Polynomial Rings

Subject: ALGEBRA-III
Semester-IV

Lesson: Polynomial Rings

Lesson Developer: Sapna Malhotra

College/Department: Department of Mathematics,

Gargi College, University of Delhi

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 Polynomial Rings

Contents

1. Introduction ...................................................................................4
2. Polynomial Rings ............................................................................4
3. Division Algorithm ........................................................................ 11
4. Principal Ideal Domain ................................................................. 17
6. References .................................................................................... 28
7. Suggested Readings ..................................................................... 28

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 Polynomial Rings

1. Introduction

In this chapter, we study an important class of rings namely; polynomial rings. We

first construct a set of polynomials where the coefficients in the polynomial come from a
ring. Then we define binary operations, addition and multiplication, on it to give it a ring
structure. Such type of ring is known as a polynomial ring.
We begin the chapter with the definition of a polynomial over a ring 𝑅, followed by
the definition of a polynomial ring, examples of polynomial rings and then deduce some
of its important properties.

2. Polynomial Rings

The readers must have studied polynomials in their schools and will be comfortable
with the addition, subtraction and multiplication of polynomials with coefficients from the
set of integers, rationals, reals or even from complex numbers. Now we will study an
abstraction of this concept and study polynomials with coefficients from a ring 𝑅.

Definition 2.1: Let 𝑅 be a commutative ring. By a polynomial over 𝑅, we mean an

expression of the form

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝑅 for 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛.

Here 𝑛 is a non-negative integer and 𝑥 is just a symbol (it is not a variable from 𝑅). The
elements 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝑅 are called the coefficients of the polynomial.

Example 2.2: Let ℤ denote the ring of integers, then 𝑓 𝑥 = 5 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 is a polynomial

over ℤ but 𝑔 𝑥 = 2/3 𝑥 + 4 is not a polynomial over ℤ , as the coefficient of 𝑥 in 𝑔 𝑥 is

(2/3)  ℤ.

Definition 2.3: Let 𝑅 be a commutative ring. Then the ring of polynomials over 𝑅
denoted by 𝑅 𝑥 is given by

𝑅 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ∶ 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝑅, 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 ≤ 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
= 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑅.

Definition 2.4: Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝑅 𝑥 . If at least one of the

coefficients 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , ....., 𝑎𝑛 is non-zero, then 𝑓 𝑥 is said to be a non-zero polynomial
otherwise it is called a zero polynomial, i.e., 0 = 0 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ is called the zero
polynomial of 𝑅[𝑥].

Note: 𝑅 𝑥 is a non-empty set because 0 ∈ 𝑅, therefore the polynomial 0 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ =

0∈𝑅 𝑥 .

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Observe that for any two polynomials in 𝑅[𝑥],

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛

and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 .

𝑛+𝑚
We can write 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 where 𝑎𝑖 = 0 for 𝑖 > 𝑛

𝑛+𝑚
and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 where 𝑏𝑖 = 0 for 𝑖 > 𝑚.

Definition 2.5: Any two polynomials 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏0 +

𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 in 𝑅[𝑥] are said to be equal, i.e. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥) if and only if 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑏𝑖 for
each 𝑖.

Define binary operations addition and multiplication on 𝑅 𝑥 as follows:

Addition: 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑏0 + 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 + 𝑏𝑛+𝑚 𝑥 𝑛+𝑚 .

𝑛 +𝑚
= 𝑖=0 (𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖 ) 𝑥 𝑖 .

𝑛+𝑚 𝑛+𝑚
Multiplication: 𝑥 . 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 . { 𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 }.
= 𝑎0 𝑏0 + 𝑎0 𝑏1 + 𝑏1 𝑎0 𝑥 + ⋯
= 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 +𝑚 𝑥 𝑛+𝑚
𝑛+𝑚

= 𝑐𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 ,
𝑖=0

where 𝑐𝑘 = 𝑎0 𝑏𝑘 + 𝑎1 𝑏𝑘−1 + 𝑎2 𝑏𝑘−2 +. . . +𝑎𝑘 𝑏0 , for 0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑛 + 𝑚.

It is easy to verify that 𝑅 𝑥 forms a ring with respect to the addition and multiplication
defined above. The zero element (or the additive identity) of 𝑅 𝑥 is the zero polynomial
given by
0 = 0 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯
and if 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 +. . . +𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝑅[𝑥] , then its additive inverse is given by
−𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑎0 + −𝑎1 𝑥 + −𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + (−𝑎𝑛 )𝑥 𝑛 .

I.Q.1. Verify that 𝑅 𝑥 is a ring.

Value Addition

 As 𝑅 is a commutative ring, therefore 𝑅 𝑥 is also commutative.

 We have seen that if 𝑅 is a ring then 𝑅 𝑥 is also a ring.
Similarly, 𝑅 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑅 𝑥 [𝑦], is the set of all polynomials over 𝑅 𝑥 in symbol „𝑦‟ is
also a ring, and this process can be extended for any finite number of variables.

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Now, we illustrate the addition and multiplication in polynomial rings with the help of
following examples.

Example 2.6: Consider ℤ 𝑥 , the ring of polynomials with integer coefficients.

If 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 are two polynomials in ℤ 𝑥 , then
𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 2

and 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 3 .

Example 2.7: Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 + 3 4 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 2 + 4𝑥 be polynomials in ℚ 𝑥 . Then

𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 3 + 19 4 𝑥
and 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = 2 + 11 2 𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 .

Example 2.8: Consider ℤ3 𝑥 , the ring of polynomials over ℤ3, where ℤ3 = {0, 1, 2} is the
ring of integers modulo 3.
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 3 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 be polynomials in ℤ3[𝑥].
In ℤ3, 3 = 0 and 4 = 1. So,
𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 2 + 𝑥 + 2𝑥 3
and 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥4 + 𝑥5.
The addition and multiplication in coefficients are done modulo 3.

Definition 2.9: Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 +. . . +𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝑅 𝑥 where 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. If 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 and

𝑎𝑖 = 0 ∀ 𝑖 > 𝑛, then we say that degree of the polynomial 𝒇 𝒙 is 𝒏 and 𝒂𝒏 is called the
leading coefficient of the polynomial 𝑓 𝑥 .

In this case, 𝑓 𝑥 is said to be a non-constant polynomial.

If 𝑎0 ≠ 0 and 𝑎𝑖 = 0 for all 𝑖 > 0, then we say that degree of 𝒇 𝒙 is zero and 𝑓 𝑥 is a
constant polynomial.

Value Addition
We do not define the degree of the zero polynomial. Though some authors take degree
of zero polynomial to be −∞ or −1.

Definition 2.10: If the leading coefficient of a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑅[𝑥] is 1, the unity of 𝑅,
then we say that 𝑓(𝑥) is a monic polynomial.

Note: We will use the notation deg 𝑓(𝑥) to denote the degree of the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) and
𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟 𝑅 to denote the characteristic of the ring 𝑅.

Theorem 2.11: Let 𝑅 be an integral domain and 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑔 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅[𝑥], then

deg 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = deg 𝑓 𝑥 + deg 𝑔(𝑥).

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Proof: Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 +. … … . . +𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝑅 𝑥 ,𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 be a polynomial of degree 𝑛

and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 +. … … . +𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 ∈ 𝑅[𝑥], 𝑏𝑚 ≠ 0 be a polynomial of degree 𝑚.

We can write
𝑛+𝑚
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 where 𝑎𝑖 = 0 for 𝑖 > 𝑛
𝑛+𝑚
and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 where 𝑏𝑖 = 0 for 𝑖 > 𝑚.

