Chapter Four

4 Design of Flexible Machine Elements: Belt Drives and Chain Drives

4.1 Introduction
Belts, ropes, chains, and other similar elastic or flexible machine elements are used in conveying
systems and in the transmission of mechanical power from where it’s generated to a place where it is
used to perform work over comparatively long distances. Nearly all machines have some kind of
power and motion transmission from an input source. It often happens that these elements can be
used as a replacement for gears, shafts, bearings, and other relatively rigid power-transmission devices.
In many cases their use simplifies the design of a machine and substantially reduces the cost.

In addition, since these elements are elastic and usually quite long, they play an important part in
absorbing shock loads and in damping out and isolating the effects of vibration. This is an important
advantage as far as machine life is concerned.

Most flexible elements do not have an infinite life. When they are used, it is important to establish an
inspection schedule to guard against wear, aging, and loss of elasticity. The elements should be
replaced at the first sign of deterioration.

4.2 Belt Drives

The belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys which
rotate at the same speed or at different speeds. A belt drive consists of three elements-driving and
driven pulleys and an endless belt, which envelopes them. Belt drives are mainly used in electric
motors, automobiles, machine tools and conveyors.

Belt drives offer the following advantages compared with other types of drives:

a) Belt drives can transmit power over considerable distance between the axes of driving and
driven shafts.
b) The operation of belt drive is smooth and silent.
c) They can transmit only a definite load, which if exceeded, will cause the belt to slip over the
pulley, thus protecting the parts of the drive against overload.
d) They have the ability to absorb the shocks and damp vibration.
e) They are simple to design.
f) They have low initial cost.

The disadvantages of belt drives compared to other types of drives are as follows:

a. Belt drives have large dimensions and occupy more space.

b. The velocity ratio is not constant due to belt slip.
c. They impose heavy loads on shafts and bearings.
d. There is considerable loss of power resulting in low efficiency.
e. Belt drives have comparatively short service life.

It may be noted that:

 a) The shafts should be properly in line to insure uniform tension across the belt section.
b) The pulleys should not be too close together, in order that the arc of contact on the smaller
pulley may be as large as possible.
c) The pulleys should not be so far apart as to cause the belt to weigh heavily on the shafts, thus
increasing the friction load on the bearings.
d) A long belt tends to swing from side to side, causing the belt to run out of the pulleys, which
in turn develops crooked spots in the belt.
e) The tight side of the belt should be at the bottom, so that whatever sag is present on the loose
side will increase the arc of contact at the pulleys.
f) In order to obtain good results with flat belts, the maximum distance between the shafts
should not exceed 10 metres and the minimum should not be less than 3.5 times the diameter
of the larger pulley.

The amount of power transmitted depends upon the following factors:

1. The velocity of the belt.

2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys.
3. The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley.
4. The conditions under which the belt is used.

4.2.1 Selection of a Belt Drive

Following are the various important factors upon which the selection of a belt drive depends:

1. Speed of the driving and driven shafts,

2. Speed reduction ratio,
3. Power to be transmitted,
4. Centre distance between the shafts,
5. Positive drive requirements,
6. Shafts layout,
7. Space available, and
8. Service conditions.

4.2.2 Types of Belt Drives

The belt drives are classified based on their specific applications. They are usually classified into the
following three groups:

1. Light drives. These are used to transmit small powers (approximately 5 kW) at belt speeds
upto about 10 m/s as in agricultural machines (pumps, blowers, fans, etc.,) and small machine
tools.
2. Medium drives. These are used to transmit medium powers (approximately 5 kW up to 20
kW) at belt speeds over 10 m/s but up to 22 m/s, as in machine tools and generators, etc.
3. Heavy drives. These are used to transmit large powers (above 20 kW) at belt speeds above
22 m/s as in compressors and generators, crushers, bucket elevators, marine engines etc.
4.2.3 Types of Belts
There are many types of belts used: Depending upon the shape of the cross-section, they are:

1. Flat belt; narrow rectangular cross-section

2. V-belt; trapezoidal cross-section
3. Circular belt; circular cross-section
4. Toothed belt

Figure 4-1: Types of belts

1. Flat belt. The flat belt as shown in Fig. 4.1 (a), is mostly used in the factories and workshops,
farming, mining and logging applications where a moderate amount of power is to be
transmitted, from one pulley to another when the two pulleys are not more than 8 metres
apart. Crowned pulleys are used for flat belts.
2. V- belt. The V-belt as shown in Fig. 4.1 (b). The V- belts are generally endless and their cross-
section shape is trapezoidal. The V-shape of belt tracks in a mating groove in the shaft, with
the result that the belt cannot slip off. They are mostly used in the factories and workshops,
where a great amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two
pulleys are very near to each other. Grooved pulleys, or sheaves for round and V belts.
3. Circular belt or rope. The circular belt or rope as shown in Fig. 4.1 (c) is mostly used in the
factories and workshops, where a great amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley
to another, when the two pulleys are more than 8 metres apart.
The advantages of round belts are as follows:
a) Round belts can operate satisfactorily over pulleys in several different planes. They are
suitable for 90° twist, reverse bends or serpentine drives.
b) They can be stretched over the pulley and snapped into the groove very easily. This
makes the assembly and replacement simple.
Round belts are limited to light duties. They are used in dishwasher drives, sewing machines,
vacuum cleaners and light textile machinery.

