a.

Sumerian Civilization
Cuneiform
One of the major contributions of Sumerians is the development of the first writing system
known as cuneiform. It is a system that utilizes word pictures and triangular symbols which are
carved on clay using wedge instruments and then left to dry. Cuneiform allowed the Sumerians
to keep records of things with great historical value or their everyday life.
Irrigation and Dikes
As the population increased, so did the demand for food. The Sumerians were challenged to
mass produce food items but the elements in the environment seemed uncooperative. It was
difficult to get water from the rivers, thus, they could not maintain farmlands. Some groups had
scarce water supply, while others had problems with flooding caused by the river. As a solution
to this dilemma, the Sumerians created dikes and irrigation canals to bring water to farmlands
and at the same time control the flooding of the rivers. This method was considered as one of
the world's most beneficial engineering works. Through the dikes and canals, the Sumerians
were able to enjoy year-long farming and harvesting, which increased their food production.
Wheel
In the latter part of their history, the Sumerians were able to invent the wheel since the
specialized tools needed to create it were already available. The first wheels were not made for
transportation but for farm work and food processes. With the use of the wheel and axle.
Sailboats
Another challenge to the Sumerians was transportation. At that time, the wheel was not yet
invented, the main mode of transportation was through waterways such as rivers and seas.
Boats were used to cany large quantities of products and were able to cover large distances.
However, they wanted to discover faraway lands to settle since the population was getting
larger, and boats were not enough to accommodate more people and products. They needed a
mode of transportation that did not require much human resources. Some sources attribute to
the Sumerians the invention of sailboats to address their increasing demands. Sailboats were
essential in transportation and trading as well as in fostering culture, information, and
technology.
The Plow
Another farm technology invented by the Mesopotamians is the plow. Humans evolved from
being food gatherers to farm cultivators. However, farmers needed technology that would
enable them to dig the ground where seeds would be planted. The plow was invented to dig the
earth at a faster pace. As the plow breaks the ground, the farmer would just drop the seeds and
farm work would already be done. With this tool, farmers could cultivate larger parcels of land
faster, enabling them to mass produce food without taking so much effort and time.
Chariot
Humans learned to domesticate horses, bulls, and other animals that were useful for them. The
chariot was not a sudden invention, but the gradual improvement of the earliest carriage.
The chariot was the first concept of personal transportation. It had been used for years as a key
technology for warfare, for most of the ancient sports, and as a means of transportation. The
structure of the earliest chariot was made of light wood with a bentwood
The first chariot appeared around 3200 BC in Mesopotamia. This form of chariot was used in
most every civilization until motorized transportation came into existence.
Time
Mesopotamians developed the concept of time, dividing time units into 60 parts, which
eventually led to 60-second minutes and 60-minute hours.
The Babylonians made an astronomical calculation in the base 60 system inherited by the
Sumerians. The number 60 was chosen because it was easily divisible by six.
The Inventions of Map
The oldest map was discovered in Babylonia around 2300 B.C. The Ancient Cartography that
was used in Babylonia was a simple sketch on clay tablets. The clay map discovered in
Mesopotamia illustrates the Akkadian region of Mesopotamia (present-day northern iraq). It
covered a small area and was mostly used as a city map, a military campaign. a hunting ground
map, and a trade route. Even though the map was invented in Mesopotamia, Greek and Roman
cartography became more advanced.
The concept of a spherical Earth developed by Greek Philosophers In 350 BC became a
concept for geographers to develop the map.
Mathematics
When civilization started to flourish, people began to trade items, and they needed an accurate
system to count the goods that they gave and received. Sumerians were the first people on
earth to develop the concept of counting.
They also developed the sexagesimal, or base 60. Sexagesimal helped to develop concepts like
the 360-degree circle and the 12-month year.
They used 12 knuckles to count on one hand, and another five fingers on the other hand. The
Babylonians used base 6 (our modern system uses base 10), where digits on the left column
represent large values.