Then 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 2 +....+𝑐𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 +...+𝑐𝑛+𝑚 𝑥 𝑛+𝑚 , where

𝑖
𝑐𝑖 = 𝑎0 𝑏𝑖 + (𝑎1 𝑏𝑖−1 ) +....+𝑎𝑖 𝑏0 = 𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 𝑏𝑖−𝑘 for 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛 + 𝑚.

Note that, for 𝑖 > 𝑛 + 𝑚, 𝑐𝑖 = 0.

So, deg 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 ≤ 𝑛 + 𝑚 = deg 𝑓 𝑥 + deg 𝑔(𝑥). ...(1)

As 𝑅 is an integral domain, and 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, 𝑏𝑚 ≠ 0 ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑚 ≠ 0.

⇒ 𝑐𝑛 +𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑚 ≠ 0.
⇒ 𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 ≥ 𝑛 + 𝑚. ...(2)

In view of (1) and (2), we have deg 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = deg 𝑓 𝑥 + deg 𝑔(𝑥) ■

Value Addition
In a polynomial ring 𝑅[𝑥], deg 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 ≤ deg 𝑓 𝑥 + deg 𝑔(𝑥).

In most of the cases, the polynomial ring 𝑅[𝑥] inherits the properties of the ring 𝑅,
as is proved in next two Theorems.

Theorem 2.12: If 𝑅 is a ring with unity, then 𝑅 𝑥 is also a ring with unity.
Proof: Let 𝑅 be a ring with unity 1.
Let 𝐼 𝑥 = 1 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 3 + ⋯
Then, 𝐼 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 𝑥 .
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝑅 𝑥 be arbitrary.
Then, 𝐼 𝑥 . 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐼 𝑥 . 𝑓(𝑥).

Hence, 𝐼 𝑥 = 1 is the unity of 𝑅 𝑥 . ■

Theorem 2.13: If 𝑅 is an integral domain, then 𝑅 𝑥 is also an integral domain.

Proof: Let 𝑅 be an integral domain. Then, 𝑅 is a commutative ring with unity. In order to
show that 𝑅 𝑥 is an integral domain we have to show that
(i) 𝑅 𝑥 is a commutative ring with unity.
(ii) 𝑅 𝑥 has no zero divisors.

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Clearly, 𝑅 𝑥 is a commutative ring because 𝑅 is commutative. Also 𝑅 has unity therefore

𝑅 𝑥 also has a unity (by Theorem 2.12).

Let 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑔 𝑥 be any two non-zero polynomials in 𝑅[𝑥], where

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 +...+𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑎𝑖 ≠ 0 , for some 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛

and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 +...+𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 , 𝑏𝑗 ≠ 0 , for some 0 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑚.

Therefore 𝑎𝑖 𝑏𝑗 ≠ 0 , for some 𝑖, 𝑗 .

Then 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 2 +...+𝑐𝑛+𝑚 𝑥 𝑛+𝑚 , where 𝑐𝑘 = 𝑎0 𝑏𝑘 + 𝑎1 𝑏𝑘−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 𝑏0 .

Note that, 𝑖 + 𝑗 ≤ 𝑚 + 𝑛 and 𝑐𝑖+𝑗 contains the term 𝑎𝑖 𝑏𝑗 .
⇒ 𝑐𝑖+𝑗 ≠ 0.
Thus, 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 ≠ 0.

Hence, 𝑅 𝑥 is an integral domain. ■

Corollary 2.14: If 𝐹 is a field then 𝐹 𝑥 is an integral domain

Proof: Let 𝐹 be a field. Since every field is an integral domain therefore 𝐹 is an integral
domain. Hence, by Theorem 2.13, 𝐹 𝑥 is an integral domain. ■

I.Q. 2 Prove that if 𝑅 is a commutative ring with unity such that 𝑅[𝑥] is an integral
domain then 𝑅 is an integral domain.

I.Q. 3 Is the converse of the Corollary 2.14 true? Justify.

Value Addition
If 𝐹 is field, then 𝐹[𝑥] need not be a field.
As 𝐹 is a field, therefore 𝐹[𝑥] is an integral domain with unity.
The polynomial 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥] has no multiplicative inverse.
To see this, one may note that for any
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 , 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, 𝑛∈ℕ
𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 + 𝑎1 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1
If 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 +.... (= unity of 𝐹 𝑥 ).
Then comparing constant terms on both sides we obtain 0 = 1, which is not possible.
It follows that 𝐹[𝑥] has a non-zero element 𝑓(𝑥) which is not invertible.
Therefore, 𝐹[𝑥] is not a field.

Recall: An element 0 ≠ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, where 𝑅 is a commutative ring with unity is said to be a

unit if there exists 0 ≠ 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑎𝑏 = 1.

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Definition 2.15: Let 𝑅 be a commutative ring 𝑅 with unity. An element 0 ≠ 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅[𝑥] is

said to be a unit if there exists 0 ≠ 𝑔 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 𝑥 such that 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝐼 𝑥 = 1.

Value Addition
If an element 𝑎 in a ring 𝑅 is unit then there exists 0 ≠ 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑎𝑏 = 1. Take
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏. Then 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑔(𝑥) ∈ 𝑅[𝑥], 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0 and 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 = 𝐼[𝑥]. It follows
that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 is unit in 𝑅[𝑥]. Hence, we can conclude that every unit of 𝑅 is also a unit in
𝑅[𝑥].

The natural question that crops up in mind at this point of time “Whether the ring
𝑅 and 𝑅[𝑥] have same units?” To get an answer to this question, let us consider the
following example

Example 2.16: Consider the ring ℤ4 = {0, 1, 2, 3} of integers modulo 4.

The unity of ℤ4 is 1.
Observe that 1 and 3 units of ℤ4 .
Also, note that 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑥 ∈ ℤ4 [𝑥] is unit in ℤ4 [𝑥] as 1 + 2𝑥 1 + 2𝑥 = 1, but 𝑓(𝑥) is not a
unit in ℤ4 .
So, it is clear that units of 𝑅[𝑥] need not be units of 𝑅.

Therefore, we now search a condition on the ring 𝑅, so that the rings 𝑅 and 𝑅[𝑥]
have same units.

Theorem 2.17: If 𝑅 be an integral domain, then units of 𝑅 and 𝑅 𝑥 are same.

Proof: Let 𝑅 be an integral domain and 𝑎 be a unit in 𝑅.
Then there exist 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑎𝑏 = 1 where 1 is the unity of 𝑅.
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯
Then 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑔 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 𝑥
and 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑏 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ = 𝑎𝑏 = 1.
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑓 𝑥 is unit in 𝑅 𝑥 .
Thus, every unit in 𝑅 is a unit in 𝑅[𝑥].
Conversely,
Let 𝑓 𝑥 be a unit in 𝑅 𝑥 .

Then there exists 0 ≠ 𝑔 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 𝑥 such that 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = 1.

⇒ deg 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = deg 1 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ = 0

⇒ deg 𝑓(𝑥) + deg 𝑔 𝑥 = 0. (using Theorem 2.11).

⇒ deg 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and deg 𝑔 𝑥 = 0.
⇒ Both 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 are constant polynomials.

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Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑑 where 0 ≠ 𝑐 , 0 ≠ 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅.

Then 𝑐𝑑 = 1
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐 is a unit in 𝑅. ■

I.Q.4 Find out the units of ℤ and ℤ 𝑥 , where ℤ denotes the ring of integers.

I.Q.5 If ℤ7 denote the ring of integers modulo 7, then find out the units of ℤ7[𝑥].

Theorem 2.18: Every commutative ring 𝑅 is isomorphic to a subring of 𝑅 𝑥 .

