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Method for Segmentation and Hybrid Joining of Additive Manufactured

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DOI: 10.3390/designs6010002

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Article
Method for Segmentation and Hybrid Joining of Additive
Manufactured Segments in Prototyping Using the Example of
Trim Parts
Nils König * , Ferdinand Schockenhoff , Adrian König and Frank Diermeyer

Institute of Automotive Technology, TUM School of Engineering and Design, Technical University of Munich,
Boltzmannstraße 15, 85748 Garching, Germany; [email protected] (F.S.);
[email protected] (A.K.); [email protected] (F.D.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Rapid prototyping has become increasingly popular over the past years. However, its
application is heavily confined to a part size that fits the small build volume of additive machines.
This paper presents a universal design method to overcome this limitation while preserving the
economic advantages of rapid prototyping over conventional processes. It segments large, thin-
walled parts and joins the segments. The method aims to produce an assembly with minimal loss
to the performance and characteristics of a solid part. Based on a set of requirements, a universal
segmentation approach and a novel hybrid joint design combining adhesive bonding and press
fitting are developed. This design allows for the force transmission, positioning, and assembly of the
segments adaptive to their individual geometry. The method is tailored to fused deposition modeling
(FDM) by minimizing the need for support structures and actively compensating for manufacturing
tolerances. While a universal application cannot be guaranteed, the adaptive design was proven for a





 variety of complex geometries. Using automotive trim parts as an example, the usability, benefits,
Citation: König, N.; Schockenhoff, F.; and novelty of the design method is presented. The method itself shows a high potential to overcome
König, A.; Diermeyer, F. Method for the build volume limitation for thin-walled parts in an economic manner.
Segmentation and Hybrid Joining of
Additive Manufactured Segments in Keywords: design method; joint design; segmentation; additive manufacturing; rapid prototyping;
Prototyping Using the Example of fused deposition modeling (FDM)
Trim Parts. Designs 2022, 6, 2.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
designs6010002

Academic Editor: Mahdi Bodaghi

1. Introduction
Nowadays, customers have a growing desire for more individual and up-to-date prod-
Received: 26 November 2021
ucts [1–3]. Therefore, products are characterized by an ever-shorter product life cycle. The
Accepted: 24 December 2021
simultaneous fulfillment of constantly growing standards puts product development under
Published: 29 December 2021
enormous time and cost pressure. On the one hand, concepts in the form of prototypes have
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral the potential to accelerate the generation of new products by identifying problems early on
with regard to jurisdictional claims in in their development [4] (pp. 2–3). On the other hand, cost- and time-intensive processes in
published maps and institutional affil- conventional prototyping limit this potential. To overcome those barriers, the development
iations. of new design methods that accelerate the creation of prototypes are needed [5] (p. 280).
Additive manufacturing is one of the most promising processes for achieving this goal.
Due to its fundamentally different nature, additive manufacturing enables new designing
approaches extended to what conventional processes allow for [6] (pp. 10–12).
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
In the current state of the art, the small build volume of additive machines limits the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
application of additive manufacturing [7]. To overcome this limitation without increasing
distributed under the terms and
the size and thus the cost of the machines, the joining of multiple smaller parts is proposed.
conditions of the Creative Commons
This contrasts with the general opinion that joints are weak points in a design and worth
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the effort to be avoided [8] (p. 2). Furthermore, avoiding a multi-part structure to reduce
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ assembly costs is one of the basic rules in injection molding [9]. These general opinions
4.0/). rooted in conventional processing encourage the development of complex individual parts

Designs 2022, 6, 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/designs6010002 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/designs

Designs 2022, 6, 2 2 of 27

and reduce the pursuit of innovative joining processes. Therefore, only a small number of
new publications about the joining of plastics can be found.
For additive manufacturing, however, these statements are no longer valid. Additive
parts are manufactured layer-by-layer in a single step, regardless of their complexity. The
resulting design freedom creates a broad scope for new joining processes. To combine
design freedom with an economic use of joining, a uniform method that is as universal as
possible is required.
Such a design method was developed for the production of large-area and thin-walled
interior trim parts for the “UNICARagil” project [10]. The focus is on parts made from
plastics, and therefore it is geared toward additive processes suitable for those materials.
The method offers the opportunity to break through the tendency of avoiding joints and to
set a new trend. This new design method and its application are presented in this paper.
Before introducing the development process leading to this method, a summary of the
current state of the art regarding prototyping is given to disclose the current research gap.
Thereafter, the state of the art regarding joining in additive manufacturing is given, which
forms the basis for the approach to solve the research gap.

2. Prototyping
An interactive, continuous development process using prototypes is proven to achieve
a functional and valid product concept [11] (pp. 9–10). In modern design methodologies,
like design thinking [12], prototyping is an integral element. To sustain the use of proto-
types, their production should be as economical as possible. Costs are distributed over a
single or small number of prototypes, which is why individual and expensive machines,
tools, or expensive processes are avoided. The remaining selection of processes, especially
to produce complex parts, is highly limited. Instead of conventional methods with multiple
processing steps, “rapid prototyping” is used more frequently nowadays.
Rapid prototyping describes the use of additive or generative manufacturing processes
to produce prototype components. These processes aim to reproduce the characteristics of
a product as quickly and accurately as possible [11] (p. 9). Additive manufacturing applies
material layer-by-layer to create a part. The individual additive processes differ in their
operating principles for material deposition. They can also be differentiated by the materials
used. While the additive manufacturing of metals is becoming increasingly popular, the
high machine and production cost conflicts with the demands for the prototyping of large
parts. Therefore, this paper focuses on additive processes for plastic parts. Fused deposition
modeling (FDM) is one of the most affordable and widespread additive processes [13] and
serves as the basis for the investigations carried out in this paper. In FDM, a plastic filament
is continuously fed into a heated nozzle, melted, and applied in thin layers, one on top
of each another [9]. This leads to a quick production of complex prototype parts, but the
achievable part size is limited by the build volume of the additive machine. With the need
for parts larger than the available build volume, the direct use of rapid technologies ends.
This necessitates the use of conventional processes. Within the scope of financial
possibilities in prototyping, costly processes and machines are substituted by high manual
effort with lower quality. A representative method to produce large, thin-walled parts is the
designing of molds and subsequent molding of the parts. The most widely used process for
manufacturing composite components is hand lay-up and is considered the comparative
process for the investigations in this thesis. Along with fiber spraying, hand lay-ups account
for a quarter of the total fiber-reinforced plastics production and cover the manufacturing
of large-area parts with low unit quantities as in prototyping [14] (pp. 35–36).
Comparing hand lay-up to rapid prototyping shows the shortcomings when the
prototyping of large parts is required. Parts that fit the build volume of additive machines
benefit from manufacturing in a single step and a process that offers ever greater advantages
over conventional processes as part complexity increases [6] (pp. 9–12). In contrast, parts
larger than the build volume of additive machines that use hand lay-up require multiple
processing steps for manufacturing the molds and the hand lay-up itself. Molds for
 Designs 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 28

Designs 2022, 6, 2 benefit from manufacturing in a single step and a process that offers ever greater ad- 3 of 27
vantages over conventional processes as part complexity increases [6] (pp. 9–12). In con-
trast, parts larger than the build volume of additive machines that use hand lay-up require
multiple processing steps for manufacturing the molds and the hand lay-up itself. Molds
complex parts require cost-intensive machining, while in hand lay-up, an attempt is made
for complex parts require cost-intensive machining, while in hand lay-up, an attempt is
to compensate for further machining costs by using labor-intensive manual processes with
made to compensate for further machining costs by using labor-intensive manual pro-
lower
cessesquality.
with lower quality.
3. Joining
3. Joining
In this paper, a design method based on the joining of multiple additively manufac-
In this paper, a design method based on the joining of multiple additively manufac-
tured segments to establish the use of rapid prototyping on a larger scale is presented.
tured segments to establish the use of rapid prototyping on a larger scale is presented.
According
AccordingtotoVDI VDI 8593
8593 [15],
[15], joining can be
joining can be divided
dividedintointodifferent
differentjoining
joininggroups.
groups. TheThe
groups relevant for the joining of plastics are displayed in Figure 1. They set
groups relevant for the joining of plastics are displayed in Figure 1. They set the spectrum the spectrum
ofofjoining
joiningsolutions.
solutions. For
For the mode of
the mode of action
actionand
andthethetypes
typesofofconnection
connection in in
thethe respective
respective
groups, please refer to the specific literature, e.g., [16,17].
groups, please refer to the specific literature, e.g., [16,17].

joining

joining by joining by joining by

compounding pressing in/on gluing
forming shaping welding

Figure1.1.Joining
Figure Joininggroups
groups relevant
relevant for plastics.
plastics.

3.1.
3.1.Adhesive
AdhesiveJoining
Joining for for Additive Manufacturing
Additive Manufacturing
The
Theresearch
researchon onjoining
joiningin inthe
the field
field of
of additive manufacturing
manufacturingof ofplastics
plasticsisislimited
limitedtoto a
small number
a small number of publications.
of publications. They
They focus
focusmainly
mainlyon onthe
thesuitability
suitability of
of adhesives
adhesives for join- joining.
Due
ing.toDue
a large
to a and
largecontinuous
and continuousbonding area of
bonding adhesive
area joints,joints,
of adhesive stressstress
concentration
concentration leading
toleading
a material failure isfailure
to a material prevented. Furthermore,
is prevented. Furthermore,gluing is advantageous
gluing is advantageous for prototyping
for proto-
due
typing due to its freedom in design and enables a gap-filling connection able to compen-for
to its freedom in design and enables a gap-filling connection able to compensate
small deviations
sate for betweenbetween
small deviations parts. Troughton [16] (p. [16]
parts. Troughton 145)(p.
referred to adhesive
145) referred joiningjoin-
to adhesive as the
ing as
most the most
versatile ofversatile
all joining of all joining processes.
processes.
Bürenhausetetal.
Bürenhaus al.[18],
[18], Arenas et al.al.[13],
[13],and
andSpaggiari
Spaggiariand andDenti
Denti[7][7]
conducted
conducted testing
testing
ofofthe
thejoint
jointstrength
strengthof of different
different additive
additive manufactured
manufacturedtest testspecimens.
specimens. AllAll
of of
themthem foundfound
adhesivebonding
adhesive bondingsuitable
suitable forfor joining additive
additivemanufactured
manufacturedparts. parts.
Bürenhausetetal.
Bürenhaus al. [18]
[18] investigated
investigated adhesive
adhesivejoining
joiningofofpolyetherimide
polyetherimide (PEI) specimens
(PEI) specimens
producedby
produced bythe
theFDMFDM process.
process. They
They achieved
achievedthe thebest
bestmechanical
mechanical properties
properties usingusingtwo- two-
component epoxy resin and a shafted adhesive
component epoxy resin and a shafted adhesive joint design. joint design.
Arenasetetal.
Arenas al.[13]
[13] and
and Spaggiari
Spaggiari and and Denti
Denti[7] [7]investigated
investigatedacrylonitrile
acrylonitrile butadiene
butadiene
styrene (ABS) specimens fabricated using
styrene (ABS) specimens fabricated using the FDM method. the FDM method.
Arenaset
Arenas et al.
al. [13]
[13]found
foundpolyurethane
polyurethane andand
acrylic adhesives
acrylic to be well
adhesives to besuited
well for join-for
suited
ing in terms of various technical and economic
joining in terms of various technical and economic criteria. criteria.
Spaggiariand
Spaggiari and Denti
Denti [7]
[7] conducted
conductedaaseries seriesofoftests
teststotodetermine
determine thethe
maximum
maximum load-load-
bearing capacity, stiffness and fracture stress for overlap-bonded specimens. The speci-
bearing capacity, stiffness and fracture stress for overlap-bonded specimens. The specimens
mens were bonded with an epoxy adhesive or an epoxy-cyanoacrylate-based hybrid ad-
were bonded with an epoxy adhesive or an epoxy-cyanoacrylate-based hybrid adhesive.
hesive. They found that the load-bearing capability of the joint is not inferior to the
They found that the load-bearing capability of the joint is not inferior to the strength of
strength of the material itself due to cases, where the fracture occurred in the solid mate-
the material itself due to cases, where the fracture occurred in the solid material instead of
rial instead of the joint.
the joint.