The concept of zero was developed by the Babylonians. People understood the value of having
nothing, but the concept of numerical zero wasn't invented before then.
Many scholars believe that the concept of zero was Babylonian and followed by various
civilizations throughout the world in their own way. However, some argue it was originally
invented in India.
B. EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Another early civilization famous for its legacy is the Egyptian civilization located in North Africa.
Many stories tell about the engineering feats of the Egyptians especially regarding the
infrastructures established by the pharaohs. Aside from engineering technology, the Egyptians
have contributed other practical things that the world now considers as essential. It is thus safe
to say that the pyramids are not the only contribution of Egyptian civilization to the modern
world.
Paper or Papyrus
One of the earlier contributions of Egyptian civilization was paper or papyrus. Although Egypt
was not the first to develop a system of writing, they were able to make writing easier for the
world. Before the Egyptian innovation, clay tablets were used. However, safe-keeping and
transporting them were a major problem. Clay tablets were very fragile, heavy, and delicate to
handle. So, bringing them to places was a major challenge. Hence, the Egyptian invention of
paper or papyrus was a welcome development.
Ink
When the Egyptians invented the papyrus or the paper, engraving ceased to be used in writing.
As a result, the Egyptians invented ink by combining soot with different chemicals to produce
inks of different colors. Ink must withstand the elements of nature since it was used to record
history, culture, and codified laws. It must also be tamper-proof so that people cannot simply
tinker with those written down by authorities.
Cosmetics
The Egyptians also invented the use of cosmetics. Although cosmetics in modern times are
used to improve and highlight the facial features of a person, their function in ancient Egypt was
for both health and aesthetic reasons. Egyptians wore kohl around the eyes to prevent and even
cure diseases. Kohl was created by mixing soot or malachite with mineral galena. Egyptians
also believed that a person wearing make-up was protected from evil and that beauty was a
sign of holiness. At present, the cosmetic industry is a booming multi-billion industries.
Library
The most famous ancient library was the royal library of Alexandria in Egypt. It was one of the
largest and most significant libraries of the ancient world, dedicated to the muses, the nine
goddesses of the arts. Although it is not an invention per se, it had an enormous value for the
collected knowledge of antiquity at one place. It was founded in Alexandria around 300 establish
a center of learning and gather all the known information about the outside world in one place. It
counted more than one million papyrus scrolls containing literature, history, law, mathematics
and science.
Wine
Wine was a very popular drink of the Egyptians. Maybe we’re not the first ones to invent it, but
there are pictures from that time that show how their process looked, very similar to the one we
have today. Grapevines were carefully cultivated and supported by wooden pillars. They were
picked and put into baskets, where five or six men pressed the grapes with a wooden structure
that made the juice to be left behind. Finally, the wine was kept in big ovens made of clay and
large pottery jars. It was usually kept in cellars, together with oil and food. 6. Medicine
Pyramids
The ancient pyramids are definitely at the top of the inventions of ancient Egypt. They belong
among the most astonishing structures in the world. It is a geometric solid with a square base
and four equal triangular sides. Throughout history, they were primarily tombs to kings and
religious temples. They were located away from the major cities and they needed decades to be
finished.
c. Babylonian Civilization
Hanging Garden of Babylon
Today, people can only marvel at the beauty of the famous Hanging Garden of Babylon from
stories of historians and paintings that portray the place. It was said to be a structure made up
of layers upon layers of gardens that contained several species of plants, trees, and vines.