Proof: Define a map 𝜃 ∶ 𝑅 → 𝑅 𝑥 as
𝜃 𝑎 = 𝑎 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ , for every 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅.
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 be arbitrary. Then,

(i) 𝜃 is a well-defined and one - one map.

𝜃 𝑎 = 𝜃 𝑏 .
⇔ 𝑎 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ = 𝑏 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ ⇔ 𝑎 = 𝑏 .

(ii) 𝜃 is a ring homomorphism

𝜃 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯

= (𝑎 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ ) + (𝑏 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ ).

= 𝜃(𝑎) + 𝜃(𝑏)

𝜃 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯

= (𝑎 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ ) (𝑏 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ )

= 𝜃 𝑎 . 𝜃(𝑏)
Clearly, 𝜃 ∶ 𝑅 → 𝜃(𝑅) is an onto isomorphism, where 𝜃(𝑅) is a subring of 𝑅 𝑥
(as homomorphic image of a ring is a ring).
Hence, 𝑅 is isomorphic to 𝜃(𝑅). ■

Remark 2.19: From the Theorem 2.18, it is clear that 𝑅 is isomorphic to the ring of
constant polynomials.

Theorem 2.20: Let 𝑅 be a commutative ring. Then the characteristic of 𝑅[𝑥] is same as
the characteristic of 𝑅.
Proof: Let 𝑅 be a commutative ring. Then by Theorem 2.18, 𝑅 is isomorphic to a subring
of 𝑅[𝑥].
Therefore, 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟 𝑅 ≤ 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟 𝑅[𝑥].
Let 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟 𝑅 = 𝑘.

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Then 𝑘 is the least positive integer such that . 𝑎 = 0 , ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 .

Claim: 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟 𝑅 𝑥 = 𝑘.
Let 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝑅 𝑥 be arbitrary, where 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝑅 for 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛 .

We have to show that 𝑘 is the least positive integer such that 𝑘. 𝑔 𝑥 = 0 for every
𝑔(𝑥) ∈ 𝑅[𝑥].

Consider,
𝑘. 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑘. (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 +...+𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ).
= (𝑘𝑎0 ) + (𝑘𝑎1 )𝑥 + (𝑘𝑎2 )𝑥 2 +...+(𝑘𝑎𝑛 )𝑥 𝑛 .
= 0 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 +........+0𝑥 𝑛 . (as 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟 𝑅 = 𝑘 and 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝑅 for 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛).
= 0.

Therefore, 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟 𝑅 𝑥 ≤ 𝑘.

Let 𝑐 be any positive integer such that 𝑐. 𝑓 𝑥 = 0, where

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 +. . . +𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 ∈ 𝑅 𝑥 , 𝑏𝑖 ∈ 𝑅 for 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑚.
Then,
𝑐. 𝑓 𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝑐. 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 +. . . +𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 = 0
⇒ ( 𝑐𝑏0 ) + (𝑐𝑏1 )𝑥 + (𝑐𝑏2 )𝑥 2 + ⋯ + (𝑐𝑏𝑚 )𝑥 𝑚 = 0
⇒ 𝑐. 𝑏𝑖 = 0 , 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑚

As 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟 𝑅 = 𝑘 and 𝑏𝑖 ∈ 𝑅, so 𝑘. 𝑏𝑖 = 0.
It follows that 𝑘 ≤ 𝑐.
Hence, 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟 𝑅 𝑥 = 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟 𝑅. ■

I.Q.6 Find out the characteristic of the ring ℤ2[𝑥]. Is ℤ2[𝑥] a finite ring?

3. Division Algorithm

One of the important properties of integers is the division algorithm. It states that
given any two integers 𝑎 and 𝑏 where 𝑏 ≠ 0, there exists unique integers 𝑞 and 𝑟 such
that
𝑎 = 𝑏𝑞 + 𝑟, where 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑏 .
In this section, we extend the notion of division algorithm for integers to division
algorithm for polynomials over a field.

Theorem 3.1: (Division Algorithm for 𝑭[𝒙]) Let 𝐹 be a field. If 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) are any
two polynomials in 𝐹[𝑥], where 𝑔 𝑥 ≠ 0, then there exists unique polynomials 𝑞(𝑥) and
𝑟(𝑥) in 𝐹[𝑥] such that

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𝑓 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑥 𝑞 𝑥 +𝑟 𝑥 ,
where 𝑟 𝑥 = 0 or deg 𝑟(𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥).
Proof: We begin the proof by first showing the existence of polynomials 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) in
[𝑥] .
Case1: If 𝑓 𝑥 = 0.
By taking 𝑞 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑟 𝑥 = 0, we can write 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 𝑞 𝑥 + 𝑟 𝑥 where 𝑟 𝑥 = 0.

In this case, we are done.

Case2: If 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0.
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 +....+𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 +....+𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 , 𝑏𝑚 ≠ 0
where deg 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑛 and deg 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑚.

Subcase1: If deg 𝑓(𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥) that is 𝑛 < 𝑚.

By taking 𝑞 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥), we obtain

𝑓 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑥 𝑞 𝑥 +𝑟 𝑥 where deg 𝑟(𝑥) = deg 𝑓(𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥) and we are done.

Subcase2: If deg 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ deg 𝑔(𝑥) that is 𝑛 ≥ 𝑚.

In this case we prove the result by applying Principle of Mathematical induction on
deg 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑛.

If deg 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛 = 0, then deg 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑚 = 0.

Then 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 , 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏0 where 0 ≠ 𝑎0 , 0 ≠ 𝑏0 ∈ 𝐹
As 𝐹 is a field, therefore 𝑏0−1 ∈ 𝐹.
Consider, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 .
= 𝑎0 𝑏0 𝑏0−1 + 0.
= 𝑏0 𝑎0 𝑏0−1 + 0.
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 𝑞 𝑥 + 𝑟(𝑥), where 𝑟 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑞 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑏0−1 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥].
Thus, the result hold.

Now, let us assume that the result is true for all non-zero polynomials having degree less
than 𝑛.
We prove the result for 𝑓(𝑥).

−1 𝑛−𝑚 −1
Let 𝑓1 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) (as 𝑏𝑚 ≠ 0 in 𝐹, therefore 𝑏𝑚 ∈ 𝐹).

= (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ) − 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑚
−1 𝑛−𝑚
𝑥 (𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 ).

The coefficient of 𝑥 𝑛 in 𝑓1 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑚
−1
𝑏𝑚 .
= 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 .
= 0.

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Therefore, deg 𝑓1 𝑥 < 𝑛.

If all coefficients of 𝑓1 𝑥 are zero, then

𝑓1 𝑥 = 0
−1 𝑛−𝑚
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 =0
−1 𝑛−𝑚
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 +0
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑟(𝑥),
−1 𝑛−𝑚
where 𝑟 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑞 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑚 𝑥
Thus, the result holds.

If all the coefficients of 𝑓1 𝑥 are not zero, then

As deg 𝑓1 (𝑥) < 𝑛

By induction hypothesis, there exists 𝑞1 𝑥 , 𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥] such that

𝑓1 𝑥 = 𝑞1 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑟 𝑥 ,
where 𝑟 𝑥 = 0 or deg 𝑟(𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥).
Substituting the values of 𝑓1 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) in the above equality, we obtain
−1 𝑛−𝑚
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑞1 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑟 𝑥
−1 𝑛−𝑚
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = (𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑞1 𝑥 )𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑟 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑞 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 +𝑟 𝑥 ,
−1 𝑛−𝑚
where 𝑞 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑞1 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥] and 𝑟 𝑥 = 0 or deg 𝑟(𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥).

Thus, by Principle of mathematical induction the result holds.