4. Ribbed V-belts/Timing belts/ Toothed belt/ Synchronous belt. The toothed belt, is
made as a flexible belt with teeth moulded onto its inner surface. They require toothed wheels,
or sprockets. They can maintain exactly the same angular position of the driven shaft with
respect to driving shaft. A ribbed V-belt is a positive drive. These belts combine the high
velocity characteristic of the belt drive with positive power transmission of the chain drive.
Since toothed belts can also deliver more power that a friction drive belt, they are used for
high power transmissions such as include primary drive of some motor cycles.
 A timing belt is made of a rubberized fabric coated with a nylon fabric, and has steel wire
within to take the tension load. It has teeth that fit into grooves cut on the periphery of the
pulleys. A timing belt does not stretch appreciably or slip and consequently transmits power
at a constant angular-velocity ratio. No initial tension is needed. Such belts can operate over a
very wide range of speeds, have efficiencies in the range of 97 to 99 percent, require no
lubrication, and are quieter than chain drives. There is no chordal-speed variation, as in chain
drives, and so they are an attractive solution for precision-drive requirements.

Ribbed V-belts are selected from manufacturer’s catalogue like flat or V-belts.

Ribbed V-belts offer the following advantages:

1. It is a positive drive; there is no slip and no variation in output speed.

2. It has high strength to weight ratio, which allows for high pitch line velocities of up to 80 m/s.
3. The belt is thin and flexible, which permits the use of small diameter pulleys as small as 15
mm in diameter.
4. The length of the belt does not increase appreciably during service due to steel cords.
Therefore, no tensioning device is required like flat belt drive.
5. The ribbed V-belt drive does not require any lubrication like chain drive.
6. The ribbed V-belt does not require initial tension like flat belt. This reduces bearing reactions.

The disadvantages of ribbed V-belt drives are as follows:

1) It is costly compared with flat or V-belts.

2) The construction of sprocket is difficult compared with the pulleys for flat or V-belts.
3) It is more sensitive to misalignment than V or flat belts.

Ribbed V-belts are used in automobiles for driving camshaft from an engine crankshaft. They are also
used in business machines, sewing machines, portable wood working machines, timing devices and
power transmission units.
If a huge amount of power is to be transmitted, wide pulleys (for V-belts or circular belts) with a
number of grooves are used. Then a belt in each groove is provided to transmit the required amount
of power from one pulley to another.

These belts have various working stresses and different densities. The standard flat belt thicknesses
are 5, 6.5, 8, 10 and 12 mm.

4.2.4 Material used for Belts

The material used for belts and ropes must be strong, flexible, and durable. It must have a high
coefficient of friction. The belts, according to the material used, are classified as follows:

1. Leather belts.
2. Cotton or fabric belts.
3. Rubber belt.
4. Balata belts.

4.2.5 Belt Joints

When the endless belts are not available, then the belts are cut from big rolls and the ends are joined
together by fasteners. The various types of joints are:

1. Cemented joint,
2. Laced joint, and
3. Hinged joint.

4.3 Flat Belt Drives

Flat belt drives can be used for transmitting large amount of power and there is no upper limit of
distance between the pulleys. These drives are efficient at high speeds and they offer noiseless running.
Flat belts are available for a wide range of width, thickness, weight and material.

4.3.1 Advantages of Flat-belt drive

1. Different velocity ratios can be obtained by using a stepped cone pulley.
2. A belt drive can be used as a clutch, by shifting the belt from fast pulley to loose pulley.
3. Design of flat belt drive is simple.
4. Flat belt drive is relatively cheap and easy to maintain.
5. Flat belt drives are flexible, which gives protection.
6. Close casing is not required, like a gear box.
7. Flat belt drives can be used for long centre distances (upto 15 metres)

4.3.2 Disadvantages of Flat-belt drive

1. Since velocity ratio is not constant, flat belt drive is not a positive drive.
2. Flat belt drives have larger dimensions and occupy more space.
3. Flat belt drive is not suitable for smaller centre distance (less than 1 metre).
4. Flat belts generate more noise than V-belts.
5. In general, flat-belt drives are horizontal and not vertical.
It is due to these reasons that flat belts are becoming less popular on the shop floor. Flat belts are
used in belt conveyors, baking machinery, brick and clay machinery, crushers, saw mills, textile
machinery, line shafts and bucket elevators.

4.3.3 Types of flat belt drives

The power from one pulley to another may be transmitted by any of the following types of belt drives:

1. Open belt drive

2. Crossed or twist belt drive
3. Quarter turn belt drive (right angle belt drive)
4. Belt drive with idler pulleys (jockey pulley drive)
5. Compound belt drive
6. Stepped or cone pulley drive
7. Fast and loose pulley drive

Task: Write notes about the above types of flat belt drives.

4.3.4 Velocity Ratio of a Belt Drive

It is the ratio between the velocities of the driver and the follower or driven. It may be expressed,
mathematically, as discussed below:

Let d1 = Diameter of the driver,

d2 = Diameter of the follower,

N1 = Speed of the driver in r.p.m.,

N2 = Speed of the follower in r.p.m.,

∴ Length of the belt that passes over the driver, in one minute

= πd1N1

Similarly, length of the belt that passes over the follower, in one minute

= πd2N2

Since the length of belt that passes over the driver in one minute is equal to the length of belt that
passes over the follower in one minute, therefore
The velocity ratio of a belt drive may also be obtained as discussed below:

We know that the peripheral velocity of the belt on the driving pulley,

and peripheral velocity of the belt on the driven pulley,

When there is no slip, then ν1 = ν2. Therefore,

In case of a compound belt drive, the velocity ratio is given by

4.3.5 Slip of the Belt

Sometimes, the frictional grip on belts is insufficient. This may cause some forward motion of the
driver without carrying the belt with it. This is called slip of the belt and is generally expressed as a
percentage.