3.2. Joint Design for Additive Manufacturing

The geometric design of joints for additive manufactured parts is not researched in
depth. Conventional manufacturing strives to reduce the number of components and joints
to lower production costs [9]. Accordingly, the motivation for innovative joining processes
is limited. In contrast, the addition of joints in additive manufacturing does not generate
additional manufacturing costs, due to the nature of the process.
Carausu et al. [19] stressed the advantage of joining geometries with a form-fitting
connection or the use of positioning pins compared to the indefinite joining of two bodies.
They stated that such a design enables unambiguous assembly, ensures compliance with
tolerances, and increases part stiffness.
Designs 2022, 6, 2 4 of 27

3.3. Research Gap

Additive manufacturing not only accelerates prototype construction through rapid
prototyping, but also finds application in final products through rapid manufacturing. The
processes and application possibilities are developing rapidly due to their advantages [6]
(p. 214). So far, this trend applies exclusively to areas in which additive manufacturing
can be used. The main limitation is the small build volume that additive manufacturing
machines offer [7]. While the usage of machines with larger build volume solves the space
limitation to a certain degree, the disproportionate increase in price relative to the build
volume renders them infeasible for an economical application in prototyping.
For large-area parts beyond the build volume, conventional hand lay-up dominates
in prototype construction. This process requires the cost-intensive production of molding
tools and labor-intensive processing. In general, conventional methods of prototyping are
slow, expensive, and severely limited in their design compared to rapid prototyping.
A universal method for the application of additive manufacturing beyond the build
volume is nonexistent. This circumstance has created a discrepancy between parts that
allows rapid technologies and those that require conventional methods.
Novel joining techniques exploiting the design freedom of additive manufacturing
offer the opportunity for a breakthrough in build volume limitations. A joining design
method which is universally applicable would expand the use of additive manufacturing
to larger parts while maintaining the “rapid” aspect of those technologies by preventing
the need for individual design work. This method would overcome the limitations of
conventional processes and solve the existing discrepancy. We present a method that
achieves the universal segmentation of a large part, additive manufacturing of each segment
and the subsequent joining of those, using a novel hybrid joint design in this paper.

4. Approach
The development of the method follows a systematic process based on the guideline
VDI 2221 [15]. First, the objective is precisely defined, and the requirements that the method
needs to fulfill are derived by discussing the boundary conditions. Afterward, the function
structure of the method is set. From there, a solution space for the sub-functions of joining
is generated, and a joint concept is derived. Next, a segmentation concept is presented. The
combination of both sub-concepts follows in Section 5 in the form of the overall design.
To render the method more useful to potential users, a detailed description of the
design choices and an insight into their reasoning is given.

4.1. Aim
The design method aims to produce large-area, thin-walled parts out of plastic by
using additive manufacturing. In these terms, any part that exceeds the build volume of the
machine is considered large area. Parts with an average material thickness in the millimeter
range are considered thin walled in the scope of the design method. Parts belonging in this
category are, among others, the body, housing, and trim parts of large products, such as
large machinery or vehicles of every kind. One example is the production of an interior
trim part in Section 6.4. The FDM process is used as one of the most widespread and
cost-effective additive processes [13,18]. Nonetheless, the developed method satisfies the
general requirements of additive processing.
The aim is to enable an assembly of segments that possesses the characteristics
of a solid part while offering an economic advantage over the current state of the art
in prototyping.
The problem statement, a solution-neutral description of the aim in the form of a
concise sentence and an unbiased perspective, is as follows:
Segment a large-scale, thin-walled part and assemble the segments to form this part.
Regarding the first part of the purpose, it is explicitly stated that the developed method
can react to a given shape rather than requiring a specific design for its application.
Designs 2022, 6, 2 5 of 27

4.2. Requirements
For the integrity of the method, knowledge of all requirements implied by the prob-
lem statement is essential. Therefore, the boundary conditions and challenges concern-
ing design, manufacturing and joining are investigated, and all necessary requirements
are derived.
In general, the method aims to be as universally applicable as possible and, therefore,
proceeds from an arbitrary shape of this part. With respect to the scope of this paper, the
method aims to preserve this shape, especially the thinness of the part.
In the UNICARagil project, the method is applied to the production of automotive
interior trim parts. These components have a visible side, whose shape needs to be
unchanged, as well as a rear side, which ensures the stability and mounting of the part and
can be altered.

4.2.1. Segmentation
The challenges of segmentation are related to those of a puzzle game, except that
it poses a three-dimensional instead of a two-dimensional problem. This increases the
complexity and relativizes questions regarding the uniform design and assembly of three-
dimensional segments.
In contrast to a puzzle, the three-dimensional space offers no distinct joining direction.
Accordingly, our method has to specify a universal procedure for dividing the part into
individual segments. The feasibility and limits of this universal procedure are a key
challenge and were investigated in the concept generation (Section 4.6).
Further requirements arise away from a holistic view of the part toward a consideration
of an individual segment. The joint design at their edge, connecting them to one another,
needs to adapt to the individual shape and orientation of the segment in its specific area of
the part.
The final assembly needs to be self-contained and without any open degrees of freedom
to resemble a solid part. Therefore, the joining geometry needs to position the segments in
relation to each other. The aim is not to limit the application of the method by the means
used for segmentation and geometric features of the joint.

4.2.2. Manufacturing and Joining

The segments need to be suitable for additive manufacturing out of plastic. Apart
from the major size limitation, several other weaknesses of additive manufacturing, in this
case, FDM printing, exist and threaten the success of the method.
General challenges in FDM printing are overhangs, warpage, and tolerances (Figure 2).
Designs 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of
Their occurrence leads to geometric deviations on each segment. The joining geometry
needs to not only maintain the fitment of the segments despite these deviations, but also
compensate for the resulting tolerances for an overall conform assembly. This includes
the compensation the compensation
of a curvatureofof
a curvature of edge
the joining the joining edgeofbecause
because of warpage.
warpage. For detailed i
For detailed
information onformation on the challenges
the challenges of additiveofmanufacturing,
additive manufacturing, pleasetorefer
please refer the to the technical lite
technical
literature [6,20].ature [6,20].

gradient-depending
stair steps tolerance
support structures

warpage

Figure
Figure 2. Challenges of 2. Challenges
additive of additive manufacturing
manufacturing usingofthe
using the example example
FDM of FDM printing.
printing.

The main requirement of the joint itself is to allow force transmission between se
ments on the level of the solid material of the part.

4.2.3. Time and Costs Consumption

Designs 2022, 6, 2 6 of 27

The main requirement of the joint itself is to allow force transmission between segments
on the level of the solid material of the part.

4.2.3. Time and Costs Consumption

Finally, the time required for the application of the method must be considered. The
fulfillment of all imposed requirements can lead to sufficient but complex solutions. With
growing complexity, the time required for the application of the method increases.
The method cannot disproportionately surpass the time required for conventional
manufacturing processes. In addition, the method must be able to adhere to the schedule of
a real-world application. Otherwise, the advantage of lower material and equipment costs
would be lost to the cost of labor-intensive processing, and the method would not find any
real application, regardless of its technical potential. The time for the application of the
method consists of the design time as well as the production and assembly time. Since
the manufacturing time for the segments is roughly constant regardless of the geometric
design due to additive manufacturing, the time for designing the segments needs to be
kept to a minimum.

4.2.4. Requirement List

The requirements derived from the analysis of the framework conditions were doc-
umented in the form of a requirements list (Table 1). The requirements list serves the
generation of the solution space as well as the final evaluation of the concept. The require-
ments were numbered and divided into demands (F) or wishes (W). The method must fulfill
the demands, while wishes are optional to increase the performance. In addition, a require-
ment was characterized with a characteristic according to Pahl and Beitz [21]. They define
which product feature or which area in the product life cycle the requirement addresses.

Table 1. Requirement list in order of definition in Section 4.2.

Nr. D/W Requirement Characteristic

1 W Segment parts of arbitrary size Use
2 D Maintain thin walls (thickness < 2.5 times the base material) Geometry
3 D Preserve the geometry of the visible side of the parts Geometry
4 W Minimize gaps between segments Geometry
5 D Meet the lifespan of the final product Use
6 W Be universally applicable Use
7 D Ensure composability of the segments Assembly
8 D Join the segments to each other in all degrees of freedom Kinematics
9 D Design the joining geometry adaptive to the shape and orientation of each segment Geometry
10 D Enable the joining regardless of the cut direction Kinematics
11 D Dimension the segments to the build volume of the manufacturing machine Geometry
12 D Manufacture the segments additively Manufacturing
13 W Avoid overhangs on the joining geometry Geometry
14 W Avoid support structures on the visible side Geometry
15 W Avoid large-area support structures on the rear side Geometry
16 D Enable joining despite warpage in the manufacturing process Kinematics
17 D Enable tolerance compensation Kinematics
18 D Ensure force transmission at the level of the solid material Forces
19 D Position the segments accurately and without play Assembly
20 D Maintain the overall part tolerance Control
21 W Reduce material consumption Costs
22 D Design the segments in under 2 h per segment Manufacturing

4.3. Function Structure

The functions that are needed to fulfill the requirements were divided into three
subsystems (Figure 3): the segmentation of the part geometry, the additive manufacturing
of the segments, and the joining of the segments to the final assembly.
 21 W Reduce material consumption Costs
22 D Design the segments in under 2 h per segment Manufacturing

4.3. Function Structure

The functions that are needed to fulfill the requirements were divided into three sub-
Designs 2022, 6, 2 7 of 27
systems (Figure 3): the segmentation of the part geometry, the additive manufacturing of
the segments, and the joining of the segments to the final assembly.

segmentation of a large scale, thin-walled part and

assembly of the segments to form this part

additive
segmentation joining
manufacturing

partition ensure manufacture transmit forces position compensate

composability segments segments tolerances

Figure3.3.Structure
Figure Structureof
ofthe
the developed
developed method
method composed
composedofofthree
threemain
mainfunctions.
functions.

Segmentationsummarizes
Segmentation summarizes the
the aspects
aspectsof
ofdividing
dividingthe
thepart
partinto individual
into segments
individual segments
inina adefined
definedmanner
manner and
and enabling
enabling the
the assembly
assemblyofofthe
thesegments
segmentsbybyavoiding collisions
avoiding collisions
throughthe
through thegeometric
geometricdesign.
design.
Additive manufacturing produces the individual segments. It is to be considered
passive in relation to the method because the process is predetermined but dictates several
requirements as well as possibilities for the method (Section 4.2.2).
The joining of the segments has the primary function of force transmission to ensure
part integrity. Due to the joining in an undefined three-dimensional space, the secondary
function of positioning the segments to one another follows. To meet the challenges of
additive manufacturing, the joint must compensate for any tolerance of individual segments
(Section 4.4.3).
The presented sub-functions are not in a specific sequence but stand for themselves
and generate interdisciplinary dependencies on each other. The method of joining has a
major influence on the possibilities of segmentation and assembly. Furthermore, all design
measures must be compliant with additive manufacturing. These and other challenges are
examined in the following. Conformity with all sub-functions considered at every stage of
development is crucial.

