▪ Sumer is located on the southernmost tip of ancient

Mesopotamia. Sumerians are known for their high

degree of cooperation with one another and their
desire for great things. They are not contented with
the basic things that life can offer. This desire
pushed them to develop many things connected with
science and technology.
Cuneiform - One of the
major contributions of the
Sumerians is the development
of the first writing system
known as cuneiform. It is a
system that utilizes word
pictures and triangular
symbols which are carved on
clay using wedge instruments
and then left to dry. Cuneiform
allowed the Sumerians to keep
records of things with great
historical value or their
everyday life.
▪ Another important contribution of the Sumerians is the City of
Uruk. It is a great wonder not only because it is considered to
be the first true city in the world but also for the way it was
erected. The Sumerians were able to build the city using only
mud or clay from the river, which they mixed with reeds,
producing sun-baked bricks a true engineering feat. They
used the bricks to make houses that protected them from the
harsh weather and to build a wall around the city prevented
wild animals and neighboring raiders from entering.
The Great Ziggurat of Ur -
Another engineering and
architectural feat of the
Sumerians is the Great Ziggurat
of Ur. The ziggurat, also called
the mountain of God. The
ziggurat served as the sacred
place of their chief god, where
only their priests were allowed
to enter. The temple showcases
not only the elaborate and
intricate Sumerian architecture
but also the remarkable
technology used to build it. As
such, even until today, people
still enjoy and marvel at the
preserved Great Ziggurat of Ur.
Irrigation and Dikes - As population
increased, so did the demand for food. The
Sumerians were challenged to mass
produce food items but the elements in the
environment seemed uncooperative. It was
difficult to get water from the rivers, thus
they could not maintain farmlands. Some
groups had scare water supply, while
others had problems with flooding caused
by the river. As a solution to this dilemma,
the Sumerians created dikes and irrigation
canals to bring water to farmlands and at
the same time control the flooding of the
rivers. This method was considered as one
of the world’s most beneficial engineering
works. Through the dikes and canals, the
Sumerians were able to enjoy year-long
farming and harvesting, which increased
their food production.
Sailboats - Another challenge to
the Sumerians was
transportation. At that time, the
wheel was not yet invented; the
main mode of transportation was
through waterways such as rivers
and seas. Boats were used to
carry large quantities of products
and were able to cover large
distances. However, they wanted
to discover faraway lands to
settle since the population was
getting larger, and boats were not
enough to accommodate more
people and products. They
needed a mode of transportation
that did not require much human
resource.
Wheel - In the latter part of their
history, the Sumerians were able
to invent the wheel since the
specialized tools needed to
create it were already available.
The first wheel were not made for
transportation but for farm work
and food processes. With the use
of the wheel and axle, mass
production was made easier.
Farmers were able to mill grains
with less effort in less time.
The Plow - Another farm technology invented by the Mesopotamians is the plow.
Humans evolved from being food gatherers to farm cultivations. However, farmers
needed a technology which would enable them to dig the ground where seeds
would be planted. The plow was invented to dig earth in a faster pace. As the plow
breaks the ground, the farmer would just drop the seeds and farm work would
already be done. With this tool, farmers could cultivate larger parcels of land
faster, enabling them to mass produce food without taking so much effort and time.
▪ In order to facilitate faster and easier travel, the Sumerians
developed the first roads. With this work, the flow of traffic
became faster and more organized. They made the roads with
the same technology they used in making the sun-baked
bricks that they laid down on the ground. They later poured
bitumen, a black sticky substance similar to asphalt, to
smoothen the roads. The invention of roads was very useful
especially during the rainy season when travelling in soft and