The result of the belt slipping is to reduce the velocity ratio of the system. As the slipping of the belt
is a common phenomenon, thus the belt should never be used where a definite velocity ratio is of
importance.

Let s1% = Slip between the driver and the belt, and

s2% = Slip between the belt and follower,

Therefore, the velocity of the belt passing over the driver per second,

and velocity of the belt passing over the follower per second

Substituting the value of ν from equation (i), we have

If thickness of the belt (t) is considered, then

4.3.6 Creep of Belt

When the belt passes from the slack side to the tight side, a certain portion of the belt extends and it
contracts again when the belt passes from the tight side to the slack side. Due to these changes of
length, there is a relative motion between the belt and the pulley surfaces. This relative motion is
termed as creep. The total effect of creep is to reduce slightly the speed of the driven pulley or follower.
Considering creep, the velocity ratio is given by
Where

Note: Since the effect of creep is very small, therefore it is generally neglected.

4.3.7 Length of an Open Belt Drive

In an open belt drive, both the pulleys rotate in the same direction.

Figure 4-2: Open belt drive.

Let r1 and r2 = Radii of the larger and smaller pulleys,

x = Distance between the centres of two pulleys (i.e. O1O2), and

L = Total length of the belt.

Let the belt leaves the larger pulley at E and G and the smaller pulley at F and H as shown in Fig. 4.2.
Through O2 draw O2M parallel to FE.

From the geometry of the figure, we find that O2M will be perpendicular to O1E.

Let the angle MO2O1 = α radians.

And
4.3.8 Length of a Cross Belt Drive
A cross belt drive, both the pulleys rotate in the opposite directions as shown in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4-3: Crossed belt drive.

Let r1 and r2 = Radii of the larger and smaller pulleys,

x = Distance between the centres of two pulleys (i.e. O1O2), and

L = Total length of the belt.

Let the belt leaves the larger pulley at E and G and the smaller pulley at F and H as shown in Figure
4.3.

Through O2 draw O2M parallel to FE.

From the geometry of the figure, we find that O2M will be perpendicular to O1E.

Let the angle MO2O1 = α radians.

We know that the length of the belt,

L = Arc GJE + EF + Arc FKH + HG

= 2 (Arc JE + FE + Arc FK) ...(i)

And

Expanding this equation by binomial theorem, we have

Substituting the values of arc JE from equation (iii), arc FK from equation (iv) and EF from equation
(v) in equation (i), we get,
4.3.9 Power Transmitted by a Belt
Figure 4-4 shows the driving pulley (or driver) A and the driven pulley (or follower) B. The driving
pulley pulls the belt from one side and delivers it to the other side. It is thus obvious that the tension
on the former side (i.e. tight side) will be greater than the latter side (i.e. slack side) as shown in Figure
4-4.

Figure 4-4: Power transmitted by a belt.

Let T1 and T2 = Tensions in the tight side and slack side of the belt respectively in Newtons,

r1 and r2 = Radii of the driving and driven pulleys respectively in metres,

and ν = Velocity of the belt in m/s.

The effective turning (driving) force at the circumference of the driven pulley or follower is the
difference between the two tensions (i.e. T1 – T2).
∴ Work done per second = (T1 – T2)ν N-m/s

and power transmitted = (T1 – T2)ν W ………….….(1N-m/s = 1W)

A little consideration will show that torque exerted on the driving pulley is (T1 – T2) r1.

Similarly, the torque exerted on the driven pulley is (T1 – T2) r2.

4.3.10 Ratio of Driving Tensions for Flat Belt Drive

Consider a driven pulley rotating in the clockwise direction as shown in Figure 4-5.

Figure 4-5: Ratio of driving tensions for flat belt.

Let T1 = Tension in the belt on the tight side,

T2 = Tension in the belt on the slack side, and

θ = Angle of contact in radians (i.e. angle subtended by the arc AB, along which the belt
touches the pulley, at the centre).

Now consider a small portion of the belt PQ, subtending an angle δθ at the centre of the pulley as
shown in Fig. 4-5. The belt PQ is in equilibrium under the following forces:

1. Tension T in the belt at P,

2. Tension (T + δT) in the belt at Q,

3. Normal reaction RN, and

4. Frictional force F = μ × RN, where μ is the coefficient of friction between the belt and pulley.
Example 4-1
Two pulleys, one 450 mm diameter and the other 200 mm diameter, on parallel shafts 1.95 m apart
are connected by a crossed belt. Find the length of the belt required and the angle of contact between
the belt and each pulley.

What power can be transmitted by the belt when the larger pulley rotates at 200 rev/min, if the
maximum permissible tension in the belt is 1 kN, and the coefficient of friction between the belt and
pulley is 0.25?

Solution. Given: d1 = 450 mm = 0.45 m or r1 = 0.225 m; d2 = 200 mm = 0.2 m or r2 = 0.1 m; x =

1.95 m; N1 = 200 r.p.m.; T1 = 1 kN = 1000 N; μ = 0.25

The arrangement of crossed belt drive is shown in Figure below.

4.3.11 Centrifugal Tension
Since the belt continuously runs over the pulleys, therefore, some centrifugal force is caused, whose
effect is to increase the tension on both the tight as well as the slack sides. The tension caused by
centrifugal force is called centrifugal tension. At lower belt speeds (less than 10 m/s), the centrifugal
tension is very small, but at higher belt speeds (more than 10 m/s), its effect is considerable and thus
should be taken into account.