4.4. Solution Space for Joining of Segments

Due to the interdisciplinary dependencies between the sub-problems, the choice of
the joining method influences the possibilities of segmentation and vice versa.
There are unlimited possibilities for the segmentation of a part in the three-dimensional
space while the design of the joint is constrained by set requirements. An additional
restriction due to the premature choice of segmentation could render joining impossible.
For this reason, the solution space for the design of the joint is investigated prior to the
segmentation. Afterward, a segmentation principle compliant with the chosen joint design
is derived.
To make the problem tangible, the representation of the segments is simplified. Seg-
ments, which theoretically can have any three-dimensional shape, are reduced to a flat and
rectangular form with a uniform thickness (Figure 4). This simplifies the conception and
allows for the visualization of solution ideas. Nevertheless, the solution is developed under
the premise that an application to an arbitrary shape of the segments is possible.
For a better description of the joint, the spatial directions relative to the joint are
defined (Figure 4). With respect to the joining of the two segments, the X-direction is
perpendicular to the cut edge and tangential to the top surface of the part. The Z-direction
and Y-direction are located in the cut plane. While the Z-direction is perpendicular to the
part’s top surface, the Y-direction is tangential to the cut edge.
 For a better description of the joint, the spatial directions relative to the join
fined (Figure 4). With respect to the joining of the two segments, the X-direction
pendicular to the cut edge and tangential to the top surface of the part. The Z-d
and Y-direction are located in the cut plane. While the Z-direction is perpendicul
Designs 2022, 6, 2 part’s top surface, the Y-direction is tangential to the cut edge. 8 of 27

Figure
Figure Simplified
4. 4. representation
Simplified of two segments
representation of twoand coordinate
segments andaxes in relation toaxes
coordinate their in
connection.
relation to thei
(x-axis = perpendicular
tion. (x-axis to the cut edge
= perpendicular andcut
to the tangential
edge andto the top surface;
tangential toy-axis = located
the top surface;in the cut = locat
y-axis
plane and tangential to the cut edge; z-axis = located in the cut plane and perpendicular
cut plane and tangential to the cut edge; z-axis = located in the cut plane and perpendicu to the
top surface).
top surface)
The joining of the segments must fulfill the three functions of force transmission,
The joining
positioning, of thecompensation.
and tolerance segments must fulfill
To find the three
a suitable joint functions of force
design for this transmiss
purpose,
the groups of joining techniques for plastics (Figure 1) were analyzed with respect
sitioning, and tolerance compensation. To find a suitable joint design for this purp to each
function in view of the set requirements.
groups of joining techniques for plastics (Figure 1) were analyzed with respect
Welding and riveting processes were excluded by their process nature. Due to complex
function
shapes, the in view tools
required of the setbe
could requirements.
prevented access to the joint, and the overall processing
qualityWelding and do
and reliability riveting processes
not meet were excluded by their process nature. Due
the requirements.
plex shapes, the required tools could be prevented access to the joint, and the ove
4.4.1. Force Transmission
cessing quality and reliability do not meet the requirements.
All types of joints based solely on connecting elements, such as screws and pins,
cannot ensure uniform joining of the segments due to relative movement because of forces
acting between each connection point. Relative movement is inconsistent with an assembly
that resembles a solid part. In addition, connecting elements lead to excessive stress
at the connection point [8] (pp. 131–133). Stress concentration interferes with uniform
transmission and strength on the level of a solid part.
Adhesive bonds are advantageous in this respect, as they enable a material bond
across the entire contact area. If the bond is created along the entire cut edge between two
segments, no relative movement of the segments or uniform force transmission is possible.

4.4.2. Positioning
Due to the poor surface quality of the FDM process, no adequate positioning can be
achieved solely by the geometry of the joint and the direct contact of the joining surfaces
to each other. The extent to which post-processing is necessary and possible during the
prototyping process must be considered for an overall concept.
Gap-filling adhesives can compensate for poor surface quality, warpage, and irregular-
ities in the surface of the segments. A problem in the application of an adhesive joint is the
fixture of two segments in a precise position to one another until cured.
Screwing cannot provide precise positioning due to play in the through hole.
Press fitting is the only joining technique that precisely positions two segments to
one another.

4.4.3. Tolerance Compensation

Tolerance compensation aims to compensate for process-related dimensional devia-
tions in the length and width of individual segments and, thus, for the influence of these
on the overall assembly. These deviations include the warpage of segments, which leads to
a curvature of the cut edge in the X/Y-plane, and the tolerance in the length and width of
segments. Therefore, the joint geometry must offer adjustability of the segment position
in the X-direction relative to each other. This allows the gap between the segments to be
adjusted to the required overall dimensions of the part.
For adjusting the gap between two segments, a freedom of movement in the X-
direction while fixing all other degrees of freedom is necessary. Only press fitting can
fulfill this condition. When using, for example, dowel pins oriented in the X-direction, two
Designs 2022, 6, 2 9 of 27

segments are precisely positioned in the Y- and Z-directions to one another. By control of
the distance in the X-direction between the segments during pressing, the gap can be freely
adjusted to counteract dimensional deviations.

4.4.4. Joint Design Implementation

In addition to fulfilling the three main functions of the joint, the designing effort
determines the suitability of joining techniques since it is decisive for the time required
for the method. Therefore, the joining techniques were evaluated by carrying out simple
design tests.
In the case of screwing, this test shows that a bolted joint is complex in its design and
requires individual adaptation to the segment geometry, while a press-fit connection with
dowel pins is less complex to implement because neither a thread nor a contact surface for
the screw head is required.
In contrast to screwing and press fitting, an adhesive joint and a purely interlocking
joint do not require any predefined holes for joining. The geometry of the joining surfaces
can be freely designed within the framework of the specified requirements. This allows
for a joining geometry adaptive to any shape of the joining edge of a segment. A partially
universal design of the joint is mandatory to fulfill the time requirement for the design.

4.4.5. Preliminary Conclusion

The use of screws is not suitable for joining the segments. Bolted joints conflict with a
large number of requirements and the time and effort required for their implementation
precludes their economic use.
An adhesive joint in combination with an adequate joint geometry is a joining method
that fulfills the uniform transmission of forces across the entire joint surface between two
segments as well as the structural implementation in an economical timeframe. Without
compliance with this requirement, a joining method would not be effective. Accordingly,
adhesive joining was chosen to fulfill the force transmission and implementation require-
ments. However, it cannot fulfill the secondary function of positioning the segments and is
not sufficient for tolerance compensation.
Press fitting, on the other hand, offers particularly good properties with respect to
positioning and tolerance compensation. However, press fitting is viable only to a certain
extent because of time consumption in design.
In conclusion, none of the joining methods on their own satisfies all requirements.
While the screwing, welding and riveting processes can be excluded, the geometric fitting,
press fitting and adhesive joining techniques fulfill necessary requirements but are not
sufficient on their own (Table 2).

Table 2. Evaluation of different joint types in terms of the given task (o = neutral, + = advantageous,
− = disadvantageous regarding the other types of joining).

Jointing Type Force Tolerance Design

Positioning
(DIN 8593) Transmission Compensation Implementation
Geometric fitting o + o +
Screwing − − o −
Press fitting − + + −
Adhesion + − o +
Welding + − o o
Riveting − − − −

4.5. Hybrid Joint Design

The hybrid joint design combines the advantages of the three joining methods: ge-
ometric fitting, press fitting and adhesive joining. While adhesive joining satisfies the
requirements for force transmission over the entirety of the contact area, press fitting allows
 Designs 2022, 6, 2 10 of 27

for precise positioning and tolerance compensation. Finally, the geometric fit defines the
interaction of both principles.
The tolerance compensation determines the orientation of dowel pins in terms of
press fitting. The axis of the pins needs to be perpendicular to the X-axis. For precise
positioning, at least two dowel pins are required to join two segments. Then, the segments
have a single degree of freedom in the X-direction to each other and therefore accomplish
gns 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW tolerance compensation.
The last step to a holistic joining concept is a geometric fit that allows for adhesion
and subsequent force transmission while being compliant with press fitting and tolerance
compensation. To achieve a high joint strength, stress other than compression and shear
areMaintaining
avoided regarding thethetop
adhesive
surfacejoint.ofIn order to achievepart
the overall similar performance
prohibits to a solid overla
a simple
part, an overlapping adhesive joint is used [22] (pp. 587–588). This allows for an enlarged
more, to enable additive manufacturing, the joint must provide a support sur
bonding area to be utilized, compared to the cut surface.
on the Additionally,
print bed of thethe
dowel FDM printer.theTherefore,
pins transmit largest part ofscarf joints
critical are not
gap stresses usable.
in relation
to Additionally,
the adhesive joint, the due to theiroforientation.
aim a universal application conflicts with the use o
For the geometry of an overlap, a number of common designs exist [23] (p. 187). An
and-groove joint. This conflict limits the assembly by requiring the plugging
overlap suitable for joining the segments must meet the requirements of the method.
ments Maintaining
in the X-direction. A of
the top surface tongue-and-groove
the overall part prohibitsjoint requires
a simple overlap. a directional pro
Furthermore,
the geometry over the length of the plug-in connection. This is inconsistent
to enable additive manufacturing, the joint must provide a support surface to rest on the wit
print bed of the FDM printer. Therefore, scarf joints are not usable.
tive design of the joining geometry according to the part’s overall shape.
Additionally, the aim of a universal application conflicts with the use of a tongue-and-
Duejoint.
groove to the Thisindeterminate
conflict limits the shape
assembly ofbythe cut edge
requiring of the of
the plugging segments,
the segments geometr
quire further
in the joining
X-direction. elements, suchjoint
A tongue-and-groove as requires
a separate strap, progression
a directional are avoided. Additio
of the
geometry over the length of the plug-in connection. This is inconsistent with an adaptive
elements are not economical in design or production.
design of the joining geometry according to the part’s overall shape.
TheDuelast requirement
to the placed
indeterminate shape oncut
of the theedgegeometric fit isgeometries
of the segments, production without sup
that require
tures. Of the remaining possible geometries according to Messler and Savage [2
further joining elements, such as a separate strap, are avoided. Additional joining elements
theare not economical in design or production.
joggle lap is the only geometry able to fulfill this requirement, while bein
The last requirement placed on the geometric fit is production without support struc-
metrically
tures. Of thesimplest
remainingand, thus,
possible the least
geometries design-intensive
according to Messler and Savagesolution.
[24] (p.It187),
consists
with
theajoggle
shoulder and
lap is the a tongue
only geometry(Figure 5). Support-free
able to fulfill this requirement,production
while being the is geo-
therefore
metrically simplest and, thus, the least design-intensive solution. It consists of a rabbet
ble for an orientation where the tongue rests on the print bed of the FDM pri
with a shoulder and a tongue (Figure 5). Support-free production is therefore only possible
thefor
overhanging
an orientation whereshoulder of the
the tongue restsrabbet (Figure
on the print bed of5).theIfFDM
eachprinter
segment due tohas
the at lea
with a tongue, the joggle lap joint is sufficient for the method.
overhanging shoulder of the rabbet (Figure 5). If each segment has at least one side with a
tongue, the joggle lap joint is sufficient for the method.

rabbet

tongue

joggle lap shoulder

(overhanging)
print bed printing
direction
Figure 5. Joggle lap joint and the resulting orientation of the mating geometries for
Figure 5. Joggle
additive lap joint and the resulting orientation of the mating geometries for add
manufacturing.
facturing.
In summary, examination of the joining methods shows that a hybrid joint using a
combination of a press-fitting and adhesive joining with a joggle lap meets the requirements.
In summary, examination of the joining methods shows that a hybrid jo
combination of a press-fitting and adhesive joining with a joggle lap meets t
ments. In accordance with the new requirements resulting from this preselectio
mentation options are examined.
Designs 2022, 6, 2 11 of 27

In accordance with the new requirements resulting from this preselection, the segmentation
options are examined.