muddy roads proved to be difficult.
▪ Babylonian civilization emerged near the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers. The Babylonians were great
builders, engineers, and architects. One of their major
contributions is the hanging gardens of Babylon, one
of the seven wonders of the ancient world.
Hanging Gardens of Babylon - Today,
people can only marvel at the beauty of the
famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon from
stories of historians and paintings that portray
the place. It was said to be a structure made
up of layers upon layers of gardens that
contained several species of plants, trees,
and vines. According to legends, the great
Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II built the
gardens for his wife, Queen Amytis. However,
no physical evidence has been found to
prove the existence of the Hanging Gardens
of Babylon. Its exact location is also
unknown. True or not, hearing the stories and
description of the place would be enough to
inspire awe to anyone. One can imagine the
thick greenery decorated by beautiful flowers
coming from different places in the garden
and complicated design of the infrastructure.
Paper or Papyrus - One of the
earlier contributions of Egyptian
civilization was the papyrus.
Although Egypt was not the first
to develop a system of writing,
they were able to make writing
easier for the world. Before the
Egyptian innovation, clay tablets
were used. However, safe-
keeping and transporting them
were a major problem. Clay
tablets were very fragile, heavy,
and delicate to handle. So
bringing them to places was a
major challenge.
▪ When the Egyptians invented the papyrus or the paper,
engraving ceased to be used in writing. As a result, the
Egyptians invented ink by combining soot with different
chemicals to produce inks of different colors. The ink must
withstand the elements of nature since it was used to record
history, culture, and codified laws. It must also be tamper-
proof so that people could not simply tinker with those written
down by authorities.
Hieroglyphics - Like the
Sumerians, the Egyptians also
developed a system of writing
using symbols, known as
hieroglyphics. Although some
say that hieroglyphics was
adapted from the early writing
system established in
Mesopotamia as a result of trade
between civilizations, the
Egyptians believed that this
writing system was provided to
them by their gods. Their
records were well-preserved
since they were carved at the
walls of pyramids and other
important Egyptian structures.
▪ The Egyptian also invented the use of cosmetics. Although
cosmetics in the modern times are used to improve and
highlight the facial features of a person, their function in
ancient Egypt was for both health and aesthetic reasons.
Egyptians wore kohl was created by mixing soot or malachite
with mineral galena. Egyptians also believed that a person
wearing make-up was protected from evil and that beauty
was a sign of holiness. At present, the cosmetic industry is a
booming multibillion industry.
Wig - Another cosmetic
invention of ancient Egyptians is
the wig. during the ancient
Egyptian times, wigs were worn
for health and wellness rather
than for aesthetics purposes.
The wigs were used to protect
the shaved heads of the wealthy
Egyptians from the harmful rays
of the sun. Wearing a wig was
better than putting on a scarf or
any other head cover since a
wig allowed heat to escape.
 Water clock/Clepsydra –
Another important ancient
Egyptian contribution is the water
clock. This device utilizes gravity
that affects the flow of water from
one vessel to the other. The
amount of water (or its height,
depending on the method used)
remaining in the device
determines how much time has
elapsed since it is full. In the
process, time is measured. The
water clock was widely used as a
timekeeping device during the
ancient times.
GREEK CIVILIZATION
Greece is an archipelago in the southeastern part
of Europe. Known as the birthplace of western
philosophy, some of the major achievements of the
Greeks include in-depth works on philosophy and
mathematics. More than coliseums and the Olympics,
the Greek civilization has contributed much to the
world especially in the fields of science and
technology.
▪ One of the first Greek mathematicians was Thales. He studied
geometry and was the one who invented the “Thales Theorem”