Consider a small portion PQ of the belt subtending an angle dθ at the centre of the pulley, as shown
in Fig. 4-6.

Figure 4-6: Centrifugal tension.

Let m = Mass of belt per unit length in kg,

v = Linear velocity of belt in m/s,

r = Radius of pulley over which the belt runs in metres, and

TC= Centrifugal tension acting tangentially at P and Q in newtons.

We know that length of the belt PQ

= r.dθ

and mass of the belt PQ = m.r.dθ

∴ Centrifugal force acting on the belt PQ,

The centrifugal tension TC acting tangentially at P and Q keeps the belt in equilibrium. Now resolving
the forces (i.e. centrifugal force and centrifugal tension) horizontally, we have

Notes: 1. When centrifugal tension is taken into account, then total tension in the tight side,

Tt1 = T1 + TC

and total tension in the slack side,

Tt2 = T2 + TC

2. Power transmitted,

P = (Tt1 – Tt2) v ...(in watts)

= [(T1 + TC) – (T2 + TC)]v = (T1 – T2) v

Thus, we see that the centrifugal tension has no effect on the power transmitted.

3. The ratio of driving tensions may also be written as

where Tt1 = Maximum or total tension in the belt.

4.3.12 Maximum Tension in the Belt

A little consideration will show that the maximum tension in the belt (T) is equal to the total tension
in the tight side of the belt (Tt1).

Let σ = Maximum safe stress,

b = Width of the belt, and

t = Thickness of the belt.

We know that the maximum tension in the belt,

T = Maximum stress × Cross-sectional area of belt = σ.b.t

When centrifugal tension is neglected, then

T (or Tt1) = T1, i.e. Tension in the tight side of the belt.

When centrifugal tension is considered, then

T (or Tt1) = T1 + TC

4.3.13 Condition for the Transmission of Maximum Power

We know that the power transmitted by a belt,

P = (T1 – T2) v ................................................................................(i)

where T1 = Tension in the tight side in newtons,

T2 = Tension in the slack side in newtons, and

ν = Velocity of the belt in m/s.

The ratio of driving tensions is

Substituting the value of T2 in equation (i), we have

Where

We know that

T 1 = T – TC

where T = Maximum tension to which the belt can be subjected in newtons, and

TC = Centrifugal tension in newtons.

Substituting the value of T1 in equation (iii), we have

Example 4-2
A leather belt 9 mm × 250 mm is used to drive a cast iron pulley 900 mm in diameter at 336 r.p.m. If
the active arc on the smaller pulley is 120° and the stress in tight side is 2 MPa, find the power capacity
of the belt. The density of leather may be taken as 980 kg/m3, and the coefficient of friction of leather
on cast iron is 0.35.

Alternatively,

The power capacity of the belt, when centrifugal tension is taken into account, may also be obtained
as discussed below:
Example 4-3
A flat belt is required to transmit 30 kW from a pulley of 1.5 m effective diameter running at 300
r.p.m. The angle of contact is spread over 11/24 of the circumference. The coefficient of friction
between the belt and pulley surface is 0.3. Determine, taking centrifugal tension into account, width
of the belt required. It is given that the belt thickness is 9.5 mm, density of its material is 1100 kg/m3
and the related permissible working stress is 2.5 MPa.
4.3.14 Initial Tension in the Belt
When a belt is wound round the two pulleys (i.e., driver and follower), its two ends are joined together,
so that the belt may continuously move over the pulleys, since the motion of the belt (from the driver)
and the follower (from the belt) is governed by a firm grip due to friction between the belt and the
pulleys. In order to increase this grip, the belt is tightened up. At this stage, even when the pulleys are
stationary, the belt is subjected to some tension, called initial tension.

When the driver starts rotating, it pulls the belt from one side (increasing tension in the belt on this
side) and delivers to the other side (decreasing tension in the belt on that side). The increased tension
in one side of the belt is called tension in tight side and the decreased tension in the other side of the
belt is called tension in the slack side.

Let T0 = Initial tension in the belt,

T1 = Tension in the tight side of the belt,

T2 = Tension in the slack side of the belt, and

α = Coefficient of increase of the belt length per unit force.

A little consideration will show that the increase of tension in the tight side

= T1 – T0

and increase in the length of the belt on the tight side

= α (T1 – T0) …………………………………………………………………..(i)

Similarly, decrease in tension in the slack side

 = T0 – T2

and decrease in the length of the belt on the slack side

= α (T0 – T2) …………………………………………………………....(ii)

Assuming that the belt material is perfectly elastic such that the length of the belt remains constant,
when it is at rest or in motion, therefore increase in length on the tight side is equal to decrease in the
length on the slack side. Thus, equating equations (i) and (ii), we have

α (T1 – T0) = α (T0 – T2)

Example 4-4
Two parallel shafts whose centre lines are 4.8 m apart, are connected by an open belt drive. The
diameter of the larger pulley is 1.5 m and that of smaller pulley 1 m. The initial tension in the belt
when stationary is 3 kN. The mass of the belt is 1.5 kg/m length. The coefficient of friction between
the belt and the pulley is 0.3. Taking centrifugal tension into account, calculate the power transmitted,
when the smaller pulley rotates at 400 r.p.m.
4.4 Flat Belt Pulleys
The pulleys are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of flat belts, V-belts or
ropes. Since the velocity ratio is the inverse ratio of the diameters of driving and driven pulleys,
therefore the pulley diameters should be carefully selected in order to have a desired velocity ratio.
The pulleys must be in perfect alignment in order to allow the belt to travel in a line normal to the
pulley faces.

