect the body from the future infections by the same invader.
❏ Redundancy: often more than one cell is activated to destroy the invader even though
the activation of any one cell is usually sufficient to kill the invader.
❏ Complexity: the immune system involves many different types of cells, many of which
communicate with each other through chemicals.
❏ composed of molecular and cellular components that are derived from the central (primary)
and peripheral (secondary) lymphoid organs.
 Central Lymphoid Organs
are the primary sites for differentiation and maturation of the important cells that play an
important role in adaptive immunity which are the T lymphocytes (T cells) and the B
lymphocytes ( B cells).
- these consist of the bone marrow and the thymus.
- the bone marrow is the site from where blood cells originate.
- the precursor cells for lymphocytes are found in the adult bone marrow and this is
where they differentiate into B cells and T cells/
- B cells remain in the bone marrow and undergo maturation in the bone marrow
- T cells will go out of the bone marrow as immature and incompetent forms then go
to the thymus where they mature and become competent
- After maturation, the mature B cells and T cells proceed to the peripheral lymphoid
organs to await any antigen that may enter the body.
 Peripheral Lymphoid Organs
consist of the lymph nodes, spleen, and the mucosa-associated
lymphoid tissues (MALT), which include the tonsils, adenoids, Peyer’s
patches in the ileum and the appendix.
- these organs are the site of reactivity of lymphoid cells
- these are where antigens are trapped and subsequently encounter
the T and B cells.
- Antigens are brought to these peripheral lymphoid organs where the
cells needed for their destruction are located. Both mature T cells
and B cells are found in the peripheral lymphoid organs
 Cells of the Immune System
The various responses of the human immune system are mediated by specific
cells and the substances they produce. These cells include the white blood cells
which include:
1. granulocytes (neutrophil) - 50%-80% of white blood cells
2. lymphocytes - 20%-45% of total white blood cells
3. monocytes and macrophages - 3%-8% of white blood cells

Neutrophils - play a major role in acute inflammation as well as in bacterial

infections
Lymphocytes and Macrophages - involved in chronic inflammation
Types of T Lymphocytes

❏ T helper cell: CD4 positive; help to regulate immune

response by activating stimulating other T cells and also B
cells.
❏ T suppressor cells: CD8 positive; regulate immune
response by turning it off when the response seems to be
doing enough.
❏ Cytotoxic T cells: CD8 positive; eliminate, by lysis,
abnormal body cells such as cancer cells and those that
have been infected by viruses or other parasite
 Innate Immunity
- also known as natural immunity
- this immunity is already active from the time of birth, prior
t exposure to an antigen
- it id non-specific, acts immediately upon encounter with
the antigen but gives short-term protection
- it does not possess memory

First line of defense - to prevent the entry of the organism into

the body (skin and mucous membranes)

Second line of defense - aims to destroy the invading organism

before it has a chance to multiply and cause disease (natural
killer cells, inflammation)
 IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF INNATE
IMMUNITY
Factors that limit entry of microorganisms Mode of Action

Keratin Layer of intact Skin Act as mechanical barrier

Lysozyme in tears and other secretions Degrades bacterial cell wall

Respiratory cilia Directs organisms trapped in mucus out of the

respiratory passages

Low pH of stomach and vagina; fatty acids in skin Inhibits growth of microorganisms

Surface phagocytes Ingest and destroy microbes

Normal Flora Prevent colonization by pathogen

 Factors that limit growth of the Mode of Action
microorganisms within the body

Natural killer cells Kills virus-infected cells

Neutrophils Ingest and destroy microbes

Macrophages and dendritic cells Ingest and destroy microbes; present antigens to
T cells

Interferons Inhibit viral replication; produce anti-viral state

Complement system Membrane attack complex creates holes in

bacterial cell membrane; components acivate
inflammation

Fever Inhibits bacterial growth

Inflammatory response Limits spread of microbes by destroying them

 ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
- is activated by certain antigens which makes the respponse more
specific.
- it has more delayed reaction because it takes time for antibodies to be
produced and for cytotoxic T cells to be activated.
- it involves production of antibodies by the B cells and activation of the
cytotoxic T cells
- the protection obtained is long-term and lifelong
- the most important property is memory which allows recognition of the
antigen on re-exposure making the immune response amplifiable
 Property Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity

Activity at birth Yes No

Response time Immediate Delayed

Specificity for microorganisms Relatively low High

Cells Phagocytic cellsm epithelial B lymphocytes and T

cells lymphocytes

Memory No Yes

Response amplifiable No Yes

Components: Skin, mucosa; antimicrobial Secreted antibodies

Physical and chemical barriers substances
blood proteins Complement Antibodies

Line of defense First and second Third

 IMMUNE RESPONSE
● First exposure with an antigen leads to the activation of a specific set of
helper T cells called the Th1 cells/
● Activation of th1 cells leads to activation of the inflammatory response and
delayed type hypersensitivity as well as stimulation of B cells to produce
IgM and IgG.
● Secondary immune response occurs after re-exposure to the same antigen
● A second encounter with the same antigen or a closely-related one occuring
months or years after the primary response will activare another set of the
helper T cell called the Th2 cells.
● Further production of antibodies except IgM
 ANTIBODIES
➢ are globulin proteins (immunoglobulins) that react
specifically with the antigens that stimulate their
production
➢ a large Y-shaped proteins used by the immune system
to identify and neutrallize foreign objects
➢ the most important functions of antibodies are:
1. to neutralize toxins and viruses
2. to opsonize microbes so that they will be readily
recognized and more easily phagocytosed
3. to activate complement system
4. to prevent the attachment of microbes to mucosal
surfaces
Classes of Immunoglobulins

● IgG - major defense against bacteria and viruses; helps prevent

spread of infections
● IgM - first antibody made; present on the surface of B cells where it
acts as an antigen receptor
● IgA - called the secretiry immunoglobulin; main immunoglobulin in
secretions such as colostrum, saliva and tears as well as respiratory,
gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tract secretions
● IgE - also called the reaginic antibody; for anaphylactic
hypersensitivity reaction and provides defense against parasites or
worms
● IgD - found on the surface of many B cells and serves as the surfaces
marker for B cells; function as an antigen receptor
VACCINES
- attenuated
- toxoids
Immunization programs have achieved the
following goals:
1. protection of population groups from the
development of common infectious
diseases
2. Control of the spread of measles, mumps
and rubella
3. Elimination of smallpox in the world
 Types of Immunization

Passive Immunization - administration of purified antibody in preparations

called immune globulins or antibody containing serum
it is given for rapid, temporary protection (usually 3 - 4months) or treatment of
a person

Active Immunization - involves the injection of vaccines prepared from

organisms or their products. This stimulates the body’s immune system to
produce the specific antibodies against the component organism of the vaccine
TYPES OF VACCINES
● Live attenuated vaccines - prepared using organisms with
limited ability to cause disease
● Toxoid vaccines - based on the principle that certain
diseases arecaused by exotoxins produced by the
causative agents
● Killed Vaccine - refer to vaccines derived from bacterial
sources while inactivated vaccines are derived from viruses
● mRNA vaccines - gives your cells instructions for how to
make the S protein found on the surface of a virus
HERD IMMUNITY

When a lot of people in a community are vaccinated

the pathogen has a hard time circulating because most
of the people it encounters are immune. So the more
that others are vaccinated, the less likely people who
are unable to be protected by vaccines are at risk of
even being exposed to the harmful pathogens.