Hence, there exists 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) in 𝐹[𝑥] satisfying 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑟 𝑥 , where either
𝑟 𝑥 = 0 or deg 𝑟(𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥).

Uniqueness

Let us suppose that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞(𝑥)𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑟 𝑥 , where 𝑟 𝑥 = 0 or deg 𝑟(𝑥) ⁡< deg 𝑔(𝑥) ...(1)
and
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞1 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑟1 𝑥 , where 𝑟1 𝑥 = 0 or deg 𝑟1 𝑥 < deg 𝑔(𝑥) ...(2)
Subtracting (2) from (1), we obtain
0 = 𝑔 𝑥 𝑞 𝑥 − 𝑞1 (𝑥) + 𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑟1 (𝑥) .
⇒ 𝑔 𝑥 𝑞 𝑥 − 𝑞1 (𝑥) = − 𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑟1 (𝑥) .

⇒ 𝑔 𝑥 |(𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑟1 𝑥 ) .

⇒ deg 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ deg(𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑟1 𝑥 ) (𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑟1 𝑥 )

Thus, 𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑟1 (𝑥) = 0 or degree of 𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑟1 (𝑥) is at least that of 𝑔 𝑥 . Since, the latter is

not possible, therefore we have 𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑟1 (𝑥) and 𝑞 𝑥 = 𝑞1 (𝑥). ■

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Value Addition
 The polynomials 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) obtained in the division algorithm are called the
quotient and remainder .
 We can use the long division process in order to determine 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) in 𝐹 𝑥 .

Remark 3.2: One may note that the Theorem 3.1, does not hold if 𝐹 is not a field. For
this let us consider the ring of integers ℤ which is not a field. For 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥 in
ℤ[𝑥], there does not exist any 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) ∈ℤ[𝑥] such that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 . 𝑞 𝑥 + 𝑟(𝑥) where
either 𝑟 𝑥 = 0 or deg 𝑟(𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥).

Example 3.3: Find the remainder and quotient when 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 1 is divided

by 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2, where 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑔(𝑥) ∈ ℤ5[𝑥].

Solution: 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 1 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2 ∈ ℤ5[𝑥].

One must remember that addition and multiplication are done modulo 5 and that
ℤ5 is a field.
In ℤ5, −4 = 1, −3 = 2, −2 = 3, −1 = 4 .
We use the long division process in order to determine the remainder and quotient and
see that the division algorithm holds.

2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2 4𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 1
4𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2
1𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 + 1
1𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 1𝑥
4𝑥 + 1

In this case the quotient 𝑞 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 and the remainder 𝑟 𝑥 = 4𝑥 + 1.

Also, deg 𝑟(𝑥) = 1 < deg 𝑞(𝑥) = 2 and

𝑔 𝑥 . 𝑞 𝑥 + 𝑟 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2 . 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + (4𝑥 + 1).
= 4𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 1.
= 4𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 1.
= 𝑓(𝑥).

Definition 3.4: Let 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑔 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷[𝑥], where 𝐷 is an integral domain. We say 𝑓(𝑥) divides
𝑔(𝑥) written as 𝑓 𝑥 |𝑔(𝑥) if there exist 𝑕 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷[𝑥] such that 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑕 𝑥 . In that case,
𝑓 𝑥 is also called as a factor of 𝑔(𝑥).

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Example 3.5: We know that ℤ is an integral domain. Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 +

6. Then 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑔(𝑥) ∈ ℤ[𝑥] and 𝑓(𝑥) divides 𝑔(𝑥) because 𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 ∈ ℤ[𝑥] such that
𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑥 𝑕 𝑥 .

Definition 3.6: Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹, where 𝐹 is a field. Then 𝑎 is said to be a root or a zero of the
polynomial 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥] of multiplicity 𝒎 (where 𝑚 ≥ 1) if
𝑚
𝑥−𝑎 |𝑓(𝑥) and (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑚 +1 ∤𝑓(𝑥).
If 𝑚 = 1, then 𝑎 is called the simple root of 𝑓(𝑥) else a multiple root with multiplicity 𝑚.

Note: If 𝑎 is a zero of 𝑓(𝑥) then 𝑓 𝑎 = 0.

Theorem 3.7: (Remainder Theorem) Let 𝐹 be a field. For 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹 and 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥], 𝑓(𝑎) is
the remainder obtained when 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 − 𝑎).
Proof: Let 𝑔 𝑥 = (𝑥 − 𝑎). As 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹 therefore, 𝑔 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹 𝑥 .
By applying division algorithm to 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥), we get unique 𝑞 𝑥 , 𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥] such that
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑟(𝑥), where ⁡𝑟(𝑥) = 0 or deg 𝑟(𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥) = 1.
Therefore, either 𝑟(𝑥) = 0 or 𝑟(𝑥) is a constant polynomial.

If 𝑟 𝑥 = 0, then 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑎 .
⇒ 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑞 𝑎 (𝑎 − 𝑎)
⇒ 𝑓 𝑎 =0
⇒ 𝑓 𝑎 = 0 = 𝑟(𝑥)
⇒ 𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎)

If 𝑟(𝑥) is a constant polynomial, then let 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑐, where 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹.

𝐴𝑠 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑟( 𝑥)
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑞 𝑥 𝑥−𝑎 +𝑐
⇒ 𝑓 𝑎 =𝑞 𝑎 𝑎−𝑎 +𝑐
⇒ 𝑓 𝑎 =𝑐
⇒ 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑟(𝑥)

Hence, the result. ■

Corollary 3.8: (Factor Theorem) Let 𝐹 be a field. For 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹 and 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥], 𝑎 is a zero
of 𝑓(𝑥) if and only if (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
Proof: First, let us assume that 𝑎 is a zero of 𝑓(𝑥).
⇒ 𝑓 𝑎 = 0 and 𝑥 − 𝑎 | 𝑓(𝑥).
Applying division algorithm to 𝑓(𝑥) and (𝑥 − 𝑎), we get unique 𝑞 𝑥 , 𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥] such that
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑟(𝑥), where 𝑟(𝑥) = 0 or deg 𝑟(𝑥) < deg(𝑥 − 𝑎) = 1.

Also by Remainder Theorem, 𝑓(𝑎) is the remainder obtained when 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by
(𝑥 − 𝑎).

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Therefore, 𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎) = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 𝑥 = 0.

Hence, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑎 and this implies that (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

Conversely,
Let 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
Then 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑎) for some 𝑞 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥].
Therefore 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑞 𝑎 𝑎 − 𝑎 = 0 , and hence 𝑎 is a zero of 𝑓(𝑥). ■

Example 3.9: Prove that (𝑥 − 3) is a factor of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 1 in ℤ5[𝑥].

Solution: As 𝑓 3 = 32 + 1 = 0 in ℤ5[𝑥]. (because 32 = 9 = 4 and 4 + 1 = 0 in ℤ5).

⇒ 3 is a factor of (𝑥) .
Hence, by Corollary 3.8, 𝑥 2 + 1 is divisible by (𝑥 − 3) in ℤ5[𝑥].

Corollary 3.10: Let 𝐹 be a field. Then a polynomial 𝑓 𝑥 of degree 𝑛 over 𝐹 has atmost 𝑛
– zeros, counting multiplicity.
Proof: We prove the result by induction on 𝑛.
As a polynomial of degree 0 has no zeros. So,we start with 𝑛 = 1.
Then 𝑓(𝑥) is of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐹 and 𝑎 ≠ 0.
As 𝑎 ≠ 0, therefore 𝑐 = – 𝑎−1 𝑏 ∈ 𝐹 and 𝑓 𝑐 = 𝑎 – 𝑎−1 𝑏 + 𝑏 = −𝑏 + 𝑏 = 0.
Therefore, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹 is a unique zero of 𝑓(𝑥) and is of multiplicity 1.
Hence, result holds for 𝑛 = 1.