The pulleys may be made of cast iron, cast steel or pressed steel, wood and paper. The cast materials
should have good friction and wear characteristics. The pulleys made of pressed steel are lighter than
cast pulleys, but in many cases they have lower friction and may produce excessive wear.

4.4.1 Types of Pulleys for Flat Belts

Following are the various types of pulleys for flat belts:

1. Cast iron pulleys, 2. Steel pulleys, 3. Wooden pulleys, 4. Paper pulleys, and 5. Fast and loose pulleys.

4.4.2 Cast Iron Pulleys

The pulleys are generally made of *cast iron, because of their low cost. The rim is held in place by web
from the central boss or by arms or spokes. The arms may be straight or curved and the cross-section
is usually elliptical. The cast iron pulleys are generally made with rounded rims. The cast iron pulleys
may be solid or split type.

4.4.3 Steel Pulleys

Steel pulleys are made from pressed steel sheets and have great strength and durability. These pulleys
are lighter in weight (about 40 to 60% less) than cast iron pulleys of the same capacity and are designed
to run at high speeds.

They present a coefficient of friction with leather belting which is atleast equal to that obtained by cast
iron pulleys. Steel pulleys are generally made in two halves which are bolted together. The clamping
action of the hub holds the pulley to its shaft, thus no key is required except for most severe service.
Steel pulleys are generally equipped with interchangeable bushings to permit their use with shafts of
different sizes.

4.4.4 Wooden Pulleys

Wooden pulleys are lighter and possesses higher coefficient of friction than cast iron or steel pulleys.
These pulleys have 2/3rd of the weight of cast iron pulleys of similar size. They are generally made
from selected maple which is laid in segments and glued together under heavy pressure. They are kept
from absorbing moisture by protective coatings of shellac or varnish so that warping may not occur.
These pulleys are made both solid or split with cast iron hubs with keyways or have adjustable bushings
which prevents relative rotation between them and the shaft by the frictional resistance set up. These
pulleys are used for motor drives in which the contact arc between the pulley face and belt is restricted.

4.4.5 Paper Pulleys

Paper pulleys are made from compressed paper fibre and are formed with a metal in the centre. These
pulleys are usually used for belt transmission from electric motors, when the centre to centre shaft
distance is small.

4.4.6 Fast and Loose Pulleys

A fast and loose pulley used on shafts enables machine to be started or stopped at will. A fast pulley
is keyed to the machine shaft while the loose pulley runs freely. The belt runs over the fast pulley to
transmit power by the machine and it is shifted to the loose pulley when the machine is not required
to transmit power. By this way, stopping of one machine does not interfere with the other machines
which run by the same line shaft.

4.5 V-Belts
The belts are operated on grooved pulley called sheaves. The sheaves have V – shaped grooves or
two inclined sides with flat bottom. The belt makes contact with the sheaves on the sides and clearance
at the bottom. Usually V-Belts are endless i.e., each belt is made in a circular form with various cross
section which may be differentiated by different grades. It is made in trapezoidal section and the
included angle for the V-belt is usually from 30° to 40°. In most cases, the groove angle for the belt
is 40°. The groove angle for the pulley is from 34° to 38°. Therefore, the groove angle of a sheave is
made somewhat smaller than the belt-section angle. This results in wedging action between the belt
and the groove (belt wedges into the groove), thereby increasing the frictional force, and consequently
the transmitted power.

V-belts are made of polyester fabric and cords, with rubber reinforcement. The cross-section of the
V-belt is shown in Fig. 4-7. It consists of the following three parts:

(a) The central load carrying layers of polyester cords or polyester fabric, which are located on
horizontal lines near the centre of gravity of the belt cross-section,
(b) the surrounding layer of rubber to transmit force from cords to side walls, and
(c) outer polychloroprene impregnated elastic cover.

Figure 4-7: Cross-section of V-belt

The polyester cords or fabric transmit force from the driving pulley to the driven pulley, which in turn
transmit power. Since they are located near the neutral axis of the cross-section of the belt, the stresses
due to bending of the belt around the pulley are almost negligible. The layer of rubber located above
the load carrying cords is subjected to tension and called tension layer. Similarly, the layer of rubber
below the central cords is subjected to compression and called compression layer.

A properly installed V - belt should fit tightly against the sides of the pulley grooves without making
any projection beyond the rim and should have efficient clearance bottom of the groove.

4.5.1 Types of V-belts and Pulleys

The V-belts can be classified into five types i.e. A, B, C, D and E. The dimensions of these classes are
standardized. The pulleys for V-belts may be made of cast iron or pressed steel in order to reduce
weight.

4.5.2 Dimensions for the cross-section of V-belt

i Pitch Width (Wp). It is the width of the belt at its pitch zone. This is the basic dimension for
standardization of belt and corresponding pulley groove. The value of the pitch width remains
constant for each type of belt irrespective of the groove angle.
ii Nominal Top Width (W) It is the top width of the trapezium outlined on the cross-section of
the belt.
iii Nominal Height (T) It is the height of the trapezium outlined on the cross-section of the belt.
iv Angle of Belt (A) It is the included angle obtained by extending the sides of the belt. The
standard value of the belt angle is 40°.
 v The pitch length Lp: It is the length of the pitch line of the belt. is defined as the
circumferential length of the belt at the pitch width (i.e., the width at the neutral axis) of the
belt.