4.6. Segmentation Concept

Segmentation is the last main function of the method requiring a solution principle.
As the first step in the application of the method, it determines the shape and number
of segments and has a decisive influence on the time required and the complexity of
segment creation. To meet time requirements, the segmentation procedure must be partially
automated. Therefore, segmentation is simplified to reduce design work for the geometric
elaboration of each segment.
The first decision to be made is the basic shape into which the individual segments are
cut. Crucial to print quality is the orientation of the part for manufacturing. It determines
the surface quality and whether support structures must be used. For the best possible
utilization of the printing space and the greatest possible independence from the specific
shape of a segment, a positioning of the segments on one of their sides resulting from
Designs 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW
cutting it out of the overall part was presupposed. This means that one of the cut surfaces 12 of 28

of a segment rests on the print bed of the machine. For the widespread cubic build volume
of additive machines, a rectangular shape is the simplest geometric representation of a
segmentFor allowing it to be oriented
the unambiguous on its of
definition side.
the cut section, the definition of the cutting direc-
tion is necessary. The more segments ofcut
For the unambiguous definition of the thesection,
part thatthecandefinition
be cut inof the cutting direction
same cutting direc-
is necessary. The more
tion, the lower segments
the design ofThis
effort. the part thatincan
applies be cuttoinallthe
general same cutting
large-area, direction,
thin-walled parts
thethat
lower
canthebedesign effort. This
accommodated in applies in general
a cubic volume withto aallheight
large-area,
equalingthin-walled
the widthparts that
of the build
canvolume
be accommodated
of the additivein amachine.
cubic volume
For the withFDMa height
printerequaling
in termsthe of width of thethe
this paper, build
height
volume of the
equals 200 mm. additive machine. For the FDM printer in terms of this paper, the height
equals 200Formm.
parts exceeding this volume, segmentation in a uniform cutting direction can no
longerparts
For exceeding this
be guaranteed and volume,
must be segmentation in a uniform
checked individually. cutting
If this is notdirection
possible,can no
a second
longer be guaranteed and must be checked individually. If this is
volume with the same height must be defined for the part of the body outside the firstnot possible, a second
volume
volume.withThis
theissame height
oriented mustinbea defined
ideally way thatfor thethebodypartfitsof completely
the body outside
in thosethe first
volumes.
volume. This is oriented ideally in a way that the body fits completely
For the cutting plane between both volumes, the joint of the segments must be created in those volumes.
Forindividually.
the cutting plane between both
The developed methodvolumes,
can bethe
used joint of the
in the segments
respective must be
volumes created
(Figure 6).
individually. The developed method can be used in the respective volumes (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Cubic volume for the segmentation of parts.

Figure 6. Cubic volume for the segmentation of parts.
The considerations of this paper were limited to parts that fit into one defined volume.
The considerations
The simplest way to cut a part of this paper
is with thewere
help limited to parts
of uniform that fitparallel
cut planes into one todefined
the Z/X- vol-
or Z/Y-plane. The cut planes parallel to the Z/Y-plane were named with numbers inthe
ume. The simplest way to cut a part is with the help of uniform cut planes parallel to
Z/X- or order,
ascending Z/Y-plane.
whileThethecut
cutplanes
planesparallel
paralleltotothe
theZ/Y-plane
Z/X-plane werewerenamed
named with
with numbers
letters in
in the order of the alphabet (Figure 6). After the part is cut, each segment is in aletters
ascending order, while the cut planes parallel to the Z/X-plane were named with cube in
the order of the alphabet (Figure 6). After the part is cut,
bounded by the four adjacent cut planes and the top and bottom of the defined volumeeach segment is in a cube
bounded by the four adjacent cut planes
and, therefore, does not exceed the available build volume.and the top and bottom of the defined volume
and, therefore,
After does not of
the partitioning exceed the available
the segments build volume.
has taken place, the individual segments are
equipped After
withthe
thepartitioning
hybrid jointof the segments
geometry. has taken place,
For overlapping, the individual
each rabbet is inserted segments
into the are
equipped
matching withofthe
tongue itshybrid joint geometry.
counterpart. Due to itsFor overlapping,
rectangular shape,each rabbet ishas
a segment inserted into the
four sides
for matching tongue
joining with of its segments.
adjacent counterpart. TheDue to its rectangular
arrangement of theshape,
rabbetaandsegment
tongue hastofour
thosesides
for joining with adjacent segments. The arrangement of the rabbet
sides is crucial for successful assembly. For overhang-free printing, a segment can rest withand tongue to those
sides is crucial for successful assembly. For overhang-free printing, a segment can rest
with the tongue but not with the rabbet on the print bed. Consequently, each segment
must have at least one side with a tongue.
The process aims to be universally applicable, regardless of the part geometry in
question. To make additive manufacturing work well, even in the case of complex geom-
etry, freedom in the orientation of the individual segments is advantageous. Hence, two
Designs 2022, 6, 2 12 of 27

the tongue but not with the rabbet on the print bed. Consequently, each segment must
have at least one side with a tongue.
The process aims to be universally applicable, regardless of the part geometry in
question. To make additive manufacturing work well, even in the case of complex geometry,
freedom in the orientation of the individual segments is advantageous. Hence, two adjacent
sides of a segment were designed with a tongue. Therefore, depending on the geometry
of the segment, it can be printed in two different spatial directions, minimizing the use of
support structures.
Accordingly, the remaining two sides of the segment were equipped with a rabbet. The
concept of positioning both interfaces allowing for the overall assembly is shown in Figure 7.
Designs 2022, 6, x FOR PEER
WithREVIEW
this arrangement, the assembly of all segments can be done in a plane perpendicular
to the cutting direction. The position and implementation of the pin connections cannot be
determined at this stage and are explained in the aggregated design.

rabbet

possible printing directions tongue

Figure 7. Arrangement of segments and geometric positioning of rabbet and tongue.

Figure 7. Arrangement of segments and geometric positioning of rabbet
After a detailed analysis of the solution space for the sub-functions of the devel-
oped method with respect to the requirements list, solution principles for the two main
After a detailed analysis of the solution space for the sub-fun
functions of segmentation and joining were successfully developed. The next step in the
developmentmethod withaccording
methodology respecttotoVDI
the requirements
2221 list,ofsolution
[15] is the creation an overall principles
con-
tions of considerations
cept. The preliminary segmentation tookand
placejoining were successfully
in a two-dimensional developed.
representation to T
reduce the complexity. The implementation of an overall concept requires the combination
velopment methodology according to VDI 2221 [15] is the creatio
of the partial solutions in a three-dimensional design space. In the following, the over-
all concept isThe preliminary
presented considerations
on a complex took place
and three-dimensional in ageometry
example two-dimensional
for an r
the complexity. The implementation of an overall concept require
illustrative presentation.
partial solutions
5. Concept Integration inDesign
and Overall a three-dimensional design space. In the follow
is presented
The overall on athecomplex
design integrated and inthree-dimensional
partial concepts a collaborative manner example
to ensure geom
presentation.
a functionality with respect to the requirements. In the following, an overview of the design
and its distinctive features is given and visualized on an example (Figure 8). The execution
of the method leading to this assembly is described in Section 6.
5. Concept
The example used for Integration
presentation is and Overall
a thin-walled Design
geometry with complex design
elements (Figure 8a). These include a surface curved in two spatial
The overall design integrated the partial concepts directions and a in
sharp-
a collabo
edged offset. The example part measures approximately 350 mm × 350 mm and has a wall
thickness of 3a mm.
functionality with respect
With the developed method, theto part
the isrequirements. In the
successfully divided into following
four
sign8a).
segments (Figure andTheits
maindistinctive features
design elements is given
of a segment and invisualized
are labeled on an e
Figure 8b. For
the illustration of the joining geometry, all four sides of each segment are
execution of the method leading to this assembly is described in S equipped with
the joining geometry. On a final part, the joint geometry is not present on the outer sides of
a part, as no furtherThe example
segments used for presentation is a thin-walled geometr
connect.
elements (Figure 8a). These include a surface curved in two spatia
edged offset. The example part measures approximately 350 mm ×
thickness of 3 mm. With the developed method, the part is succes
segments (Figure 8a). The main design elements of a segment are l
the illustration of the joining geometry, all four sides of each segm
the joining geometry. On a final part, the joint geometry is not pr
of a part, as no further segments connect.
 thickness of 3 mm. With the developed method, the part is successfully divided into four
segments (Figure 8a). The main design elements of a segment are labeled in Figure 8b. For
the illustration of the joining geometry, all four sides of each segment are equipped with
the joining geometry. On a final part, the joint geometry is not present on the outer sides
Designs 2022, 6, 2 of a part, as no further segments connect. 13 of 27

Designs 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 28

(a) (b)
a tongue around the other two joint sides. The rabbet and tongue follow the exact part
Figure
Figure 8.
8. (a)
geometry. Back
(a)Each side
sideof
Backrabbet ofthe
theexample
connects
exampletoand back
backside
a tongue
and of
ofthe
of an
side theassembly
adjacent after
afterapplication
segment
assembly of
ofthe
and vice versa
application themethod.
to form
method.
(b)
the Design elements
joggle elements
(b) Design of
lap to allow a segment.
force transmission (Figure 9a). Furthermore, the circumferential
of a segment.
course of the rabbet connects diagonal neighbors via their corners. The rabbet consists of
The
The hybrid
an adhesive hybrid joiningandgeometry
joining
surface a lip alongcombines a joggle
its leading edge.lap forlip
This adhesive
ensuresjoining
adhesive and adhesive
a defined pin
pin seats
seats
for press fitting.
for press fitting.
thickness between Each
Each segment
thesegment has a circumferential
has a circumferential
mating surfaces. rabbet on two
two adjacent joint sides and
adjacent joint sides and
a tongue around the other two joint sides. The rabbet and tongue
Furthermore, the tongue is trimmed by a defined distance in the X-direction. Thisfollow the exact part
geometry.
creates a gap Each rabbet two
between connects to a tongue
segments of anfor
that allows adjacent segment
tolerance and vice versa
compensation whentopress-
form
the joggle lap to allow force transmission (Figure 9a). Furthermore,
ing two segments together (Figure 9b). If the dimensions of a segment deviate either in the circumferential
course oforthe
positive rabbet connects
negative X-direction,diagonal neighbors
controlling how via
far their corners. The
the segments are rabbet
pressedconsists
togetherof
an adhesive
allows surface
adaptation to and a lip along
the desired its leading
overall edge. This lip ensures a defined adhesive
part dimensions.
thickness between the mating surfaces.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.
Figure Design elements
9. Design elements of
of the
thejoggle
jogglelap
lapand
andpress
pressfitfitcomposing
composing thethe
hybrid joint.
hybrid (a)(Joggle
joint. laplap
a) Joggle for
transmitting
for forces
transmitting andand
forces lip lip
for for
ensuring adhesive
ensuring thickness;
adhesive thickness; (b)(trimmed
b) trimmed tongue
tongueand pins
and to allow
pins to al-
tolerance
low compensation
tolerance in X-direction;
compensation (c) through
in X-direction; holes
(c) through holesto accommodate
to accommodate pins during
pins duringassembly.
assembly.

Furthermore,
Each side of a the tongue
segment is trimmedwith
is equipped by atwo
defined distance
pin seats in the
for press X-direction.
fitting This
and defined
creates a gap between two segments that allows for tolerance compensation
positioning in relation to the adjacent segments (Figure 8b). On the sides with a tongue, when pressing
twopin
the segments together
seats are placed (Figure
on top9b).
of If
the thetongue.
dimensions of a segment
Therefore, deviate
the rabbet has either
cutoutsin positive
at their
location to allow for alignment. In addition, the positioning of the pin seats on topallows
or negative X-direction, controlling how far the segments are pressed together of the
adaptation
tongue to thethe
increases desired overall
contact part
area to thedimensions.
print bed, which improves stability in production.
Eachthrough
The side of ahole
segment is equipped
for receiving with two
the dowel pinspin seats beyond
extends for pressthe
fitting and defined
pin seats and al-
lows the dowel pin to be fully recessed in one segment. The recess allows for assembly the
positioning in relation to the adjacent segments (Figure 8b). On the sides with a tongue, by
pin seats arethe
preventing placed on top of
interference ofthe
thetongue.
dowel pins Therefore, the rabbet
in situations hasFigure
like in cutouts at their location
9, therefore being
to allow for alignment. In addition, the positioning of the pin seats on top of the tongue
a prerequisite for composability. The process is further explained during assembly in Sec-
increases the contact area to the print bed, which improves stability in production.
tion 6.3.
The through hole for receiving the dowel pins extends beyond the pin seats and
Finally, to be able to manufacture the segments additively without support struc-
allows the dowel pin to be fully recessed in one segment. The recess allows for assembly
tures, overhangs are prevented by chamfering kinks on the rabbet and pin seats, as well
by preventing the interference of the dowel pins in situations like in Figure 9, therefore
as chamfering the cutouts in the rabbet in the printing direction (Figure 8).
being a prerequisite for composability. The process is further explained during assembly in
Those are the key features of the joint design which are necessary for its functionality.
Section 6.3.
The universal application of these features is the key factor for the utility of the
method and is presented in the following.