Assume that the result holds for all polynomials of degree less then 𝑛. We prove the
result for 𝑓(𝑥).

If 𝑓(𝑥) has no zero in 𝐹, then the result is obviously true.

So, let us assume that 𝑓(𝑥) has a zero α of multiplicity 𝑚 where 𝑚 < 𝑛.
𝑚
By Factor theorem, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − α 𝑞(𝑥) for some 𝑞 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥]. ...(1)
As α is a zero of 𝑓 𝑥 of multiplicity 𝑚.
𝑚 𝑚 +1
⇒ 𝑥−α |𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑥 − α ∤𝑓(𝑥).

𝑚 +1
As 𝑥 − α ∤𝑓(𝑥) .
𝑚 +1 𝑚
⇒ 𝑥−α ∤ 𝑥−α 𝑞(𝑥) .
⇒ (𝑥 − α)∤𝑞(𝑥).
⇒ α is not a root of 𝑞(𝑥).

If 𝑓(𝑥) has no zero other than α , then we are done.

So, let us assume that 𝑏 ≠ α be a zero of 𝑓(𝑥).

Then, 𝑓 𝑏 = 0
𝑚
Using (1), we obtain 𝑏 − α 𝑞 𝑏 =𝑓 𝑏 =0

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𝑚
⇒ 𝑏−α 𝑞 𝑏 =0.
As 𝐹 being a field is an integral domain, therefore 𝐹[𝑥] is an integral domain and as
𝑚 𝑚
𝑏−α , 𝑞 𝑏 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥], we get either 𝑏 − α = 0 or 𝑞 𝑏 = 0.

𝑚
As 𝑏 ≠ α, therefore 𝑏 − α ≠0.
⇒ 𝑞 𝑏 = 0.
⇒ 𝑏 is a root of 𝑞(𝑥).

𝑚
Also, deg 𝑓(𝑥) = deg 𝑥 − 𝛼 𝑞 𝑥 .
𝑚
= deg 𝑥 − 𝛼 + deg 𝑞(𝑥). (as 𝐹[𝑥] is an integral domain)
= 𝑚 + deg 𝑞(𝑥).
⇒ 𝑛 = 𝑚 + 𝑑𝑒𝑔⁡𝑞(𝑥) .
⇒ deg 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑛 − 𝑚 < 𝑛.

Therefore, by induction hypothesis 𝑞(𝑥) has at most (𝑛 − 𝑚) zeros, counting multiplicity.

𝑚
Since 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − α 𝑞(𝑥) and any root of 𝑓(𝑥) different from α is also a root of 𝑞(𝑥) and
𝑞(𝑥) has at most 𝑛 − 𝑚 zeros, counting multiplicities.

Therefore, it follows that 𝑓(𝑥) has at most 𝑛 − 𝑚 + 𝑚 = 𝑛 zeros, counting multiplicity.

Hence by Principle of mathematical induction, a polynomial of degree 𝑛 over a field 𝐹 has

at most 𝑛 zeros, counting multiplicity. ■

Remark 3.11: Theorem 3.10 may fail to hold if 𝐹 is not a field. This can be seen from
the example given below.

Example 3.12: ℤ8, the ring of integers modulo 8, is not a field and the polynomial
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 over ℤ8 is of degree two and has four zeros namely, 1, 3, 5 and 7 in ℤ8.

Trivia
Lagrange was the first mathematician to prove that a polynomial of degree 𝑛 over ℤp,
where p is prime has at most 𝑛 zeros of counting multiplicity.

4. Principal Ideal Domain

Definition 4.1: An ideal 𝐴 of a ring 𝑅 is said to be a principal ideal of 𝑅, if 𝐴 is

generated by a single element of 𝑅,.i.e. if 𝐴 = < 𝑎 > = {𝑎. 𝑟 ∶ 𝑟 ∈ 𝑅}, for some 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅.

Definition 4.2: An integral domain 𝑅 is called a Principal Ideal Domain (P.I.D) if

every ideal of 𝑅 is a principal ideal.

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Value Addition
If 𝑅 is just a commutative ring with unity such that every ideal in it is a principal ideal,
then 𝑅 is called a principal ideal ring.

Example 4.3: ℤ, the ring of integers, is a P.I.D.

Solution: Let 𝐴 be any ideal of ℤ.
If 𝐴 = {0}, then 𝐴 is generated by 0 ∈ ℤ.

Suppose that 𝐴 ≠ {0}.

Let 𝑛 ∈ 𝐴 be the smallest positive integer.
We show that : 𝐴 =< 𝑛 >.
Let 𝑥 ∈ < 𝑛 > be arbitrary.
Then, 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑘 for some 𝑘 ∈ℤ.
As 𝑛 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑘 ∈ ℤ and 𝐴 is an ideal of ℤ, therefore 𝑛𝑘 ∈ 𝐴.
⇒ 𝑛𝑘 = 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
⇒ < 𝑛 > ⊆ 𝐴.
Let 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 be arbitrary.
As 𝑦, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ and applying division algorithm for integers, ∃ 𝑡, 𝑟 ∈ ℤ such that
𝑦 = 𝑛𝑡 + 𝑟, where either 𝑟 = 0 or 0 < 𝑟 < 𝑛.
⇒ 𝑟 = 𝑦 − 𝑛𝑡, where either 𝑟 = 0 or 0 < 𝑟 < 𝑛.
As 𝑦, 𝑛𝑡 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝐴 is an ideal of ℤ .
⇒ 𝑟 = 𝑦 − 𝑛𝑡 ∈ 𝐴 and therefore 𝑟 must be zero because if 𝑟 ≠ 0, then we have 0 < 𝑟 < 𝑛
and 𝑟 ∈ 𝐴 which is not possible as 𝑛 ∈ 𝐴 is the smallest positive integer.
Hence, 𝑦 = 𝑛𝑡 ∈ < 𝑛 > ⇒ 𝐴 ⊆ < 𝑛 >.
Thus, 𝐴 = < 𝑛 >.
As 𝐴 is any ideal of ℤ, it follows that every ideal of ℤ is a principal ideal and therefore ℤ is
a P.I.D.

Next, we prove that every field is a principal ideal domain.

Theorem 4.4: If 𝐹 is a field, then 𝐹 is a P.I.D.

Proof: Since 𝐹 is a field, therefore it is an integral domain with unity 1.
Let 𝐴 be any ideal of 𝐹.
If 𝐴 = {0}, then we are done.

If 𝐴 ≠ {0}, then there exists 0 ≠ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.

As 𝐹 is a field and 0 ≠ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹, therefore 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐹.
⇒ 𝑎𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐴 ⇒ 1 ∈ 𝐴 ⇒ 𝐴 = 𝐹.

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It follows that {0} and 𝐹 are the only ideals of 𝐹. Further, we show that they are in fact
principal ideals of 𝐹.

Clearly, {0} is a principal ideal as 0 =< 0 >.

Now, we verify that 𝐹 = < 1 >.

As 1 ∈ 𝐹 ⇒ < 1 > ⊆ 𝐹 .
For 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹
𝑎 = 𝑎. 1 ∈ < 1 >.
⇒ 𝐹 ⊆ < 1 >.
Hence, 𝐹 = < 1 >.

It follows from here that every ideal of 𝐹 is a principal ideal.

Hence, 𝐹 is a P.I.D. ■

I.Q.7 Is the converse of the Theorem 4.4 true? Justify.