According to legends, the great Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II built the gardens for his
wife, Queen Amytis. However, no physical evidence has been found to prove the existence of
the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Its exact location is unknown. Since time immemorial, people
have been debating about the existence of the said mythical place. Many said it was just a
product of the creative imagination of the great King because it lacked documentation or
archaeological evidence. On the other hand, if it really existed, it would have been destroyed by
war, erosion, or an earthquake. True or not, hearing the stories and descriptions of the place
would be enough to inspire awe in anyone. One can imagine the thick greenery decorated by
beautiful flowers coming from different places in the garden and the complicated design of the
infrastructure. If the stories were true, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon may be considered as
one of the greatest engineering and architectural achievements of the world that is almost
impossible to replicate.
d. Mayan Civilization
Mayan Writing System
Among the ancient Americans, the Mayans invented the most advanced form of writing, known
as glyphs. Glyphs are used to describe or represent a word, sound or even a syllable through
pictures or symbols. History suggests that the Mayans used around 700 different glyphs, and
astonishingly 80% of the language is understood still today.
The Mayans were highly aware of their history and achievements, and so they wrote about them
on pillars, walls, and big stone slabs all the time. They also wrote books about almost
everything; like gods, daily life, new leaders and more. These books were made of bark and
folded like a fan. Unfortunately, many of the books were destroyed as they were assumed to
have depicted the devil and demons by the Spanish. Luckily, a few survived
Mayan Calendar
The eminent Mayans' datebook depended on the framework basic in Mesoamerican societies.
However, it was the Mayans who built up the timetable to its most extreme modernity. The
Mayan date book utilizes 3 distinctive dating frameworks: the Tzolkin (divine timetable), the
Haab (common date book) and the Long Count. Tzolkin joins a cycle of 20 named days with
another cycle of 13 numbers, to deliver 260 interesting days. There are a few hypotheses for the
260-day tally of Tzolkin including it being founded on the human growth time frame; the agrarian
cycle of the district; and the places of the planet Venus. The Haab was the sun-based date-book
with 365 days. It comprised a year and a half of 20 days in each month, trailed by 5 additional
days, which were viewed as unfortunate and known as Wayeb.
e. Greek Civilizations
Geometry
Geometry with or without a doubt one of the oldest branches of mathematics, if not older than
arithmetic itself. And its practical necessity demanded use of various geometric techniques
much before any recorded history. Yes, the Egyptians, Babylonians and Indus were among the
first to incorporate and use many of such techniques but they were never interested in finding
out the rules and axioms governing the geometry. The Babylonians assumed the value of Pi to
be 3 and never challenged its accuracy.
Then came the age of Greek geometry and changed the entire perception towards it. The
Greeks insisted that geometric facts must be established by deductive reasoning, much like how
it is done these days. Thales of Miletus, regarded as the father of geometry, gave a number of
axioms and rules that were true based on reasoning (called mathematical truths) in the 6th
century BC. Then came the likes of Pythagoras, Euclid and Archimedes whose geometrical
axioms and rules are still taught in schools today. There were many more Greek
mathematicians and geometers, who contributed to the history of geometry, but these names
are the true giants, the ones that developed geometry as we know it today.
Concept of Democracy
The idea of every citizen has an equal opportunity of having in turn a share in the government
constitutes the concept of democracy. It is one of the widely used styles of governance in the
modern world. And even more fascinating is the fact that democracy also had its origins in
ancient Greece. In fact, the concept as well as implementation of democracy can be traced back
from the present day to ancient classical Athens.
f. Roman civilization
Roads and highways
One of the main reasons behind ancient Rome’s impeccable and effective administration of
such a vast domain acrossnstruction of one of the most sophisticated systems of roads in the
ancient times, Roman roads and highways played a pivotal role in the rise of the Roman state,
expanding all across the Roman Republic and then the Roman Empire, in a period of about 700
years, they built about 55,000 miles of paved highways around the Mediterranean basin and
across Europe-a feat that ensured a fast and efficient movement of goods, soldiers and
information across the entire empire. Roman roads usually followed a straight route across the
countryside, making the travel efficient and quite fast. These expertly engineered routes were as
easy to navigate. The Romans were one of the first to use road signs and mile markers. They
also made sure most highways were well protected and patrolled.