6. Method Execution
The method that universally derives the presented design is the main achievement
of this paper. It represents a universal procedure capable of segmenting thin-walled parts
 Designs 2022, 6, 2 14 of 27

Finally, to be able to manufacture the segments additively without support structures,

overhangs are prevented by chamfering kinks on the rabbet and pin seats, as well as
chamfering the cutouts in the rabbet in the printing direction (Figure 8).
Those are the key features of the joint design which are necessary for its functionality.
The universal application of these features is the key factor for the utility of the method
and is presented in the following.

signs 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6. Method Execution

The method that universally derives the presented design is the main achievement
of this paper. It represents a universal procedure capable of segmenting thin-walled parts
regardless of their shape, minimizing design efforts while allowing for certain individ-
assembly rely on
ual adaptations to aestablished processes.
specific part geometry. Accordingly,
It is the novelty
divided into design, and the
manufacturing, add
and assembly.
in the design implementation.
6.1. The design process is carried out in the CAD software CATIA V5 (Dassau
Design
Vélizy-Villacoublay,
Manufacturing and France) and uses
assembly convert its capabilities
the virtual design into ato achieve
real a Their
assembly. mostly uni
outcome depends on the implementation of the design. Additive
procedure. As a “direct manufacturing” process, additive manufacturing manufacturing and foll
assembly rely on established processes. Accordingly, the novelty and the added value lie in
from the CAD
the design files of the parts.
implementation.
The example
The design introduced
process is carried outin Section
in the 5 visualizes
CAD software CATIA V5 the individual
(Dassault steps. H
Systèmes,
Vélizy-Villacoublay,
explanations France)
are valid inand uses its capabilities to achieve a mostly universal valid
general.
procedure. As a “direct manufacturing” process, additive manufacturing follows directly
from the CAD files of the parts.
6.1.1. The
Initial Stateintroduced in Section 5 visualizes the individual steps. However, the
example
explanations are valid in general.
Designing starts with the virtual representation of the thin-walled part o
method takes
6.1.1. Initial Stateplace. It must fit into the volume defined in Section 4.6. The Z
coordinate
Designingsystem
starts is oriented
with in representation
the virtual the cutting direction and is,part
of the thin-walled foronmost
whichof the p
the method takes place. It must fit into the volume defined in Section 4.6. The Z-axis
imately perpendicular to the part’s top surface (Figure 10).
of the coordinate system is oriented in the cutting direction and is, for most of the part,
approximately perpendicular to the part’s top surface (Figure 10).

Figure 10. All six cut planes needed for segmentation of the part.

FigureHereby,
10. Allsegmentation
six cut planes needed for
is completed. segmentation
It represents of the part.
the part-specific basis for the univer-
sal procedure and demands the most competence needed in the design phase. The designer
needs an understanding
Hereby, of additive
segmentation is manufacturing
completed. It andrepresents
the requirements
the that the design basis
part-specific
needs to fulfill. If the segmentation complies with those requirements, the way is paved for
versal procedure
successful and demands the most competence needed in the design ph
implementation.
signer needs an understanding of additive manufacturing and the requireme
design needs to fulfill. If the segmentation complies with those requirements
paved for successful implementation.

6.1.2. Segmentation
 Designs 2022, 6, 2 15 of 27

6.1.2. Segmentation
Segmentation is specific to the part and is primarily oriented to the shape of the part
surface. The partitioning is sketched in the X/Y-plane. It is composed of a set of cut lines
parallel to the X- or Y-direction. Their intersections form the rectangular shape for each
segment, which gets cut out in the Z-direction further on (Figure 10).
By adjusting the distance between those lines, the dimensions and position of each
segment are defined.
Those dimensions can be freely chosen if the size of the segments does not exceed the
height, length, and width of the build volume minus the width of the rabbet. For example,
for an additive machine with a build volume of 200 mm × 200 mm × 200 mm and a rabbet
width of 12.5 mm, a segment cutout cannot exceed 187.5 mm × 187.5 mm × 187.5 mm.
The segments should be designed to be as large as possible to reduce their number
022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW and to save time in the execution of the method. In addition, two conditions could require
individual adjustment of the segment position. First, the manufacturability of all segments
must be considered. If the surface of the segment has severe kinks or other complex
geometries that cannot be manufactured in one of the possible print directions without
overhangs,
The secondchanging
reason the forsegment position
adjusting themay allow printing
position of thewithout overhangs.
cut lines is due If this
to the pin
method is not effective, printing with support structures should be considered.
As the pinsThe are straight, strong curvature or kinking in the surface of the part alo
second reason for adjusting the position of the cut lines is due to the pin seats. As
length of
the the
pins pin hole hinder
are straight, their usage
strong curvature (Figure
or kinking 11). Ifofno
in the surface suitable
the part positions
along the length for t
of the pin hole hinder their usage (Figure 11). If no suitable positions
seats along the cutting edge of two segments exist, repositioning the cutting for the pin seats along lines
the cutting edge of two segments exist, repositioning the cutting lines is necessary. As a
essary. further
As a further example of the reaction to a specific part geometry, consider th
example of the reaction to a specific part geometry, consider the interior trim part
rior trim part presented
presented in Section 6.4.
in Section 6.4.

repositioning
of the pin seat

Figure
Figure 11. 11. Example
Example for for a wrongly positioned
a wrongly positioned pinpin
seat and
seata and
proposed adjustmentadjustment
a proposed by repositioning.
by reposi
Once the cut lines are finalized, they are extruded in the Z-direction. This creates the
Once thetocut
planes lines
cut out theare finalized,
individual they(Figure
segments are extruded in theplanes
11). The cutting Z-direction.
are namedThis
in crea
alphabetical order in the X-direction and in ascending numerical order in
planes to cut out the individual segments (Figure 11). The cutting planes are nam the Y-direction.

alphabetical orderOffsets
6.1.3. Surface in the X-direction and in ascending numerical order in the Y-dir
In this step, surface offsets, which are used in the following to form the joint geometry
6.1.3. Surface Offsets
of the part’s main top and bottom surface, are created. They are the key element, which
enables the rabbet and tongue to universally follow the progression of the part geometry.
In The
thisareas
step,ofsurface offsets,
the rabbet which
and tongue are used
resulting frominthethe following
surface to form
offsets are theinjoint geo
presented
of the part’s main
Figure 12. top andthe
Accordingly, bottom
values ofsurface, are created.
the respective They are
offsets determine the keyand
the thickness element,
depth of the rabbet, the adhesive thickness, and the thickness of the tongue.
enables the rabbet and tongue to universally follow the progression of the part geo
The areas of the rabbet and tongue resulting from the surface offsets are presented
ure 12. Accordingly, the values of the respective offsets determine the thickness and
of the rabbet, the adhesive thickness, and the thickness of the tongue.
 of the part’s main top and bottom surface, are created. They are the key element, wh
enables the rabbet and tongue to universally follow the progression of the part geomet
The areas of the rabbet and tongue resulting from the surface offsets are presented in F
ure 12. Accordingly, the values of the respective offsets determine the thickness and dep
Designs 2022, 6, 2 16 of 27
of the rabbet, the adhesive thickness, and the thickness of the tongue.

Figure 12. Areas of the rabbet and tongue formed by surface offsets.
Figure 12. Areas of the rabbet and tongue formed by surface offsets.
6.1.4. The Master Segment
6.1.4. TheWith the cutting
Master Segmentplanes and the offset surfaces in place, the part is ready for designing
the “master” segment. It is the first segment that is designed and serves as a base to derive
With the cutting
each further segment. planes and
For this the offset
segment, surfaces
the rabbet, in place,
tongue, and pintheseats
partare
is designed
ready for in designi
the “master”
a parametricsegment.
way andItreferenced
is the firsttosegment that bounding
the cut planes is designed the and serves
segment. This asenables
a base to der
each the transfer
further of these elements
segment. For thistosegment,
the other segments
the rabbet, and tongue,
automaticallyandadapts themare
pin seats to the
designed
new geometry. This reduces the design effort for any following
a parametric way and referenced to the cut planes bounding the segment. This enab segment massively by
requiring only minor individual adjustments instead of the manual recreation of the joints
Designs 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 28
the transfer
for everyof these elements to the other segments and automatically adapts them to
segment.
new geometry.
The cutout Thisforreduces
the master the designis effort
segment createdfor any following
by trimming the partsegment
with the fourmassively
requiring only
adjacent cut minor
planes. individual adjustments
Ideally a segment instead
from the middle of
of the the
part,manual recreation
which does
for the future derivation to other segments. For segments with outer edges, it is easier to
not include of the joi
any
for every outer edges,
segment. is chosen. This ensures that all segment sides are equipped with a joint
remove the unnecessary joints afterward.
for the future derivation to other segments. For segments with outer edges, it is easier to
The cutout for the
The rabbet andmaster
tongue aresegment
created isas created
a surface by trimming
model the part with
by the intersection of thethe
cre-four a
remove the unnecessary joints afterward.
ated
jacent cutThe surface
planes. offsets with a series of boundary planes. The trimming of those surfaces cre-
rabbet Ideally
and tongue a segment
are createdfrom the middle
as a surface model by ofthe
the part, which
intersection of thedoes
creatednot inclu
ates
any outer a shell of the rabbet and tongue (Figure 13a). Those boundary surfaces are derived
surfaceedges,
offsets is
withchosen.
a seriesThis ensuresplanes.
of boundary that all Thesegment
trimmingsides aresurfaces
of those equipped createswith a jo
fromofthe
a shell thecutting
rabbet planes that bound
and tongue (Figurethe master
13a). Thosesegment.
boundary They represent
surfaces displacements
are derived from
parallel to the cutting planes and are defined by the distance to
the cutting planes that bound the master segment. They represent displacements them. The areas of the
parallel
to the cutting planes and are defined by the distance to them. The areas of the rabbet and13.
rabbet and tongue, which are derived from the boundary planes, are labeled in Figure
Accordingly,
tongue, thederived
which are spacing of those
from determines
the boundary the width
planes, of connection
are labeled in Figure from the rabbet to
13. Accordingly,
thethe segment,
spacing the overlapping
of those determines thelength,
width theofwidth of thefrom
connection lip and
the the width
rabbet of the
to the tongue.
segment,
Four further boundary surfaces determine the circumferential length of
the overlapping length, the width of the lip and the width of the tongue. Four further the entire rabbet
and tongue. The dimensions of the rabbet and tongue are fully determined
boundary surfaces determine the circumferential length of the entire rabbet and tongue. and adjustable
Theviadimensions
the entiretyofofthe
the rabbet
offset and
andboundary
tongue are surfaces.
fully determined and adjustable via the
entirety of the offset and boundary surfaces.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 13.13. (a)Areas
(a)Areas ofof the
the rabbetformed
rabbet formedbybyboundary
boundaryplanes; (b)Areas
planes;(b) Areas of
of the
the tongue
tongue formed
formed by
by
boundary planes; ( c ) Boundary planes limiting the circumference
boundary planes; (c) Boundary planes limiting the circumference.