I.Q.8 Is ℤ𝑝 a P.I.D? (where ℤ𝑝 is the ring of integers modulo 𝑝 and 𝑝 is prime)

I.Q.9 If 𝑅 is a P.I.D, then is 𝑅[𝑥] also a P.I.D?

The answer to the I.Q.9 is No. For this consider ℤ, the ring of integers.

In Example 4.3, we have seen that ℤ is a P.I.D. Now we prove that ℤ[𝒙] is not a P.I.D.

Define 𝐴 = 𝑥𝑓 𝑥 + 2𝑔 𝑥 ∶ 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑔 𝑥 ∈ ℤ 𝑥 .

Claim: 𝐴 is an ideal in ℤ[𝑥] which is not a principal ideal.

Let 𝑕 𝑥 , 𝑘(𝑥) ∈ 𝐴. Then,

𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓1 𝑥 + 2𝑔1 𝑥 and 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓2 𝑥 + 2𝑔2 𝑥 , where 𝑓1 𝑥 , 𝑓2 𝑥 , 𝑔1 𝑥 , 𝑔2 𝑥 ∈ ℤ 𝑥 .

So, 𝑕 𝑥 − 𝑘 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑓1 𝑥 − 𝑓2 𝑥 + 2(𝑔1 𝑥 − 𝑔2 𝑥 ) ∈ 𝐴.

Also, for any 𝑟(𝑥) ∈ ℤ 𝑥 .

𝑕 𝑥 𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓1 𝑥 𝑟 𝑥 + 2𝑔1 𝑥 𝑟(𝑥) ∈ 𝐴.

Hence, 𝐴 is an ideal in ℤ 𝑥 .

Now, we will show that 𝐴 is not a principal ideal in ℤ 𝑥 .

Let, if possible, = < 𝑝 𝑥 > , for some 𝑝(𝑥) ∈ 𝐴.

We can write 𝑥 = 𝑥 1 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 2(0 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ ).

⇒ 𝑥 ∈𝐴 =< 𝑝 𝑥 >

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⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑝 𝑥 𝑠(𝑥), for some 𝑠(𝑥) ∈ ℤ 𝑥 …(1)

Also, 2 = 𝑥 0 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 2(1 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 + ⋯ ).
⇒ 2 ∈ 𝐴 = < 𝑝 𝑥 >.
⇒ 2 = 𝑝 𝑥 𝑡(𝑥), for some 𝑡(𝑥) ∈ ℤ 𝑥 . …(2)

From (1) and (2) we have

2𝑥 = 2𝑝 𝑥 𝑠(𝑥) and 2𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 𝑡(𝑥).

⇒ 2𝑝 𝑥 𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 𝑡(𝑥).
⇒ 2𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡(𝑥).

It follows that each coefficient of 𝑥 𝑡(𝑥) and hence that of 𝑡(𝑥) must be an even integer.
Therefore, 𝑡 𝑥 = 2𝑟(𝑥), for some 𝑟(𝑥) ∈ ℤ 𝑥 .

Substituting the value of 𝑡(𝑥) in (2), we obtain

2 = 2 𝑝 𝑥 𝑟(𝑥).

⇒ 1 = 𝑝 𝑥 𝑟(𝑥).

⇒ 1 ∈ < 𝑝 𝑥 > = 𝐴.

⇒ 1 = 𝑥 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 2(𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + ⋯ ), for some 𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 ∈ ℤ.

Comparing constant term on both sides, we get

⇒ 1 = 2𝑏0 which is not possible as 𝑏0 ∈ ℤ.

Hence, 𝐴 is not a principal ideal in ℤ 𝑥 .

Consequently, ℤ 𝑥 is not a P.I.D.

Value Addition
From the answer to I.Q. 9, it is clear that it is not necessary that if 𝑅 is a P.I.D, then 𝑅[𝑥]
will also be a P.I.D.

We now find a condition on 𝑅 which would imply that 𝑅[𝑥] a P.I.D.

Theorem 4.5: If 𝐹 is a field, then 𝐹[𝑥] is a P.I.D.

Proof: As 𝐹 is a field, therefore 𝐹[𝑥] is an integral domain with unity.

Let 𝐴 be any ideal of 𝐹[𝑥].

If 𝐴 = {0}, then we are done.

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So, let us assume that 𝐴 ≠ {0}.

Let 0 ≠ 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 be a polynomial of least degree. It means that if 𝑔(𝑥) is any polynomial in

𝐴 then deg 𝑓(𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥).

Claim: 𝐴 =< 𝑓(𝑥) >.

Since 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⇒ < 𝑓(𝑥) > ⊆ 𝐴.

We show that 𝐴 ⊆ < 𝑓(𝑥) >.

Let 𝑔 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 be arbitrary.
Applying division algorithm to 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑓(𝑥), we obtain unique 𝑞 𝑥 , 𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥]:
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑟(𝑥), where 𝑟 𝑥 = 0 or deg 𝑟(𝑥) < deg 𝑓(𝑥).
⇒ 𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑞 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑟 𝑥 = 0 or deg 𝑟(𝑥) < deg 𝑓(𝑥).

As 𝑔 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 which is an ideal of 𝐹[𝑥]. It follows that 𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑞 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.

Since 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 is a polynomial of least degree, so
deg 𝑟(𝑥) < deg 𝑓(𝑥) is not possible.
Therefore 𝑟 𝑥 = 0 and hence 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ < 𝑓(𝑥) >
It proves that 𝐴 ⊆ < 𝑓(𝑥) >.
Hence, 𝐴 = < 𝑓(𝑥) >.

As 𝐴 was any ideal of 𝐹[𝑥], it follows that 𝐹[𝑥] is a P.I.D. ■

Now we know that if 𝐹 is a field, then 𝐹[𝑥] is a P.I.D. the next Theorem tells
states that an ideal in 𝐹[𝑥] is generated by a polynomial of least degree in it.

Theorem 4.6: Let 𝐴 be a non-zero ideal in 𝐹[𝑥] where 𝐹 is a field and 0 ≠ 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥].
Then, 𝐴 = < 𝑓(𝑥) > if and only if 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial of least degree in 𝐴.
Proof: First, let us assume that 𝐴 = < 𝑓(𝑥) >.
To prove: 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial of least degree in 𝐴.

Suppose this is not true.

Then there exists 0 ≠ 𝑡 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐹[𝑥] such that deg 𝑡(𝑥) < deg 𝑓(𝑥).
As 𝑡 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 = < 𝑓 𝑥 >.
⇒ 𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥), for some 0 ≠ 𝑞 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥]. (as 0 ≠ 𝑡(𝑥)).
⇒ deg 𝑡 𝑥 = deg 𝑞 𝑥 + deg 𝑓 𝑥
⇒ deg 𝑡 𝑥 > deg 𝑓 𝑥 ,
which is a contradiction to our assumption that deg 𝑡(𝑥) < deg 𝑓(𝑥).

Hence, 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial of least degree in 𝐴.

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Conversely,
Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a polynomial of least degree in 𝐴.
Then < 𝑓(𝑥) > ⊆ 𝐴.
To show that: 𝐴 = < 𝑓(𝑥) >.

Let 𝑔 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 be arbitrary.
Applying division algorithm to 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑓(𝑥), we obtain
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑟(𝑥), where 𝑟 𝑥 = 0 or deg 𝑟(𝑥) ⁡< deg 𝑓(𝑥) where 𝑟 𝑥 , 𝑞 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥].
⇒ 𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑞 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑟 𝑥 = 0 or deg 𝑟(𝑥) ⁡< deg 𝑓(𝑥).

As 𝑔 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 which is an ideal of 𝐹[𝑥].