about circles, lines, angles, and triangles.
▪ Another Greek named Pythagoras also studied geometry and
discovered the Pythagorean Theorem which is still used today
to find the sides of a triangle.
▪ Perhaps the most important Greek mathematician was Euclid.
Euclid wrote several books about geometry called Elements.
These books became the standard textbook on the subject for
2000 years.
Alarm Clock – One of the most utilized
gadgets today that was invented by the
ancient Greeks is the alarm clock.
Although the alarm clock during that
time did not resemble the present-day
alarm clock, the purpose was just the
same to tell an individual when to stop
or when to start. The ancient Greek’s
alarm clock used large complicated
mechanisms to time the alarm. They
made use of water (or sometimes small
stones or sand) that dropped into
drums which sounded the alarm.
 Watermills were also considered as one of the most
important contributions of the Greek civilization to the world.
They were commonly used in agricultural processes like
milling of grains which was a necessary form of food
processing during that time. Because milling was made
possible by the use watermills, the mass production of rice,
cereals, flours, and the like became common.
▪ was perceived to be the strongest political and
social entity in the west. It was considered to be the
cradle of politics and governance during that period.
Because the Roman Empire was so large, other
civilization looked up to it as their model in terms of
legislation and codified laws.
▪ Ancient Rome was the wellspring for many modern government
programs, including measures that subsidized food, education, and
other expenses for the needy. These programs date back to 122 B.C.,
when the tribune Gaius Gracchus instituted lex frumentaria, a law
that ordered Rome’s Government to supply its citizens with
allotments of cheaply priced grained.
▪ This early form of welfare continued under Trajan, who implemented
a program known as “alimenta” to help feed clothe and educate
orphans and poor children.
▪ Other items including wine, bread, oil, and pork were eventually
added to the list of price-controlled goods, which may have been
collected with tokens called “tesserae.”
▪ The Romans first began building with concrete over 2,100
years ago and used it throughout the Mediterranean basin in
everything from aqueducts and buildings to bridges and
monuments.
▪ Considerably weaker than its modern counter part but has
proved remarkably durable thanks to its unique recipe,
which used slake lime and volcanic ash known as pozzalana
to create a sticky paste. Combined with volcanic stones call
tuff, ancient cement formed concrete that could effectively
endure chemical decay.
Newspaper - One of the
major contributions of the
Romans is the newspaper.
The first newspapers, known
as gazettes, contained
announcements of the Roman
Empire to the people. Made
before the invention of paper,
these gazettes were engraved
in metal or stone tablets and
then publicly displayed.
Books or Codex - With the invention of
paper, it became easier for civilizations to
write down everything that happened in their
time. Record-keeping was much easier since
paper did not easily break, was lightweight,
and did not occupy much space. As a result,
civilization became fond of record-keeping,
especially documenting historical events and
newly legislated laws.
Ancient historians note that Julius Ceasar
created the early version of a codex by
stacking pages of papyrus to form a primitive
notebook, but bound codices did not become
popular in Rome until the first century or
thereabouts.
Roman Architecture - Roman
architecture is one of the most
visual contributions of the ancient
Roman Empire to the world.
Roman architecture was
considered a continuation of
Greek architecture, hence, the
resemblance. However, roman
architecture was still regarded as
pioneering since the Romans
were able to adapt new building
and engineering technology on
architectural designs established
in the past.
▪ Roman Numerals - Although other
number systems had already been
established before the Roman numeral,
these old systems could not keep up
with high calculation requirements due
to the increasing rate of communication
and trade among nations. Since the
Roman Empire was expanding, it had to
deal with many nations to maintain its
power. For this reason, the Romans
devised their own number system