After deriving the shells of rabbet and tongue from trimming the surface offsets with
the boundary planes, the shells are filled and joined to the cutout of the segment (Figure
14b). Chamfers are used to avoid overhangs and cross-sectional jumps in the area of force
transmission. The chamfering takes place at the transitions of the rabbet and the tongue
 (a) (b) (c)
Designs 2022, 6, 2 Figure 13. (a)Areas of the rabbet formed by boundary planes; (b) Areas of the tongue formed by17 of 27
boundary planes; (c) Boundary planes limiting the circumference

After deriving
After the the
deriving shells of rabbet
shells and tongue
of rabbet from trimming
and tongue the surface
from trimming offsets with
the surface offsets
thewith
boundary
the boundary planes, the shells are filled and joined to the cutout of the(Figure
planes, the shells are filled and joined to the cutout of the segment segment
14b). Chamfers
(Figure 14b). are used toare
Chamfers avoid
usedoverhangs and cross-sectional
to avoid overhangs jumps in the
and cross-sectional area in
jumps of the
forcearea
transmission. The chamfering takes place at the transitions of the rabbet and
of force transmission. The chamfering takes place at the transitions of the rabbet and the tongue
toward the segment,
the tongue towardalong the leading
the segment, edgethe
along of leading
the rabbet
edgeandofinthe
therabbet
inner edge
and inof the
the inner
lip
(Figure
edge 14a).
of theNow, the segment
lip (Figure 14a). has
Now, allthe
geometric
segment elements required for
has all geometric the joggle
elements lap. for
required
the joggle lap.

Designs 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 28

Figure 14. (a) Chamfering of the joggle lap; (b) Chamfering of the pin seats and overhangs in rela-
tion to the print direction.

To complete the hybrid joint, designing the pin seats for the master segment follows.
The thinness of the part requires material buildup for the pin holes. The material extrusion
is based on a sketch (a) in the X/Y-plane. This sketch defines the(b) rectangular shape pin seats
Figure 14. (a) Chamfering of the joggle lap; (b) Chamfering of the pin seatsThe
and the position of the pin seats along the edges of the segment. andpin seats should
overhangs be
in relation
well spaced with
to the print direction. consideration of the fact that the part must be able to accommodate the
full length of the through hole. Therefore, its shape should be as straight as possible in the
area To of complete
the pin seats (Figurejoint,
the hybrid 11). designing
The widththe of pin
the seats
pin seats is master
for the dimensioned
segment to follows.
deliver
enough
The material
thinness of thetopart
surround
requiresthematerial
pin holes, and their
buildup length
for the equalsThe
pin holes. halfmaterial
the length of the
extrusion
chosen
is baseddowel pins. Extruding
on a sketch the two-dimensional
in the X/Y-plane. This sketch definesoutline and
the trimmingshape
rectangular it withpin
theseats
sur-
face the
and offset for theofunderside
position of the
the pin seats rabbet
along make of
the edges thethe
pin seats flush
segment. Thewith the rabbet
pin seats shouldand be
well
givesspaced
them with consideration
a uniform thickness ofbythefollowing
fact that the
thepart
runmust
of the bepart’s
able tosurface
accommodate
(Figure the full
15c). If
length of the through
the thickness of the pin hole. Therefore,
seats its shapefor
is not sufficient should be as straight
the chosen as possible
dowel pins, in theoffset
a separate area
of
to the pin seats
increase (Figure 11).
the thickness canThe width of the pin seats is dimensioned to deliver enough
be defined.
material to surround
To finish the pinthe pinthe
seats, holes, and their
necessary length
cutouts to equals
allow for halfthe
theconnection
length of the chosen
of two pin
dowel
seats are pins. Extruding
added the two-dimensional
to the rabbet. The cutouts are outline and trimming
referenced in directitrelation
with thetosurface offset
the position
for thepin
of the underside
seats, and of the rabbet
their widthmake theenough
is large pin seatstoflush
allowwith the rabbetcompensation
for tolerance and gives them dur-a
uniform
ing assemblythickness by following
(Figure 15c). the run of the part’s surface (Figure 15c). If the thickness of
the pin seats is not sufficient for the chosen dowel pins, a separate offset to increase the
thickness can be defined.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 15.
Figure 15. (a)
(a) Shells
Shells of
ofthe
therabbet
rabbetand
andtongue
tonguecreated
createdbybytrimming
trimming ofof the
the surface
surface offsets
offsets and
and bound-
boundary
ary planes; (b ) conversion and attachment of the shells to the cutout; (c ) finished master
planes; (b) conversion and attachment of the shells to the cutout; (c) finished master segment with segment
with added chamfering, pin seats, and cutouts for connection.
added chamfering, pin seats, and cutouts for connection.

In its current state, the master segment has all elements for the hybrid joint, except
for the pin holes. Since the segment is cut out flush with the adjacent segments, tolerance
trimming can only compensate for a shortening of the segment dimensions. To counteract
exceeded nominal dimensions, the segment sides with a tongue are each trimmed with an
 Designs 2022, 6, 2 18 of 27

To finish the pin seats, the necessary cutouts to allow for the connection of two pin
seats are added to the rabbet. The cutouts are referenced in direct relation to the position of
the pin seats, and their width is large enough to allow for tolerance compensation during
assembly (Figure 15c).
In its current state, the master segment has all elements for the hybrid joint, except
for the pin holes. Since the segment is cut out flush with the adjacent segments, tolerance
trimming can only compensate for a shortening of the segment dimensions. To counteract
exceeded nominal dimensions, the segment sides with a tongue are each trimmed with
an additional boundary plane, which allows for tolerance compensation in the X- and
Y-directions. The amount of trimming corresponds to the maximum tolerance generated
by the manufacturing machine. Tolerance trimming completes the design of the master
segment. All further adjustments are made individually to each segment derived from the
master segment.

6.1.5. Lightweight Optimization

Designs 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 28
Before other segments are derived, additional designing on the master segment to
enhance the performance of the assembly is possible. By referencing any custom design to
the cut planes of the master segment, the design gets transferred from the master segment
to One possible
all other especially advantageous customization is lightweight optimization. In-
segments.
troducingOnea grid of ribs
possible to the back
especially side of the segments
advantageous can optimize
customization the mechanical
is lightweight per-
optimization.
formance of the segment and, thus, of the entire assembly. A thinner segment
Introducing a grid of ribs to the back side of the segments can optimize the mechanical combined
with a rib structure
performance of thesaves
segmentweight, whichofinthe
and, thus, return
entirereduces
assembly.material,
A thinnertime, and costs
segment for
combined
additive
with a manufacturing.
rib structure saves Manufacturing
weight, which a similar
in return design withmaterial,
reduces conventional processing
time, and costs for
would be extremely
additive complex
manufacturing. and costly. This
Manufacturing is one of
a similar the advantages
design of implementing
with conventional processing
rapid
wouldtechnologies.
be extremely complex and costly. This is one of the advantages of implementing
rapid technologies.
In Figure 16a, a diamond grid structure is applied to one of the segments. This struc-
In Figure
ture is chosen because 16a, aitdiamond
introduces grid
no structure is applied
further overhangs to reduces
and one of the
the segments.
weight of theThis
structure
segment by is chosen because
approximately 25 it
%introduces
through a no further in
reduction overhangs and reduces
wall thickness from 3themmweight
to 1.5 of
mm.theThe
segment
processbyfor
approximately
designing this 25structure
% through is asimilar
reduction inprocedure
to the wall thickness from
for the pin3seats
mm to
1.5has
and mm. The process
endless for designing
possibilities as long this structure is similaristo
as manufacturability the in
kept procedure
mind. for the pin seats
and has endless possibilities as long as manufacturability is kept in mind.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure16.16.
Final assembly
Final assemblyafter application
after of the
application method
of the with
method thethe
with integration of lightweight
integration of lightweightopti-
opti-
mization on the bottom segment in form of a diamond-grid rib structure. (a) Backside of the assem-
mization on the bottom segment in form of a diamond-grid rib structure. (a) Backside of the assembly;
(b)(bTopside
bly; ) Topsideofof
thethe assembly.
assembly.

6.1.6.
6.1.6. Segment
Segment Derivation
Derivation
With
With thethe completion
completion of of
thethe master
master segment,
segment, thethe derivation
derivation of the
of the remaining
remaining segments
segments
begins.
begins. Therefore,
Therefore, a copy
a copy of of
thethe master
master segment
segment is is created.
created. Because
Because allall design
design elements
elements
are referenced to the cut planes bounding the master segment, changing
are referenced to the cut planes bounding the master segment, changing the cut planes the cut planes
referenced in the previous commands to those of another segment is sufficient
referenced in the previous commands to those another segment is sufficient to trans- to transform
thethe
form copy intointo
copy anyany
other segment.
other segment.A refresh letslets
A refresh thethe
CADCADsoftware
softwareautomatically
automatically calculate
cal-
culate the new segment with all design elements adapted to its specific geometry. This
process is repeated until all segments are derived.
Due to the individual geometry of each segment, specific adjustments may be neces-
sary. This includes adjusting the position of the pin seats to allow for accommodation of
the dowel pins (Figure 11) as well as removing unnecessary joining geometry around the
 Designs 2022, 6, 2 19 of 27

the new segment with all design elements adapted to its specific geometry. This process is
repeated until all segments are derived.
Due to the individual geometry of each segment, specific adjustments may be neces-
sary. This includes adjusting the position of the pin seats to allow for accommodation of
the dowel pins (Figure 11) as well as removing unnecessary joining geometry around the
outer sides of the overall assembly. After the position of all joining elements is finalized,
the remaining overhangs in the segment-specific printing direction are eliminated via
FOR PEER REVIEW chamfering. This includes the rear surfaces of the pin seats at the top of the segment
20 of 28and
the upper edges of the cutouts for the pin seats (Figure 14b). Additionally, the sides of the
pin seats are chamfered for further strengthening.

for the required 6.1.7. Through Holes

pressing. With the completion of every through hole for each segment,
Designing the through holes for the press fitting of the dowel pins is the last step to
the design of the assembly is completed.
complete construction. The hole is oriented in such a way that it does not cut through
Designs 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 28
the top of the part and lays as centered as possible inside the pin seat (Figure 17). This
orientation is individual for each pin seat. Therefore, it is not integrated into the master
segment and designed separately. The holes have the length of the dowel pins and the
for the required
diameter pressing. pressing.
for the required With the With
completion of every through
the completion of every hole for each
through hole segment,
for each
the design
segment, ofdesign
the the assembly is completed.
of the assembly is completed.

Figure 17. Sectional view of a dowel pin inside two segments with a convex surface.

6.1.8. Final Design

As the resultFigure
of the
Figure 17.design
17. Sectionalphase,
Sectional view of aathe
view of assembly
dowel
dowel insideis
pin inside
pin a segments
two
two virtual
segmentsrepresentation
withaaconvex
with of the orig-
convexsurface.
surface.
inal part made of segments (Figure 16b). From there, manufacturing starts. To avoid errors
6.1.8. Final
Final Design
in manufacturing6.1.8.
or problemsDesign during assembly, each individual segment as well as the
As
Asthe
the result
resultofofthe
thedesign
designphase,
phase,thetheassembly is is
a virtual representation of the original
overall assemblypartshould
made
be
of
checked
segments
with
(Figure
respect
16b).
toassembly
From
the
there,
a virtual
requirements
manufacturing
representation
and design
starts. To
of the
guide-
avoid
orig-
errors
inal part made of segments (Figure 16b). From there, manufacturing starts. To avoid errors
lines of this paper.
in Early adjustments
manufacturing save costs
or problems duringand time at
assembly, anindividual
each early stage.segment as well as the
in manufacturing or problems during assembly, each individual segment as well as the
overall
overallassembly
assemblyshould
shouldbebechecked
checkedwith respect
with to the
respect requirements
to the andand
requirements design guidelines
design guide-
of this paper. Early adjustments save costs and time at an early stage.
6.2. Manufacturinglines of this paper. Early adjustments save costs and time at an early stage.
Additive manufacturing
6.2. Manufacturing is based on the CAD files of the segments. For further infor-
6.2. Manufacturing
mation, please refer to the technical
Additive literature
manufacturing [13,20].
is based on the CAD files of the segments. For further
Additive manufacturing is based on the CAD files of the segments. For further infor-
To validate information,
the method, the
please four
refer segments
to of
the technical the example
literature
mation, please refer to the technical literature [13,20].
[13,20].were successfully manu-
To
factured in ABS on anToFDM validate the method,
machine. the
Twothe four
offoursegments
thesegments
segments of the example were successfully manufac-
validate the method, of have a regular
the example were wall thickness
successfully manu-
tured in ABS on an FDM machine. Two of the segments have a regular wall thickness of
of 3 mm. The other two
factured segments
in ABS on make
an FDM use of individual
machine. Two of customization.
the segments have aOne segment
regular
3 mm. The other two segments make use of individual customization. One segment has an wall has
thickness
of 3 mm. The
an increased wallincreased
thickness wallother
of two while
4 mm,
thickness segmentsthemake
of 4 mm, use
other
while of individual
thesegment
other has customization.
segment ahas
reduced One
wall
a reduced segment
thicknesshas
thickness
wall of
an
of 1.5 mm and is 1.5 increased
equipped
mm and with wall thickness of 4
the diamond-grid
is equipped mm, while the other
structure
with the diamond-grid segment
(Figure
structure has a reduced
18).18).
(Figure wall thickness
of 1.5 mm and is equipped with the diamond-grid structure (Figure 18).