Julian calendar
Once the ancient Romans became the biggest of the civilization of the ancient western world,
they also realized the complications of maintaining a standard чалена applicant throughout the
empire. It did not help either when they imposed months with an odd number of days only
because of a prevailing superstition against even numbers. Eventually, the calendar was so far
off the regular timeline that Julius Caesar implemented a new reform, making a solar year as
the basis for the calendar. He also instituted the 12 months in a year. It is clear from the name
itself; the calendar was named after Julius Caesar himself. Some of the Eastern Orthodox
churches use it to calculate holidays even today. Even though it was a seemingly perfect
innovation for its time, the Julian calendar miscalculated the solar year by about 11 and half
minutes. This eventually led to the creation of the Gregorian calendar that heavily used the
Julian model and was adopted in 1582 AD.
Concrete
The ancient Romans were particularly skillful in rapidly building new structures and at the same
time, they were also good at maintaining their structural integrity and building. The revolutionary
concrete developed by the Romans inhibited an impeccably built and lasting formation-playing a
huge part in the architectural accession of ancient Rome. The scientists who studied its
composition in detail found it to be superior to modem day concrete and far more
environmentally friendlier than its modern counterpart. The piece of concrete they experimented
on had been submerged in the Mediterranean for more than 2000 years. On further analysis of
the concrete, it was found to produce a compound that significantly differed from the concrete
we use today and made it an incredibly stable binder. The Romans used to combine their
cement with volcanic rocks popularly known as tuff, enabling the resulting concrete to endure
possible chemical decay. It is not much of a surprise that many ancient Roman structures such
as the Pantheon, the Colosseum and the Roman forum have been standing for more than two
millennia.
g. Chinese Civilization
Silk
One of the things that connected Far East China to the world is silk. Although silk is naturally
produced by silkworms, the Chinese were the ones who developed the technology to harvest
the silk and process it to produce paper and clothing. Silk production resulted in the creation of
a product for trade. The silk trade opened China to the outside world, making way for cultural,
economic, and scientific exchanges. It bridged the gap between the world and the Middle
Kingdom.
Tea Production
Tea is a beverage produced by pouring hot or boiling water over crushed or shredded dried tea
leaves. It was believed that the first tea was drunk by a Chinese emperor. Tea production was
developed when an unknown Chinese investor created a machine that was able to shred tea
leaves into strips. This machine was done using a wheel-based mechanism with sharp edges
attached to a wooden or ceramic pot. Because of this Invention, the Chinese were able to
increase their production of tea and trade with other nations. China thus became known for its
tea exports aside from its silk products. Tea production developed by the ancient Chinese may
have resulted in making tea one of the most popular beverages in the world today.
Great Wall of China
Once considered the only man-made structure that could be seen from outer space, the Great
Wall of China is said to be the most extensive infrastructure that the nation built. It was
constructed to keep out foreign invaders and control the borders of China. Made with stone,
brick, wood, earth, and other materials, it showcased the extent of Chinese engineering
technology at that time. The structure was so massive and strong that it was said to have
divided China from the rest of the world. The wall's construction put the nation among the
powerful civilizations during the ancient times. It was the pride of their land and their crowning
glory. Today, with some sections already in ruins, the Great Wall still continues to be a world
attraction due to its historical significance and architectural grandeur.
Gunpowder
Gunpowder is one of the most interesting inventions in China. Originally, it was developed by
Chinese alchemists who aimed to achieve immortality. They mixed charcoal, sulfur, and
potassium nitrate, but instead of creating an elixir of life, they accidentally invented a black
powder that could actually generate large amounts of heat and gas in an instant. Ironically,
instead of prolonging life, gunpowder is widely used to propel bullets from guns and cannons
which cause countless deaths. In fact, gunpowder-propelled weapons are preferred by raiders
who plan to attack at a distance. The same weapons are also used to dissipate any attempts of
invasion. On the other hand, gunpowder is also used in fireworks during important celebrations
in China.