4.5.3 Ratio of Driving Tensions for V-belt

A V-belt with a grooved pulley is shown in Fig. 4.8.

Let R1 = Normal reactions between belts and sides of the groove.

R = Total reaction in the plane of the groove.

μ = Coefficient of friction between the belt and sides of the groove.

Resolving the reactions vertically to the groove, we have

R = R1sinβ + R1sinβ = 2R1sinβ

Figure 4-8: V-belt with pulley

We know that the frictional force

Consider a small portion of the belt, as in Art. 4.3.10, subtending an angle δθ at the centre, the tension
on one side will be T and on the other side (T + δT). Now proceeding in the same way as in Art.
4.3.10, we get the frictional resistance equal to μR.cosec β against μ.R. Thus, the relation between T1
and T2 for the V-belt drive will be

2.3 log (T1/T2) = μ.θ cosec β

Example 4-5
A compressor, requiring 90 kW, is to run at about 250 r.p.m. The drive is by V-belts from an electric
motor running at 750 r.p.m. The diameter of the pulley on the compressor shaft must not be greater
than 1 metre while the centre distance between the pulleys is limited to 1.75 metre. The belt speed
should not exceed 1600 m / min.

Determine the number of V-belts required to transmit the power if each belt has a cross-sectional area
of 375 mm2, density 1000 kg / m3 and an allowable tensile stress of 2.5 MPa. The groove angle of
the pulleys is 35°. The coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulley is 0.25. Calculate also the
length required of each belt.

Solution.

Given: P = 90 kW = 90 × 103 W; N2 = 250 r.p.m.; N1 = 750 r.p.m.; d2 = 1 m; x = 1.75 m; v = 1600

m/min = 26.67 m/s; a = 375 mm2 = 375 × 10– 6 m2; ρ = 1000 kg/m3; σ = 2.5 MPa = 2.5 N/mm2; 2β
= 35° or β = 17.5°; μ = 0.25

First of all, let us find the diameter of pulley on the motor shaft (d1). We know that,

For an open belt drive, as shown below,

Example 4-6
Power of 60 kW at 750 r.p.m. is to be transmitted from an electric motor to compressor shaft at 300
r.p.m. by V-belts. The approximate larger pulley diameter is 1500 mm. The approximate centre
distance is 1650 mm, and overload factor is to be taken as 1.5. Give a complete design of the belt
drive. A belt with cross-sectional area of 350 mm2 and density 1000 kg/m3 and having an allowable
tensile strength 2 MPa is available for use. The coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulley
may be taken as 0.28. The driven pulley is overhung to the extent of 300 mm from the nearest bearing
and is mounted on a shaft having a permissible shear stress of 40 MPa with the help of a key. The
shaft, the pulley and the key are also to be designed.
Since the V-belt is to be designed for 90 kW, therefore from Table 20.1 (From: A textbook of Machine
Design), we find that a ‘D’ type of belt should be used.

We know that the pitch length of the belt,

Subtracting 79 mm for ‘D’ type belt, we find that inside length of the belt

= 6723 – 79 = 6644 mm

According to IS: 2494 – 1974, the nearest standard inside length of V-belt is 6807 mm.
4.5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of the V-belts
V-belts offer the following advantages:
 i. The force of friction between the surfaces of the belt and V-grooved pulley is high due to
wedge action. This wedging action permits a smaller arc of contact, increases the pulling
capacity of the belt and consequently results in increase in the power transmitting capacity.
ii. V-belts have short centre distance, which results in compact construction.
iii. They permit high speed-reduction even up to seven to one.
iv. Flat belts are hinged, while V-belts are endless which results in smooth and quiet operation,
even at high operating speeds.
v. The drive is positive because the slip is negligible due to wedge action.
vi. V-belt drive can operate in any position, even when the belt is vertical.

The disadvantages of a V-belt drive over a flat belt drive are as follows:

a) The ratio of the cross-sectional height to the pulley diameter is large in case of the V-belt. This
increases bending stresses in the belt cross-section and adversely affects the durability.
b) The efficiency of the V-belt is lower than that of the flat-belt and the creep is also higher.
c) The construction of V-grooved pulleys is complicated and costlier compared with pulleys of
the flat-belt drive.

V-belts are very popular where an electric motor is used as the prime mover to drive compressors,
pumps, fans, positive displacement pumps, blowers and machine tools. They are also popular in
automobiles to drive accessories on petrol or diesel engines.

4.6 Rope Drives

The rope drives are widely used where a large amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley
to another, over a considerable distance.

The ropes drives use the following two types of ropes:

a) Fibre ropes
b) Wire rope

The fibre ropes operate successfully when the pulleys are about 60 metres apart, while the wire ropes
are used when the pulleys are upto 150 metres apart.

4.6.1 Fibre Ropes

The ropes for transmitting power are usually made from fibrous materials such as hemp, manila and
cotton. Since the hemp and manila fibres are rough, therefore the ropes made from these fibres are
not very flexible and possesses poor mechanical properties.

The hemp ropes have less strength as compared to manila ropes. When the hemp and manila ropes
are bent over the sheave, there is some sliding of the fibres, causing the rope to wear and chafe
internally. In order to minimise this defect, the rope fibres are lubricated with a tar, tallow or graphite.
The lubrication also makes the rope moisture proof. The hemp ropes are suitable only for hand
operated hoisting machinery and as tie ropes for lifting tackle, hooks etc.
The cotton ropes are very soft and smooth. The lubrication of cotton ropes is not necessary. But if it
is done, it reduces the external wear between the rope and the grooves of its sheaves. It may be noted
that the manila ropes are more durable and stronger than cotton ropes. The cotton ropes are costlier
than manila ropes.