specifically to address the need for a
standard counting method that would
meet their increasing communication
and trade concerns.
▪ The Chinese Civilization is considered to be the oldest
civilization in Asia, if not the world. Also known as the middle
kingdom, China is located on the far east of Asia. It was
famous among other ancient civilizations because of its silk
trade. Not a great amount was written about ancient China
partly due to its distance from the other civilizations. Despite
its less popular status among the early civilizations, one
cannot discredit the significant contributions of Chinese
civilization to the world.
▪ Silk - One of the things that connected
Far East China to the world is silk.
Although silk is naturally produced by
silk worms, the Chinese were the ones
who developed the technology to
harvest the silk and process it to
produce paper and clothing. Silk
production resulted in the creation of a
production of trade. The silk trade
opened China to the outside world,
making way for cultural, economic, and
scientific exchanges. It bridged the gap
between the western world and the
middle kingdom.
Tea Production - Tea production was
developed when an unknown Chinese
inventor created a machine that was able
to shred tea leaves into strips. This
machine was done using a wheel-based
mechanism with sharp edges attached to a
wooden or ceramic pot. Because of this
invention, the Chinese were able to
increase their production of tea and trade
with other nations. China thus became
known for its tea exports aside from its silk
products. Tea production developed by the
ancient Chinese may have resulted in
making tea as one of the most popular
beverages in the world today.
Great Wall of China - It was
constructed to keep out foreign
invaders and control the borders of
china. Made with stone, brick, wood,
earth, and other materials, it
showcased the extent of Chinese
engineering technology at that time.
The structure was so massive and
strong that it was said to have literally
divided china from the rest of the
world. The wall’s construction put the
nation among the powerful civilization
during the ancient times. It was the
pride of their land and their crowning
glory. Today, with some sections
already ruins, the great wall still
continues to be a world attraction due
to its historical significance and
architectural grandeur.
▪ Three dynasties contributed to complete
the construction of the Great Wall of
China:
▪ Qin Dynasty
▪ Han Dynasty
▪ Ming Dynasty
▪ Shih Huang Ti of Han Dynasty constructed
the first stage of the wall in 221 B.C.E.
▪ Great Wall was mostly built during the
Ming Dynasty.
▪ Great Wall of China is about 6400 km long
Gunpowder - The gunpowder is
one of the most interesting
inventions in China. Originally, it
was developed by Chinese
alchemists who aimed to achieve
immortality. They mixed charcoal,
sulfur, and potassium nitrate, but
instead of creating an elixir of life,
the accidently invented a black
powder that could actually
generate large amounts of heat
and gas in an instant.
▪ After the Chinese developed woodblock
printing, Johann Gutenberg was able to invent
the printing press, a more reliable way of printing
using a cast type. He utilized wooden machines
that extracted juices from fruits, attached to
them a metal impression of the letters, and
pressed firmly the cast metal into a piece of
paper, which then made an exact impression on
paper.
▪ To develop the proper medicines for
illness, experts must understand the
sickness through an investigation. Thus,
they needed a device that could magnify
things invisible to the eye.
▪The invention of the telescope, an optical
instrument that helps in the observation of
remote objects, was a great help for navigators
during this time. Together with the telescope,
the invention of the compass, oars, and rudders
made sea travelling easier and safer (Helden,
1989).
▪Since wars were widespread during the Middle
Ages, great development in the weaponry
technology also occurred. All sides must
develop weaponries not only as offensive tools
but also as defensive instruments. For open-
area battles, people developed cross bows so
that they could attack the enemies at long
ranges, keeping themselves safe with the
protection of walls and fortresses.
▪As people were able to develop better means of
production to meet the needs of population,
food preservation and food safety became an