It follows that 𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑞 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
Since 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 is a polynomial of least degree, therefore the condition deg⁡𝑟 𝑥 < deg 𝑓(𝑥)
cannot hold.
So, 𝑟 𝑥 = 0 and hence 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ < 𝑓(𝑥) > which shows that 𝐴 ⊆ < 𝑓(𝑥) >.

Hence, 𝐴 = < 𝑓(𝑥) >. ■

Example 4.7: Prove that < 𝑥 > is a maximal ideal in ℚ[𝑥], where ℚ denotes the ring of
rationals.

Solution: Since, ℚ is a field, therefore by Theorem 4.6, ℚ[𝑥] is a P.I.D.

To show that: < 𝑥 > is a maximal ideal of ℚ[𝑥].

Let 𝐼 be any ideal of ℚ[𝑥] such that < 𝑥 > ⊆ 𝐼 ⊆ ℚ[𝑥].

Since ℚ 𝑥 is a principal ideal domain and 𝐼 is its ideal.
Therefore there exists 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ ℚ 𝑥 such that 𝐼 = < 𝑓 𝑥 >.
As 𝑥 = 𝑥. 1 ∈ < 𝑥 > ⊆ 𝐼.
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) for some 𝑔 𝑥 ∈ ℚ 𝑥 ...(1)
So, (1) holds only if 𝑓 𝑥 = 1, 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 or 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 or 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝛽𝑥, 𝑔 𝑥 = β−1 or
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝛽, 𝑔 𝑥 = β−1 𝑥, 𝛽 ∈ ℚ (provided 𝛽 −1 exists) .

Case(i): If 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥.
⇒ 1 ∈ 𝐼 ⇒ 𝐼 = ℚ[𝑥].

Case(ii): If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 1.
In this case , we obtain 𝐼 =< 𝑥 >.

Case (iii): If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝛽𝑥, 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝛽 −1 ,then 𝐼 =< 𝑓 𝑥 > = < 𝛽𝑥 > = < 𝑥 >.

Case (iv): If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝛽, 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝛽 −1 𝑥, then 𝐼 = < 𝛽 >.

As 𝛽 ∈ 𝐼 ⇒ 1 = 𝛽𝛽 −1 ∈ 𝐼. Therefore, 𝐼 = ℚ [𝑥].

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Hence, it follows that < 𝑥 > is a maximal ideal of ℚ[𝑥].

Example 4.8: Let 𝑅 be a commutative ring with unity. Prove that if 𝐼 is a prime ideal of
𝑅, then 𝐼[𝑥] is a prime ideal of 𝑅[𝑥].
Solution: Let 𝐼 be a prime ideal of 𝑅.
𝑅 𝑅
Then, and hence [𝑥] is an integral domain.
𝐼 𝐼

We will prove that

𝑅[𝑥] 𝑅
(I) ≅ [𝑥]
𝑘𝑒𝑟𝜙 𝐼

(II) ker 𝜙 = 𝐼[𝑥]

𝑅[𝑥]
from where it will follow that is an integral domain and hence 𝐼[𝑥] will be a prime
𝐼[𝑥 ]

ideal of 𝑅[𝑥].

𝑅 𝑅
Since is a ring, therefore [𝑥] is a ring.
𝐼 𝐼

𝑅
Define 𝜙 ∶ 𝑅[𝑥] ⟶ [𝑥] as
𝐼

𝜙 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝜙 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + ⋯ = (𝑎0 + 𝐼) + 𝑎1 + 𝐼 𝑥 + ⋯ , for every 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑅[𝑥].

Clearly, 𝜙 is well – defined.

(1) 𝜙 is onto.

𝑅
Let (𝑥) ∈ [𝑥] .
𝐼

Then 𝑔 𝑥 = (𝑎0 + 𝐼) + 𝑎1 + 𝐼 𝑥 + ⋯ , 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝑅.

Take 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + ⋯ . Then 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑅[𝑥] and 𝜙 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥).

(ii) 𝜙 is a ring homomorphism.

Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + ⋯ and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + ⋯ ∈ 𝑅[𝑥].

Then 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝜙((𝑎0 + 𝑏0 ) + (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )𝑥 + ⋯ ) .

= ((𝑎0 + 𝑏0 + 𝐼) + (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 + 𝐼)𝑥 + ⋯ ) .
= 𝑎0 + 𝐼 + 𝑎1 + 𝐼 𝑥 + ⋯ + ((𝑏0 + 𝐼) + (𝑏1 + 𝐼)𝑥 + ⋯ ) .
= 𝜙 𝑓 𝑥 ) + 𝜙(𝑔 𝑥 .

and 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝜙 𝑎0 𝑏0 + 𝑎0 𝑏1 + 𝑏0 𝑎1 𝑥 + ⋯ .
= 𝑎0 𝑏0 + 𝐼 + 𝑎0 𝑏1 + 𝑏0 𝑎1 + 𝐼 𝑥 + ⋯ .
= ((𝑎0 + 𝐼) + (𝑎1 + 𝐼)𝑥 + ⋯ )((𝑏0 + 𝐼) + (𝑏1 + 𝐼)𝑥 + ⋯) .

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 Polynomial Rings

= 𝜙 𝑓 𝑥 ). 𝜙(𝑔 𝑥 .

Thus, by Fundamental theorem of ring homomorphism

𝑅[𝑥] 𝑅
≅ [𝑥]
𝑘𝑒𝑟𝜙 𝐼

Claim: 𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝜙 = 𝐼[𝑥] .

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + ⋯ ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝜙

𝑅
𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝜙 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑜𝑓 [𝑥]
𝐼
𝑖𝑓𝑓 (𝑎0 + 𝐼) + (𝑎1 + 𝐼)𝑥 + ⋯ = 𝐼 + 0 + 𝐼 𝑥 + ⋯
𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑖 + 𝐼 = 𝐼 , ∀ 𝑖
𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐼 , ∀𝑖
𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + ⋯ = 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝐼[𝑥]
𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝜙 = 𝐼[𝑥]

𝑅[𝑥] 𝑅
𝑇𝑕𝑢𝑠, ≅ [𝑥].
𝐼[𝑥] 𝐼
ℝ[𝑥]
Example 4.9: Prove that ≅ ℂ , where ℝ[𝑥] denote the ring of polynomial with
<𝑥 2 +1>

real coefficients and ℂ denotes the ring of complex numbers.

Solution: Define 𝜙 : ℝ 𝑥 ⟶ ℂ as

𝜙 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑖) , ∀ 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ ℝ[𝑥].

Clearly, 𝜙 is a well-defined map.

(i) 𝜙 is onto.
Let 𝑦 ∈ ℂ. Then 𝑦 is of the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 where 𝑎 , 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.
Take 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥. Then 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ ℝ[𝑥] and 𝜙 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 = 𝑦.

⇒ 𝜙 is onto.

(ii) 𝜙 is a ring homomorphism.

Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 ∈ ℝ[𝑥].

Then 𝑓 𝑥 +𝑔 𝑥 = 𝜙 𝑎0 +𝑏0 + 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + ⋯ .
= 𝑎0 +𝑏0 + 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑖 + ⋯
= (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑖 + ⋯ ) + (𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑖 + ⋯ ) .
=𝜙 𝑓 𝑥 +𝜙 𝑔 𝑥 .

and 𝜙 𝑓 𝑥 .𝑔 𝑥 = 𝜙 𝑎0 𝑏0 + 𝑎0 𝑏1 + 𝑎1 𝑏0 𝑥 + ⋯ .