The fibre ropes are designed in the similar way as V-belts. The ratio of driving tensions is:

Advantages of Fibre Rope Drives:

The fibre rope drives have the following advantages:

1. They give smooth, steady and quiet service.

2. They are little affected by out-door conditions.
3. The shafts may be out of strict alignment.
4. The power may be taken off in any direction and in fractional parts of the whole amount.
5. They give high mechanical efficiency.

4.6.2 Wire Ropes

When a large amount of power is to be transmitted over long distances from one pulley to another
(i.e. when the pulleys are upto 150 metres apart), then wire ropes are used. Wire ropes are extensively
used in hoisting, haulage, material handling equipment (conveyors), elevators, cranes, and suspension
bridges. They are also used in stationary applications such as guy wires and stays. The wire ropes run
on grooved pulleys but they rest on the bottom of the grooves and are not wedged between the sides
of the grooves.

The advantages of wire ropes are as follows:

(a) high strength to weight ratio;

(b) silent operation even at high velocities; and
(c) greater reliability.

The constructions of the wire rope are shown in Fig. 4-9(a) and (b). The wire rope consists of a
number of strands, each strand comprising several steel wires. The number of wires in each strand is
generally 7, 19 or 37, while the number of strands is usually six (6). The individual wires are first twisted
into the strand and then the strands are twisted around a fibre or steel core.
 Figure 4-9: Construction of Wire Rope
The specification of wire ropes includes two numbers, such as 6x7 or 6x19. The first number indicates
the number of strands in the wire rope, while the second gives the number of steel wires in each
strand. The popular constructions of steel wire ropes are 6 × 7 (6/1) and 6 × 19 (12/6/1).

The central portion of the wire rope is called the core. There are three types of cores:

 fibre,
 wire and
 synthetic material.

The fibre core consists of natural fibres like sisal, hemp, jute or cotton. The fibre core is flexible and
suitable for all conditions except when the rope is subjected to severe crushing, e.g., when working
under high load.

The steel core consists of another strand of fairly soft wires with lower tensile strength. The wire core
is used where the wire rope is subjected to severe heat or crushing conditions.

Plastic cores are used in special purpose wire ropes. It can be a plastic-impregnated fibre core, plastic
covered fibre core or a solid plastic core.

There is one more term related to the construction of wire ropes, namely, rope-lay. The lay of the
rope refers to the manner in which the wires are helically laid into strands and the strands into the
rope. The wire ropes may be classified as follows:

a) Lang’s lay rope

b) Regular lay rope
c) Composite or reverse laid ropes.

If the wires in the strand are twisted in the same direction as the strands, then the rope is called a
Lang’s lay rope. When the wires in the strand are twisted in a direction opposite to that of the strands,
the rope is said to be regular-lay or ordinary-lay or cross lay ropes. For composite lay ropes, the
wires in the two adjacent strands are twisted in the opposite direction.
The lays of wire rope are illustrated in Fig. 4-10.

Figure 4-10: Lays of Wire Rope

Regular-lay ropes are more popular than the Lang’s-lay ropes. The balance resulting from the opposite
direction of twisting the strands to that of the wires is advantageous. Regular-lay ropes offer the
following advantages:

(i) They have more structural stability.

(ii) They have more resistance to crushing and distortion.
(iii) They have less tendency to rotate under load.
(iv) There is less possibility of kinking.
(v) They are easy in handling during installation.

In Lang’s-lay ropes, the same direction of twisting results in outer wires being bent on a larger arc of
a circle. Lang’s-lay ropes are difficult to handle and install. They are less resistant to crushing and
distortion. Lang’s-lay ropes are likely to untwist unless both ends are permanently fastened.

In the design of rope drives, it is required to select the wire rope from the manufacturer’s catalogue.
The guidelines for the selection of wire ropes are as follows:

a) The strength of the wire rope depends upon the tensile strength of the individual wires. Use
of steel cores in place of fibre cores increases the strength of the wire ropes to certain extent.
b) The flexibility of the wire rope is an important consideration where sheaves are small or where
the rope makes many bends. Flexibility in wire ropes is achieved by using a large number of
small-diameter wires. The wire rope of 6 × 7 construction consists of a few wires of relatively
large size. It is too stiff for hoisting purposes. The 6 × 19 or 6 × 37 constructions are flexible
wire ropes, and are commonly used in hoists. The 6 × 7 construction is suitable as a haulage
and guy rope.
c) Where the wire rope is likely to drag through gritty material or across a stationary object,
abrasion resistance is the governing factor. Large-diameter wires with 6 × 7 construction give
better wear resistance.
4.7 Chain Drives
4.7.1 Introduction
We have seen in previously on belt and rope drives that slipping may occur. In order to avoid slipping,
steel chains are used. The chains are made up of number of rigid links which are hinged together by
pin joints in order to provide the necessary flexibility for wrapping round the driving and driven
wheels. These wheels have projecting teeth of special profile and fit into the corresponding recesses
in the links of the chain as shown in Fig. 4-11. The toothed wheels are known as sprocket wheels or
simply sprockets. The sprockets and the chain are thus constrained to move together without slipping
and ensures perfect velocity ratio.