issue. The challenge to keep manufactured
food from deteriorating was greater for dairy
products, especially milk, since they usually
spoiled faster.
▪Kerosene was later on referred to as the
“illuminating oil” because it was used at first to
provide lighting to homes. After some time, it
was applied for heating purposes. The
development of kerosene established the
petroleum refinery industry (Skrabec, 2010). At
present, petroleum is widely used in powering
automobiles, factories, and power plants,
among others.
▪ The more people got concerned by trade and exploration, the
more they needed a way to easily maintain these
connections and communicate with each other in real time.
Governments likewise needed some kind of communication
system which would allow them to administer their states
well. Important day-to-day decisions must be discussed and
addressed at the fastest time possible. Thus, the
development of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell was
one of the most important inventions at that time.
▪ Although an earlier version of the calculator had
already been developed, circumstances in the
modern times required a faster way to compute more
complicated equations. Computing devices must also
be easy to carry since they would be utilized on a
day-to-day basis. The creation of modern calculators
did not only pave the way for easier arithmetic
calculations, but also resulted in the development of
more complex processing machines like the
computer.
▪ It has become ordinary for Filipinos to convert
transport vehicles into something more useful. An
example is the conversion of American military jeeps
used in World War II into jeepneys. Another Filipino
innovation is the addition of a sidecar to a motorcycle,
transforming into a tricycle to accommodate more
passengers.
▪ One of the major needs in the Philippines, as a
developing nation, is electrification. Electricity powers
various types of machines, including light sources. In
many rural areas in the country, activities would
cease when it gets dark. It also becomes more
dangerous to travel. Filipinos have resorted to using
candles and kerosene lamps but they carry certain
risks as they are fire hazards.
▪ A common in the Philippines is the high mortality rate
of newborn babies. One reason for this problem in the
20th century was the lack of resources and electricity.
Dr. Fe del Mundo, a Filipino pediatrician and the first
Asian woman admitted into Harvard Medical School,
devised a medical incubator made from indigenous
and cheap materials which did not run on electricity.
Dr. del Mundo’s incubator was made by placing a
native laundry basket inside a bigger one.
▪ Dengue, a mosquito-borne viral illness, is endemic in
tropical and subtropical areas, including the
Philippines. This virus is usually transmitted by Aedes
aegypti mosquito, rampant during the rainy season.
Insecticides were previously used to kill the species.
However, recent studies show that insecticide
resistance has evolved in some mosquito
populations. Likewise, using insecticides is harmful
not only to humans but also to the environment.
▪ A major innovation that changed the transportation
industry in the Philippines was the development of the
jeepney. This iconic public utility vehicle was built using
the military jeeps left by the Americans after World War II.
The chassis and the body of the military jeeps were
extended to accommodate more load and passengers.
Because of its usefulness, the jeepney dominated
Philippine streets and is considered as the primary mode
of transportation of most Filipinos. However, the diesel
powered jeepney produces large quantities of black
smoke, and usually contributor of noise pollution due to
its primitive exhaust system.
▪ This lesson will give the light to the development of science
and scientific ideas in the heart of the society. It is the goal
of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is
transformed by science and technology. Some of the
questions which will be answered in this lesson are: What
were the great Intellectual Revolutions that significantly
shaped our society? What made these new theories
controversial? Who were these people or groups of people
behind these upheavals that permanently changed the
course of history of Science? What were their needs, and
what were their struggles that motivated them to engage in
such scholarly contribution?
Learning Objectives:

1. Articulate ways by which society is transformed by

science and technology
2. Explain how intellectual revolution changed how
humans see the world
3. Select a revolutionary scientist and present a
persuasive speech representing his/her theory
 Freudian Revolution
▪ Psychoanalysis is the study that explains
human behavior. In this theory, Freud explained
that there are many conscious and unconscious
factors that can influence behavior and
emotions.

▪ He also argued that personality is a product of

three conflicting elements: id, ego, and
superego.
ID – Pleasure principle, Libido (sexual energy), in
contrast with the superego

Superego – Moral principle, Develops around 5/6,

Child internalizes moral codes of the society

Ego – Reality principle, develops in childhood, balances

the demands of the id and moral rules of the super ego
 Nicolaus Copernicus

▪ Greek Philosopher/Thinker
▪ he did not do anything extensive such as observing
heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his ideas.
His ideas were an example of what is presently called
a thought experiment or devices of imagination.
▪ His ideas were an example of what is presently called
a thought experiment or devices of imagination. For
nearly 2000 years, civilization and astronomy was
dominated by the Aristotle and Ptolemaic model of
the universe. Those views began to change with
Nicolaus Copernicus’ model.
▪ The Copernican model was heliocentric. In
his book On the Revolutions of Celestial
Spheres, Copernicus outlined his argument
that the sun, not the Earth was the center
of the universe. His model explained the
retrograde motion of some planets from
Earth’s perspective. This was because the
Earth orbits the sun faster than some
planets and slower than others.
▪ In his model, Copernicus outline two kinds
of planetary motion: (1) the orbits of
Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of
the Earth, thus closer to the sun; and (2)
the orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay
outside the Earth’s orbit, thus, farther
from the Sun.
▪ Although the Copernican model
makes sense now, during those
times, it was judged to be heretic
and therefore it was an
unacceptable idea to be taught to
Catholics. The Catholic Church
banned the Copernican model and
was ignored by Rome for the rest
of the 16th century.
 Darwinian Revolution
▪ The Darwinian revolution was considered to be one
of the most controversial intellectual revolutions of
its time.
▪ In 1859, Charles Darwin, an English naturalist,
biologist, and geologist, published his book, On the
Origin of Species. In this book, Darwin introduced
the Theory of evolution, which posited that
populations pass through a process of natural
selection in which only the fittest would survive.
▪ He stated that organisms have the ability to adapt to
their environment and would gradually change into
something that would be more competitive to
survive, a process known as evolution.
Factors in Natural Selection:
▪ Variation
▪ Overproduction
▪ Survival of the Fittest
▪ Heritability
▪ Those organisms with heritable traits better suited
to the environment will reach maturity to survive.
▪ More organisms are produced that can actually
survive.
▪ According to Charles Darwin, “it is not the strongest
of the species that survive, nor the most intelligent,
but the one most responsive to change.
▪ Changes in the environment will be inherited by
their offspring.
▪ Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central
America from Southern Mexico up to the boarder of
South America. There is no doubt that the
Mesoamerican region is rich in culture and knowledge
prior to the arrival of its European colonizers.
▪ The Mayan civilization is one of the famous civilizations that
lasted for approximately 2,000 years. These people are
known for their works in astronomy. They incorporated their
advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples for
astronomical observation. For example, the pyramid at
Chichen Itza in Mexico is situated at the location of the Sun
during the spring and fall equinoxes.
One step represents each day of the
year in the temple's 365 stairs. The
summit platform is reached after
climbing the 365th of the temple's 91
stairs on each of its four corners.
▪ The ancient mayans were avid astronomers,
recording and interpreting every aspect of the sky.
They believed that the will and actions of the gods
could be read in the stars, moon, and planets, so
they decided time to doing so, and many of their
most important buildings were built with astronomy
in mind.
▪ Is a 365-day calendar which is divided into 18 months of 20 days each and one
month which is only 5 days long (Uayeb). The calendar has an outer ring of Mayan
glyphs (pictures) which represent each of 19 months.
▪ Is a 365-day calendar
which is divided into 18
months of 20 days each
and one month which is
only 5 days long
(Uayeb). The calendar
has an outer ring of
Mayan glyphs (pictures)
which represent each of
19 months.
▪ “the distribution of the days”, is also called Divine Calendar and the Sacred Round.
It is a 260-day calendar with 20 periods of 13 days, and it is used to determine the
time of religious and ceremonial events.
▪ Is an astronomical calendar which is used to track
longer periods of time. The Maya called it the
universal cycle. Each cycle is calculated to be
2,880,000 days long (about 7885 solar years). The
Mayans believed that the universe is destroyed and
then recreated at the start of each cycle. This
belief caused the 2012 phenomenon described
above, and it still inspires a myriad of prophecies
about the end of world.
▪ The Mayans also developed the technology for
growing different crops and building elaborate cities
using ordinary machineries and tools. They built
hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to
supply water to different communities.
▪ Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt
themselves to innovations especially in the field of
arts. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and
devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from
mineral called mica.
▪ They also believed to be one of the first people to
produce rubber products 3,000 years before
Goodyear received its patent in 1844.
▪ The Mayans are considered one of the most
scientifically advanced societies in Mesoamerica. They
are also famous as one of the world’s first civilizations
to use a writing system known as the Mayan
hieroglyphics.
▪ The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica.
The Incas made advanced scientific ideas
considering their limitations as an old civilization.
▪ The Inca's greatest technological skill was
engineering. The best example is their amazing
system of roads. The Incas built roads across the
length of and width of their empire. To create routes
through steep mountain ranges, they carved
staircases and gouged tunnels out of rock.
1. roads paved with stones;

2. stone buildings that surmounted for storing water for their crops to grow in all types
of land;
3. irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of
land;
4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for
planting season;
5. the first suspension bridge;

6. quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and

7. Inca textiles since cloth were one of the specially prized artistic achievements.
▪ Regardless of a person's class or gender, education was required for all
Aztecs. When kids were young, adults were in charge of their
education. Individuals in Aztec society were usually well educated,
while boys continued to enjoy privileges and had a wider education
than girls.
▪ Although civility and respect were major components of Aztec
schooling, discipline was frequently exceedingly harsh. The Aztec
parents up until the age of eight educated their children through
verbal reprimands. For the older youngster, however, harsh penalties
would be in store as he grew older to help him prepare for the more
challenging aspects of Aztec life.
▪ Children in the Aztec culture used to play with marbles, stones, and
bows and arrows. When they were teenagers, they might engage in
games like Patolli and the fabled Aztec ball game Ullamaliztli. At
home and at school, they would practice playing musical instruments.
They would learn a lot of Aztec national songs while they were
between the ages of 12 and 15.
▪ The kids attended the same school when they were younger. But when
they grew older, they divided into two principal branches. One branch
had the Calmecac, a school for the aristocracy, and the Telpochcalli, a
school for the destitute.
▪ Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many
ancient civilizations. It is a host to many cultural, economic,
scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the field of science,
technology, and mathematics, great civilizations have stood out:
India, China and the Middle East Civilizations. These civilizations were
incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of
knowledge during their time.
▪ India is also famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a
system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India
before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a form of alternative
medicine.
▪ Its goal is to cleanse the mind, body, and spirit.
▪ Some ancient texts, like the Susruta Samhita, describe
different surgical and other medical procedures famous in
Ancient India.
▪ Ancient india is also notable in the field of astronomy. They
developed theories on the configuration of the universe, the
spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year 360 dayswith 12
equal parts of 30 days each.
▪ The divisions of the year were on the basis of religious rites
and seasons (Rtu). The duration from mid March—mid May
was taken to be spring (vasanta), mid May—mid July:
summer (grishma), mid July—mid September: rains (varsha),
mid September—mid November: autumn (sharad), mid
November—mid January: winter (hemanta), mid January—
mid March: the dews (shishir).
▪ The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a
product of centuries of experiences and discovery of
the Chinese people. They discovered various
medical properties and uses of different plants and
animals to cure human illness. An example is the
practice of acupuncture.
▪ Acupuncture, ancient Chinese medical technique for relieving
pain, curing disease, and improving general health. It was
devised before 2500 bce in China and by the late 20th century
was used in many other areas of the world
▪ As a preventative medicine, acupuncture boosts the immune
system, promotes healthy circulation, aids in organ and cell
detoxification, decreases inflammation, and helps your body
respond to stress in a healthy way.
▪ Instead of needles, sharpened stones and long sharp bones were
used around 6000 BCE for acupuncture treatment.
 In the field of
astronomy, the Chinese
also made significant
records on supernovas,
lunar and solar
eclipses, and comets,
which were carefully
recorded and preserved
to understand better
the heavenly bodies
and their effects to our
world. They observed it
to understand weather
changes and seasons
that may affect their
daily activities.

Dunhuang Star Map, from Tang Dynasty (public domain)

▪ The Chinese calendar a.k.a. the Lunar Calendae is based on the
motion of the moon and sun.
▪ Each year on the Chinese calendar has a zodiac sign, 12 or 13 months,
and 29 or 30 days in each month. A year will have 354 or 355 days if
there are 12 months, and 383 or 384 days if there are 13 months. The
traditional Chinese calendar is widely used to identify the 24 solar
periods, traditional festivals, and helps to choose a lucky day before
key activities like marriage and moving into a new home, even though
China has embraced the Gregorian calendar for official and business
purposes.
▪ The first day of a lunar month is known as "Chu Yi" or "Shuo
Ri," which in Chinese refers to the moment the moon aligns
with the earth and the sun to start a new month. The
middle of the month is when the full moon appears. A full
moon cycle lasts slightly longer than 29 days, therefore a
month has either 29 or 30 days.
▪ A lunar year has 12 to 13 months.