Figure 18. The four segments of the example after additive manufacturing in ABS.
Figure 18. The fourFigure
segments offour
18. The thesegments
exampleofafter additive
the example aftermanufacturing in ABS.
additive manufacturing in ABS.
6.3. Assembly
The hybrid joint design allows for two variants of assembly. Besides full assembly
6.3. Assembly
combining adhesion and press fitting of the hybrid joint, pre-assembly without gluing and
The hybrid joint
solely design
based onallows for two
press fitting variants
is possible. Pressoffitting
assembly.
providesBesides full assembly
enough stability to validate
 Designs 2022, 6, 2 20 of 27

6.3. Assembly
The hybrid joint design allows for two variants of assembly. Besides full assembly
combining adhesion and press fitting of the hybrid joint, pre-assembly without gluing and
EVIEW solely based on press fitting is possible. Press fitting provides enough stability to validate 21 o
the assembly and check the overall dimensions.
Pre-assembly begins with reworking the through holes. Reaming them brings them to
the required dimension for the press fitting. In the second step, two segments that belong
together are chosen. With the aid of pliers, two dowel pins are pressed into the correspond-
deviations are reduced toseats
ing pin theonrequired specifications
the joining side of the
of one of the segments untiloverall assembly.
they are recessed. This can
During the
done with the aid of alignment
a feelerofgauge.
both segments, the dowel pins are pressed from one segment into the other
segment until fully seated in both pin seats attaching both segments together. Then, an
Furthermore, the pre-assembled
adjacent part
segment is selected, andcan be usedisfor
the procedure an installation
repeated until all segments test without lo
are joined
to form the desired overall part. Press fitting holds the part together for handling during
The part can then react to dimensional deviations of the joining partner within a cert
control and validation, while disassembly is still possible. During validation, the part’s
range by the means overall
of tolerance
dimensions compensation.
are measured, and toleranceThe compensation
extent to takes which place.this is possible
By widening
or reducing the gap between the individual segments, local dimensional deviations are
pends on the tolerance trimming and overlap length in the design of the segments. If
reduced to the required specifications of the overall assembly. This can be done with the
problems arise during aid pre-assembly,
of a feeler gauge. the part is suitable for final assembly.
Furthermore, the pre-assembled part can be used for an installation test without load.
Final assembly The
follows
part canthe
then same steps as pre-assembly
react to dimensional deviations of the joiningwith thewithin
partner additional
a certain appl
tion of adhesive to the rabbet
range of the
by the means segment
of tolerance before alignment.
compensation. Subsequent
The extent to which pressing of
this is possible depends
on the tolerance trimming and overlap length in the design of the segments. If no problems
dowel pins results in a during
arise fixedpre-assembly,
bond until cured.
the part The
is suitable choice
for final of adhesive depends on
assembly.
material and needs a sufficient
Final assemblyworking
follows thetime to allow
same steps for tolerance
as pre-assembly compensation
with the additional application bef
of adhesive to the rabbet of the segment before alignment. Subsequent pressing of the
hardening. Based ondowel
the research
pins results inofa fixed
Arenasbond et al.cured.
until [13],Thea choice
polyurethane adhesive
of adhesive depends on the is cho
material
to assemble the example and needs a sufficient
segments made of working
ABStime to allow19).
(Figure for tolerance compensation before
hardening. Based on the research of Arenas et al. [13], a polyurethane adhesive is chosen to
assemble the example segments made of ABS (Figure 19).

(a) (b)
Figure 19. Cont.
 Designs 2022, 6, 2 21 of 27
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 19. Assembly procedure for two segments. (a) Reaming the pin holes; (b) countersinking the
Figure 19. Assembly procedure for two segments. (a) Reaming the pin holes; (b) countersinking
pins; (c) applying the adhesive; (d) aligning the segments and fitting the pins.
the pins; (c) applying the adhesive; (d) aligning the segments and fitting the pins
Furthermore, installing the entire assembly and curing it in its final position are
Designs 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW
possible. 22 of 28
After curing of the assembly, the bond is completed and has its final properties.
Furthermore, installing the entire
The final assembled part is assembly and20.curing it in its final position
presented in Figure are p
sible. After curing of the assembly, the bond is completed and has its final properties. T
final assembled part is presented in Figure 20.

Figure20.
Figure 20. Final
Final assembly
assembly of
of the
the example.
example.

6.4.
6.4. Application—Proof
Application—Proof of Concept
The
Theinvestigations
investigationsininthisthispaper
paperwerewerecarried
carried out as as
out part of the
part UNICARagil
of the UNICARagil project [10].
project
The
[10].aim
Theofaim
theof
project is the development
the project of automated
is the development vehiclevehicle
of automated concepts with a with
concepts modular and
a mod-
scalable
ular andbasis. Onebasis.
scalable of these
Onevehicles
of theseis vehicles
the “autoTAXI” [24], an autonomous
is the “autoTAXI” vehicle concept,
[24], an autonomous ve-
whose interiorwhose
hicle concept, is tailored to the
interior needs and
is tailored activities
to the needs and of the occupants.
activities of theThe interior The
occupants. trim
parts were
interior constructed
trim parts werebased on this based
constructed designon concept. It envisages
this design concept.leathering of leathering
It envisages most of the
trim parts.
of most Thetrim
of the developed method
parts. The is usedmethod
developed to manufacture
is used tothe base parts for
manufacture theleathering. The
base parts for
leathering
leathering.conceals gaps between
The leathering conceals the individual
gaps betweensegments and therefore
the individual segmentsfurther improves
and therefore
the surface
further finish. the surface finish.
improves
One of the first trim parts based on the developed method was the side panel of the
luggage rack (Figure 21). Due to the complex shape of the surface with a circular protru-
sion, the part proved to be well suited for further validation of the method. The angle of
the kink at this protrusion exceeds 60° all around, which is critical for additive manufac-
 The investigations in this paper were carried out as part of the UNICARagil project
[10]. The aim of the project is the development of automated vehicle concepts with a mod-
ular and scalable basis. One of these vehicles is the “autoTAXI” [24], an autonomous ve-
hicle concept, whose interior is tailored to the needs and activities of the occupants. The
interior trim parts were constructed based on this design concept. It envisages leathering
Designs 2022, 6, 2 of most of the trim parts. The developed method is used to manufacture the base parts 22 of
for27
leathering. The leathering conceals gaps between the individual segments and therefore
further improves the surface finish.
One
Oneofofthe
thefirst
firsttrim
trimparts based
parts basedononthethe
developed
developed method
method waswas
the the
sideside
panel of the
panel of
luggage rack (Figure
the luggage 21). Due
rack (Figure 21).toDue
the complex shape of
to the complex the surface
shape of the with a circular
surface with a protru-
circular
signs 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW sion, the partthe
protrusion, proved to be well
part proved suited
to be wellfor further
suited for validation of 23
of the method.
further validation theofmethod.
28 angleThe
The of
the kink
angle ofat
thethis protrusion
kink exceeds 60°
at this protrusion all around,
exceeds ◦
60 allwhich
around,is critical
whichfor additive
is critical formanufac-
additive
turing, due to being
manufacturing, dueantooverhang
being an from the perspective
overhang of segment orientation.
from the perspective In general,
of segment orientation.
Segmentation begins around the oval-shaped offset because it presents the greatest an option.
In general,
manufacturing manufacturing
overhangs overhangs
with the help with
of the
support help of support
structures is anstructures
option. is
However, the
However,
challenge capabilities
for the
of capabilities
manufacturing. the developed of the
The round developed
method
offset mademethod made
it possible
is distributed over toit avoid
eight possible to avoid
overhangs.
segments. overhangs.
Of theseIn this way, In
thistime,
the
eight segments, way, the time,
thecost,
four and cost,
quality
corner and quality
advantages
segments, advantages
where of ancontour
the of an
overhang-freeoverhang-free
curves thedesign
design was
around was
of exploited.
exploited.
corner
the segments, are critical. The cut lines were chosen so that the curvature does not exceed
a 60° angle in one of the possible printing directions. This was possible for three of the
four segments due to the uniform placement of the rabbet and tongue on each segment.
The other segment was oriented with the rabbet positioned on the build plate of the addi-
tive machines and required a small number of support structures at the shoulder of the
rabbet (Figure 5).
Another challenge was the strong curvature in the right-hand area of the part. Here,
the parallel cutting line must have sufficient clearance from the curvature to accommodate
the dowel pins for press fitting. The remaining geometry did not pose a challenge for the
application of the method.
Defining the cut lines was the most demanding task in the application of the method.
Designing the master segment and deriving the other segments followed the procedure
Figure21. Basepanel
21.Base panel ofthe
theluggage
luggagerack
rackand
andposition
positionof
ofthe
thepart
partinside
insideof
ofthe
theautoTAXI.
autoTAXI.
defined inFigure
Section 6.1. Duringofthese steps, the method took advantage of the defined pos-
sibility of lightweight construction
Designimplementation using
implementationofofthethe diamond-grid
the method structure
began with described in Section
Design method began with the the definition
definition of cut
of the thelines.
cut lines.
Be-
6.1.5. Because these lines determine the geometry of the individual segments, they are crucial to
cause these lines determine the geometry of the individual segments, they are crucial to
avoid overhangs. The final layout of the cut lines is shown in Figure 22a.
avoid overhangs. The final layout of the cut lines is shown in Figure 22a.

(a)

(b)
Figure 22. (aFigure
) Cut line arrangement
22. (a) for segmentation;
Cut line arrangement (b) Rendering
for segmentation; of the final
(b) Rendering ofpart afterpart
the final applica-
after application
tion of the method in form of an assembly.
of the method in form of an assembly.