Figure 4-11: Sprockets and chain

The chains are mostly used to transmit motion and power from one shaft to another, when the centre
distance between their shafts is short such as in bicycles, motor cycles, agricultural machinery,
conveyors, rolling mills, road rollers etc. The chains may also be used for long centre distance of upto
8 metres. The chains are used for velocities up to 25 m / s and for power upto 110 kW. In some cases,
higher power transmission is also possible.

4.7.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Chain Drive over Belt or Rope Drive
Following are the advantages of chain drive over belt or rope drive:

1. As no slip takes place during chain drive, hence perfect velocity ratio is obtained.
2. Since the chains are made of metal, therefore they occupy less space in width than a belt or
rope drive.
3. It may be used for both long as well as short distances.
4. It gives a high transmission efficiency (upto 98 percent).
5. It gives less load on the shafts.
6. It has the ability to transmit motion to several shafts by one chain only.
7. It transmits more power than belts.
8. It permits high speed ratio of 8 to 10 in one step.
9. It can be operated under adverse temperature and atmospheric conditions.
Following are the disadvantages of chain drive over belt or rope drive:

1. The production cost of chains is relatively high.

2. The chain drive needs accurate mounting and careful maintenance, particularly lubrication and
slack adjustment.
3. The chain drive has velocity fluctuations especially when unduly stretched.

4.7.3 Terms Used in Chain Drive

The following terms are frequently used in chain drive.

a) Pitch of chain. It is the distance between the hinge centre of a link and the corresponding
hinge centre of the adjacent link, as shown in Fig. 4.12. It is usually denoted by p.
b) Pitch circle diameter of chain sprocket. It is the diameter of the circle on which the hinge
centres of the chain lie, when the chain is wrapped round a sprocket as shown in Fig. 4-12.
The points A, B, C, and D are the hinge centres of the chain and the circle drawn through
these centres is called pitch circle and its diameter (D) is known as pitch circle diameter.

c) The angle θ/2 through which the link swings as it enters contact is called angle of
articulation.

Figure 4-12: Terms used in chain drive.

d) The sprocket outside diameter (Do), for satisfactory operation is given by

Do = D + 0.8 d1

where d1 = Diameter of the chain roller.

4.7.4 Velocity Ratio of Chain Drives
The velocity ratio of a chain drive is given by

where N1 = Speed of rotation of smaller sprocket in r.p.m.,

N2 = Speed of rotation of larger sprocket in r.p.m.,

T1 = Number of teeth on the smaller sprocket, and

T2 = Number of teeth on the larger sprocket.

The average velocity of the chain is given by

4.7.5 Length of Chain and Centre Distance

An open chain drive system connecting the two sprockets is shown in Fig. 4-13.

Figure 4-13: Length of chain

Let T1 = Number of teeth on the smaller sprocket,

T2 = Number of teeth on the larger sprocket,

p = Pitch of the chain, and

 x = Centre distance.

The length of the chain (L) must be equal to the product of the number of chain links (K) and the
pitch of the chain (p).

Mathematically,

L = K.p

The number of chain links may be obtained from the following expression, i.e.

The value of K as obtained from the above expression must be approximated to the nearest even
number.

The centre distance is given by

4.7.6 Classification of Chains

The chains, on the basis of their use, are classified into the following three groups:

1. Hoisting and hauling (or crane) chains,

2. Conveyor (or tractive) chains, and
3. Power transmitting (or driving) chains.

These chains are discussed, in detail, in the following pages.

A. Hoisting and Hauling Chains: These chains are used for hoisting and hauling purposes and
operate at a maximum velocity of 0.25 m/s. The hoisting and hauling chains are of the following two
types:

(a) Chain with oval links. The links of this type of chain are of oval shape. The joint of each link
is welded. The sprockets which are used for this type of chain have receptacles to receive the
links. Such type of chains are used only at low speeds such as in chain hoists and in anchors
for marine works.
(b) Chain with square links. The links of this type of chain are of square shape. Such types of
chains are used in hoists, cranes, dredges. The manufacturing cost of this type of chain is less
than that of chain with oval links, but in these chains, the kinking occurs easily on overloading.
B. Conveyor Chains

These chains are used for elevating and conveying the materials continuously at a speed upto 2 m s.
The conveyor chains are of the following two types:

(a) Detachable or hook joint type chain, and

(b) Closed joint type chain.

The conveyor chains are usually made of malleable cast iron. These chains do not have smooth
running qualities. The conveyor chains run at slow speeds of about 0.8 to 3 m/s.

C. Power Transmitting Chains

These chains are used for transmission of power, when the distance between the centres of shafts is
short. These chains have provision for efficient lubrication. The power transmitting chains are of the
following three types:

a) Block or bush chain

b) Bush roller chain
c) Silent chain (also known as inverted tooth chain

4.7.7 Power Transmitted by Chains

The power transmitted by the chain on the basis of breaking load is given by;

where

The power transmitted by the chain on the basis of bearing stress is given by,

Where,
The service factor (KS) is the product of various factors, such as load factor (K1), lubrication factor
(K2) and rating factor (K3). The values of these factors are taken as follows:

1. Load factor (K1) = 1, for constant load

= 1.25, for variable load with mild shock

= 1.5, for heavy shock loads

2. Lubrication factor (K2) = 0.8, for continuous lubrication

= 1, for drop lubrication

= 1.5, for periodic lubrication

3. Rating factor (K3) = 1, for 8 hours per day

= 1.25, for 16 hours per day

= 1.5, for continuous service