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 Polynomial Rings

= 𝑎0 𝑏0 + 𝑎0 𝑏1 + 𝑎1 𝑏0 𝑖 + ⋯ ).
= (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑖 + ⋯ ) . (𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑖 + ⋯ ).
= 𝜙 𝑓 𝑥 .𝜙 𝑔 𝑥

Hence, by Fundamental theorem of ring homomorphism

ℝ[𝑥]
≅ ℂ
𝑘𝑒𝑟𝜙

Claim: ker 𝜙 = < 𝑥 2 + 1 > .

As 𝜙 𝑥 2 + 1 = 𝑖 2 + 1 = −1 + 1 = 0.
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 1 ∈ ker 𝜙.

It follows from here that ker 𝜙 is a non- zero ideal of ℝ[𝑥] , where ℝ is a field and
0 ≠ 𝑥 2 + 1 is a polynomial of least degree in ker 𝜙.

Therefore, from Theorem 4.6, it follows that ker 𝜙 = < 𝑥 2 + 1 >.

ℝ[𝑥]
Hence, ≅ ℂ.
<𝑥 2 +1>

Theorem 4.10: Let 𝑅 be an integral domain with unity such that 𝑅[𝑥] is a principal ideal
domain, then 𝑅 is a field.
Proof: Define ∅ ∶ 𝑅 𝑥 → 𝑅 as
∅ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) , ∀ 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑅[𝑥].

It can be easily verified that ∅ is an onto homomorphism.

Therefore, by Fundamental theorem of Ring Homomorphism

𝑅[𝑥]
≅𝑅
ker ∅

𝑅[𝑥]
In order to prove that 𝑅 is a field, we show that is a field by proving that ker ∅ =< 𝑥 >
ker ∅

and it is a maximal ideal in 𝑅[𝑥].

Claim 1: ker ∅ = < 𝑥 >.

𝑓 𝑥 = (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ) ∈ ker ∅
⇔ ∅ 𝑓 𝑥 =0
⇔ 𝑎0 = 0
𝑛
⇔ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 )
⇔ 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ <𝑥>
⇔ < 𝑥 > = ker ∅

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 Polynomial Rings

𝑅[𝑥]
Thus, ≅ 𝑅.
<𝑥>

Claim 2: < 𝑥 > is a maximal ideal of 𝑅[𝑥].

Let 𝐼 be any ideal of 𝑅[𝑥] such that < 𝑥 > ⊆ 𝐼 ⊆ 𝑅[𝑥].

Since 𝑅 𝑥 is a principal ideal domain and 𝐼 is its ideal.
Therefore there exists 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 𝑥 such that 𝐼 = < 𝑓 𝑥 >.
As 𝑥 = 𝑥. 1 ∈ < 𝑥 > ⊆ 𝐼 = < 𝑓 𝑥 >.
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) for some 𝑔 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅[𝑥] ...(1)

So, (1) holds only if 𝑓 𝑥 = 1, 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥

or 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑔 𝑥 = 1

or 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝛽𝑥, 𝑔 𝑥 = β−1

or 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝛽, 𝑔 𝑥 = β−1 𝑥, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑅 (provided 𝛽 −1 exists) .

Case (i): If 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥.

⇒ 1 ∈ 𝐼 ⇒ 𝐼 = 𝑅[𝑥].

Case (ii): If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 1.

In this case, we obtain 𝐼 =< 𝑥 >.

Case (iii): If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝛽𝑥, 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝛽 −1 ,then 𝐼 =< 𝑓 𝑥 > = < 𝛽𝑥 > = < 𝑥 >.

Case (iv): If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝛽, 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝛽 −1 𝑥, then 𝐼 = < 𝛽 >.

As 𝛽 ∈ 𝐼 ⇒ 1 = 𝛽𝛽 −1 ∈ 𝐼. Therefore, 𝐼 = 𝑅[𝑥].

Hence, it follows that < 𝑥 > is a maximal ideal of 𝑅[𝑥]

𝑅[𝑥]
and thus is a field and therefore 𝑅 is a field.
<𝑥>

Example 4.11: Is ℤ[𝑥] a P.I.D, where ℤ denotes the ring of integers?

Solution: We know that ℤ is an integral domain with unity. If ℤ[𝑥] has been a P.I.D, then
from Theorem 4.10, ℤ must be a field which is not true. Hence, ℤ[𝑥] is not a P.I.D.

Remark 4.12: In I.Q.9, we have proved independently that ℤ[𝑥] is not a P.I.D without
using the Theorem 4.10.

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5. Exercises
Q1. Find the sum and product of the polynomials:
(i) 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 2 , 𝑔 𝑥 = 3𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 1 in ℤ5 [𝑥].
(ii) 𝑥 = 2𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 + 1 , 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 1 in ℤ6 [𝑥].
(iii) 𝑥 = 10𝑥 2 + (2 3)𝑥 + (1 2) , 𝑔 𝑥 = (5 2) 𝑥 2 + 1 2 𝑥 + 1 in ℚ[𝑥].
(iv) 𝑥 = (−5)𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 + 2 , 𝑔 𝑥 = 3𝑥 4 + (−2)𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 in ℤ[𝑥].
(v) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑖 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 + 𝑖, 𝑔 𝑥 = 5𝑖 𝑥 2 + 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑥 in ℂ[𝑥].

Q2. Find the zeros of the polynomials:

(i) 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 ∈ ℤ5 [𝑥].
(ii) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1 ∈ ℤ3 [𝑥].
(iii) 𝑓 𝑥 = 6𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 1 ∈ ℚ[𝑥].
(iv) 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 28 ∈ ℤ[𝑥].
(v) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 + 3 ∈ ℂ[𝑥].

Q3. Find the quotient and remainder when 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by 𝑔(𝑥) where
(i) 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 in ℤ7 [𝑥].
(ii) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 3 in ℤ5 [𝑥].

Q4. Prove that the polynomial 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 has at most 𝑛 zeros over the field of complex
numbers.

Q5. Prove that < 𝑥 + 2 > is a maximal ideal of ℚ[𝑥].

Q6. Find units of the ring ℤ5 [𝑥], where ℤ5 denote the ring of integers modulo 5.

Q7. Prove that (𝑥 − 5) is a factor of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 in ℤ7 [𝑥], where ℤ7 denote the ring of

integers modulo 7.

Q8. Find characteristic of the ring ℤ12 [𝑥].

Q9. Prove that the ring of integers ℤ is a P.I.D.

Q10. Give examples of polynomials 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑔(𝑥) in 𝑅[𝑥] satisfying

(i) deg 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 < max (deg 𝑓 𝑥 , deg 𝑔(𝑥)).

(ii) deg 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 < deg 𝑓 𝑥 + deg 𝑔(𝑥).

Q11. Let 𝑅 be a commutative ring. Prove that 𝑅 is an integral domain if and only if 𝑅[𝑥]
is an integral domain.

Q12. Prove that ℚ[𝑥] is a P.I.D.

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Q13. Let 𝑅 be a ring such that 𝑅[𝑥] is a P.I.D., then prove that 𝑅 is a field.

Q14. Prove that the ring ℤ𝑝 , of integers modulo 𝑝 where 𝑝 is prime is a P.I.D.

Q15. Show that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 has four zeros in ℤ6 , the ring of integers modulo 6.

Q16. Prove that if the rings 𝑅 and 𝑆 are isomorphic, then the polynomial rings 𝑅[𝑥] and
𝑆[𝑥] are also isomorphic.

6. References
1. Joseph A. Gallian, Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa
Publishing House.
2. David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote, Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition),
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

7. Suggested Readings
1. John B. Fraleigh, A First Course in Abstract Algebra (7th Edition), Pearson.
2. Joseph A. Gallian, Contemporary Abstract Algebra (7th Edition), Narosa
Publishing House.
3. Serge Lang, Algebra, (3rd Edition), Graduate Text in Mathematics,
Springer.

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