After completion of the designing phase of the method, modifications for mounting
in the vehicle and leathering were added to the design. The fastening was done with the
help of aluminum brackets, which allow screwing to the vehicle, and were glued onto the
part. To provide the aluminum angles with an adhesive surface, solid material replaced
the diamond grid at the corresponding area around the boundary of the part. The same
Designs 2022, 6, 2 23 of 27

Segmentation begins around the oval-shaped offset because it presents the greatest
challenge for manufacturing. The round offset is distributed over eight segments. Of these
eight segments, the four corner segments, where the contour curves around the corner of
the segments, are critical. The cut lines were chosen so that the curvature does not exceed a
60◦ angle in one of the possible printing directions. This was possible for three of the four
segments due to the uniform placement of the rabbet and tongue on each segment. The
other segment was oriented with the rabbet positioned on the build plate of the additive
machines and required a small number of support structures at the shoulder of the rabbet
(Figure 5).
Another challenge was the strong curvature in the right-hand area of the part. Here,
the parallel cutting line must have sufficient clearance from the curvature to accommodate
the dowel pins for press fitting. The remaining geometry did not pose a challenge for the
application of the method.
Defining the cut lines was the most demanding task in the application of the method.
Designing the master segment and deriving the other segments followed the procedure
defined in Section 6.1. During these steps, the method took advantage of the defined
possibility of lightweight construction using the diamond-grid structure described in
Section 6.1.5.
After completion of the designing phase of the method, modifications for mounting
in the vehicle and leathering were added to the design. The fastening was done with the
help of aluminum brackets, which allow screwing to the vehicle, and were glued onto the
part. To provide the aluminum angles with an adhesive surface, solid material replaced
the diamond grid at the corresponding area around the boundary of the part. The same
applied to the leathering which was folded around the part contour and glued in place.
With these adjustments, the design was finished (Figure 22b).
Manufacturing took place via FDM printing out of ABS. All segments were successfully
Designs 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 28
additively manufactured. Tolerance trimming was set with respect to the capabilities of the
additive machine, and no further post processing was required. Checking the dimensions of
each segment verified this.to The
applied tolerance
the leathering whichtrimming compensated
was folded around all deviations
the part contour in positive
and glued in place.
With these adjustments, the design was finished (Figure 22b).
direction, and the final dimensions of each segment were 0.2 mm to 1.2 mm smaller than
Manufacturing took place via FDM printing out of ABS. All segments were success-
the specified valuesfully without trimming.
additively manufactured. This is wanted
Tolerance trimmingand the
was set withprerequisite to implement
respect to the capabilities
the tolerance compensation during
of the additive machine,assembly.
and no further post processing was required. Checking the di-
mensions of each segment verified this. The tolerance trimming compensated all devia-
Assembly started tionswith pre-assembly
in positive direction, and without adhesive
the final dimensions as described
of each segment were in 0.2 Section
mm to 1.2 6.3. As
expected, the overall mm dimensions
smaller than theof the part
specified valueswere
withoutsmaller
trimming. than
This specified
is wanted andbefore tolerance
the prereq-
uisite to implement the tolerance compensation during assembly.
compensation took place (between −2.1 mm and −0.5 mm). By adjusting the gap between
Assembly started with pre-assembly without adhesive as described in Section 6.3. As
each segment with aexpected, feeler the
gauge,
overallthese dimensions
dimensions were
of the part were increased
smaller to specification
than specified before toleranceand the
gap size was noted.compensation Placing the tookoverall assembly
place (between −2.1 mmat andits defined
−0.5 position
mm). By adjusting in the
the gap autoTAXI
between
each segment with a feeler gauge, these dimensions were increased to specification and
vehicle (Figure 8b) the verified the fitment in relation to the body-in-white.
gap size was noted. Placing the overall assembly at its defined position in the auto-
The part was
approved and disassembled TAXI vehicleto allow
(Figure 8b) for final
verified theassembly using
fitment in relation to adhesive.
the body-in-white. The part
was approved and disassembled to allow for final assembly using adhesive.
For the final assembly, the same steps were repeated with the addition of adhesive
For the final assembly, the same steps were repeated with the addition of adhesive
(Section 6.3). Afterwards, the part wasthe
(Section 6.3). Afterwards, leftpart
forwascuring. The final
left for curing. and
The final andfully assembled
fully assembled part part is
shown in Figure 23.is shown in Figure 23.

(a) (b)
Figure 23. (a) Base panel of the luggage rack after manufacturing and assembly. (b) Placement of
Figure 23. (a) Base panel of the luggage rack after manufacturing and assembly. (b) Placement
the final base panel into the UNICARagil autoTAXI.
of the
final base panel into the UNICARagil autoTAXI.
7. Discussion and Outlook
The developed method was successfully applied on an example. Furthermore, the
capabilities of the method were verified on an automotive interior trim part. To evaluate
the potential of the method, it is reviewed against the requirements (Table 1). Thereafter,
concrete potentials for further application are derived. Finally, a conclusion is drawn
about the suitability for prototyping.
Designs 2022, 6, 2 24 of 27

7. Discussion and Outlook

The developed method was successfully applied on an example. Furthermore, the
capabilities of the method were verified on an automotive interior trim part. To evaluate
the potential of the method, it is reviewed against the requirements (Table 1). Thereafter,
concrete potentials for further application are derived. Finally, a conclusion is drawn about
the suitability for prototyping.

7.1. Universal Application

This paper focused on the segmentation of parts that fit in a cubic space with arbitrary
length and width, but height limited to the width of the build volume of the additive
manufacturing machine (Section 4.6). The potential for exceeding this space exists but
requires further research.
Most of the other requirements were directed to the joining of the segments. The
hybrid joint design consists of a combination of a joggle lap for adhesive joining and pin
seats for press fitting. Regarding adhesion, the joggle lap fulfills the requirements for a
universal application. Due to referencing to the part geometry, the adhesion surfaces follow
the arbitrary course of the part’s surface. The pin seats in combination with dowel pins for
press fitting fulfill this requirement to a certain extent. The prerequisite is that the shape of
the part makes it possible to accommodate dowel pins in the area of joining. Because of the
freedom in positioning of the pin seats along the cut lines as well as the positioning of the
cut lines themselves, the pin seats can be easily adapted to the geometry. Nevertheless, the
method cannot universally guarantee the accommodation of all pin seats. In cases where
a specific pin seat cannot be accommodated by means of the method, additional design
adjustment could be expedient.

7.2. Requirements for the Method

The basic requirements for the method itself are fully met. It produces a positioned
joint that can simultaneously compensate for segment tolerances. Force transmission
was designed according to the current state of the art, using an overlapping joint, and is
supported by press fittings. In addition, force transmission takes place along the entire
joining surface, which prevents relative movement between the segments. To convert the
qualitative requirements into quantitative values, further research and testing are needed.
Since the method is parametric in its design, the dimensions of the joint can be tailored to a
specific load case.
Regarding additive manufacturing, the method allows for production without over-
hangs. One advantage of segmentation in combination with additive manufacturing is the
design freedom of individual segments. The use of a diamond-grid structure saves weight
and increases the stiffness of the segments.

7.3. Requirements for the Final Assembly

At the current state of research, the method was not evaluated in terms of dimensional
accuracy or the mechanical performance of the overall assembly. Those features are highly
dependent on the quality and performance of the additive machines, which is not the
topic of this paper. The method provides the means to achieve an assembly performing
like a solid part because it is parametrically designed. This allows free adjustment of the
dimensions of each joint element. The dimensions needed to perform like a solid part are
specific to the use case and basis of comparison of assembly and solid part. Therefore,
further research, manufacturing, investigation, and testing of suitable test specimens
are necessary.

7.4. Time Consumption

In this method, designing the segments is an additional step required to produce the
overall part in the form of an assembly and presents the main difference from conventional
processing. The production and assembly of the segments can be compared with the
Designs 2022, 6, 2 25 of 27

effort required to produce a mold as well as hand lay-up as the comparative process in
conventional prototyping of large area thin-walled parts.
For the method to be competitive, the additional effort of designing should be kept as
low as possible. In the construction of the autoTAXI luggage rack, the time required was
composed as follows. The definition of the cut lines, segmentation, and the creation of the
master segment took 10.5 h. The derivation and adjustment of each additional segment
averaged about 1 h. For the implementation of the entire part with 16 segments, an effort
of about four working days (28 h) was required. In the UNICARagil project, this additional
effort is justified by the cost advantage over the conventional hand lay-up process.

7.5. Costs
The cost of the method depends on the basis of assessment. Manufacturing costs,
excluding labor costs, are determined by the material costs in additive manufacturing.
Power consumption for the additive machine is negligible. In the following, a market price
for the filament from Ampertec of approx. 20 EUR/kg is assumed for the production in
ABS [25]. The luggage rack requires about 2 kg of ABS and, thus, incurs costs of about EUR
60 for additive manufacturing, including costs for dowel pins and adhesive.
For hand lay-up, the cost for manufacturing a milled mold is estimated to be about EUR
6000. For both processes, labor costs are excluded. The cost advantage of the developed
method is obvious in this comparison. The manufacturing cost of the mold is the largest
share of the cost for hand lay-up. The integration of rapid technologies in the form of
additive manufacturing saves those costs. The exact comparison of the costs for material
and labor for laminating the mold, compared to the material and labor costs for design and
assembly using the developed method, are to be investigated in the future.

7.6. Potential for Application

Up to this point, the use of the developed method for the direct manufacture of large-
area, thin-walled parts was investigated. Here, the suitability of the method beyond this
focus is illuminated.
Fiber-reinforced plastics, as in hand lay-up, allow for higher stiffness at lower weight
compared to pure plastic parts. During hand lay-up, high costs and lead times are incurred
to manufacture the necessary molds [26]. Instead of replacing the hand lay-up process, the
developed method could be used as a rapid tooling technique for the creation of negative
molds. In the following, state-of-the-art research on rapid tooling of molds is presented.
Hornfeck [26] was able to halve the material costs and lead time by using vacuum
lamination with molds made of ABS using FDM instead of milling the molds.
Dippenaar and Schreve [27] used additive manufacturing to create two mold halves
and a core for manufacturing a propeller blade. This achieved a tolerance of ±1 mm, while
halving the cost and time, compared to CNC manufacturing of the molds.
In recent years, additive processes have become more established, process and material
costs have decreased further, and material variety has increased. Bere et al. [28] achieved
parts with a tolerance of ±1 mm with molds made from polylactic acid (PLA) and ABS
using the FDM process. A mold made from PLA is estimated to cost ten times less than an
aluminum mold and 8.6 times less than an epoxy mold. It also has about 15 times lower
mass than the aluminum mold and about 6.6 times lower mass than the epoxy mold.
As for direct manufacturing, the state of the art in rapid tooling is limited to parts in
the scale of the build volume, which can be manufactured with one- or two-part additive
molds. For large-scale parts, the developed method could be used to create a segmented
negative mold.
Another potential application is a hybrid material joint. The shell of the desired part
is produced using the presented method and laminated on one side in a solid bond. This
approach would combine the advantages of both methods. In addition, due to the thin-
walled design of the segmented shell, vacuum curing could be used to bond and press the
laminate and the shell together.
Designs 2022, 6, 2 26 of 27

7.7. Conclusions
The developed method was proven to be effective in its implementation. Due to the
hybrid joint design, it created a connection that simultaneously positions, transmits forces,
and compensates for tolerances. Due to the adaptive design of the method, it offers a
high potential for the universal application while requiring little design effort. Due to the
unlimited possibilities of the design of three-dimensional bodies, the application cannot
be guaranteed. Overall, it fulfills the aim of using additive manufacturing economically
to produce thin-walled parts that exceed the build volume of additive manufacturing
machines. The application was verified using an automotive trim part, which can be
considered geometrically complex due to its shape, thin wall, and size.
The overall aim of achieving the mechanical characteristics of a solid part needs further
research. With the parametric design and the results of existing research on the bonding of
additive materials [7,13,19], the prerequisites for a bond that achieves the strength of the
material were established.
We are convinced that we created a possibility to quickly produce complex geometries
that exceed the usual build volume of additive machines. This can save time and costs
in prototyping and thus lead projects, such as the presented autoTAXI, to success. Fur-
thermore, our design method could be a tool for modern design methodologies based on
continuous prototyping.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.K. and F.S.; methodology, N.K.; formal analysis, N.K.
and F.S.; investigation, N.K.; resources, F.S., A.K. and F.D.; writing—original draft preparation, N.K.;
writing—review and editing, N.K., F.S., A.K. and F.D.; visualization, N.K. and F.S.; supervision, F.D.;
funding acquisition, F.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The research of F.S. and A.K. was accomplished within the project “UNICARagil” (FKZ
16EMO0288). We acknowledge the financial support for the project from the Federal Ministry of
Education and Research of Germany (BMBF).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We want to thank Peter Steger for his support, assessments and provided
knowledge during the development of this method. F.D. made an essential contribution to the
concept of the research project. He revised the paper critically for important intellectual content.
F.D. gives final approval for the version to be published and agrees to all aspects of the work. As a
guarantor, he accepts responsibility for the overall integrity of the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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