NEMATODES (Roundworms)

A group of elongated, unsegmented worms with specialized anatomical and

physiological features.

General Characteristics
 Elongated, Cylindrical Body: Their bodies are long and slender,
tapering at both ends.
 Pseudocoelom: They have a body cavity called a pseudocoelom, filled
with hemolymph (a fluid similar to blood). This cavity acts as both a
hydrostatic skeleton (providing support) and a cushion for internal
organs.
 Separate Sexes (Dioecious): Nematodes are sexually dimorphic,
meaning males and females are distinct. Females are usually larger, and
males have a coiled tail with a copulatory organ at the posterior end.
 Size Range: Nematodes can vary in size from 1 mm to 120 cm.
 Bilaterally Symmetrical: The left and right sides of the body mirror each
other.
 Colorless and Unsegmented: They lack pigmentation and external
segmentation.
Body Wall Structure
The body wall is composed of three main components: cuticle, hypodermis,
and muscle layer.
1. Cuticle:
o A noncellular, elastic covering
that protects the nematode.
o The cuticle lines the mouth,
esophagus, rectum, vagina, and
excretory pores.
o It may feature specialized sensory
structures, such as:
 Papillae: Small, finger-like
structures (act as sensory organs to detect environmental stimuli)
 Alae: Wing-like extensions
 Bursa: A copulatory structure in males for mating.
o The cuticle is shed periodically (molted) as the nematode grows.
2. Hypodermis:
o The hypodermis secretes the cuticle, meaning it produces and
maintains the cuticle layer
o It contains lateral(left and right), dorsal(top/back), and ventral
(bottom/ belly) cords.
 Lateral cords: Contain excretory canals.
 Dorsal and ventral cords: Contain longitudinal nerve cords.
3. Muscles:
o Only longitudinal muscles are present, responsible for wave-like
movement.
o Depending on the number of muscle rows:
 Polymyarian: Many rows per segment.
 Holomyarian: No more than 2 rows.
 Meromyarian: 2 to 5 rows.
Locomotion
 Movement is achieved by undulating waves of muscle contraction, aided
by the pressure in the pseudocoelom (hydrostatic skeleton).
 Circular or diagonal muscles are absent, so nematodes move in a
characteristic thrashing motion.

Pseudocoelom (Body Cavity)

 The pseudocoelom is a fluid-filled cavity that:
o Protects internal organs by cushioning them.
o Serves as a hydrostatic skeleton, giving the body structure.
o Provides space for the evolution of complex reproductive and
digestive systems.
o Contains hemolymph, which transports nutrients and waste.

Digestive System
 Nematodes have a complete digestive system, consisting of:
1. Mouth: May contain teeth or cutting plates.
2. Esophagus/Pharynx: A muscular pumping organ that moves food
into the gut.
3. Gut/Intestine: A tube lined with a single layer of cells and
microvilli to increase absorption.
4. Anus (in females) / Cloaca (in males): The digestive tract ends in
an anus (in females) or a cloaca (in males, shared with
reproductive organs).
 Feeding:
o Free-living nematodes feed on bacteria, fungi, or organic material.
o Parasitic nematodes feed on blood, tissue cells, body fluids, or
intestinal contents.
 o Digestive glands in the esophagus produce enzymes such as
amylases, proteases, chitinases, and anticoagulants to aid in
digestion.

Nervous System
Nematodes have a simple but effective nervous system consisting of two
primary components:
1. Circumesophageal Nerve Ring (Central Ganglion)
o This nerve ring surrounds the esophagus and functions as the
"brain" of the nematode.
2. Longitudinal Nerves (Dorsal and Ventral)
o These extend along the body and transmit signals for movement
and sensory responses.
o The ventral nerve is motor and sensory, while the dorsal nerve
mainly controls muscle contractions.
Sensory Structures
Parasitic nematodes possess mechanoreceptors (for touch) and
chemoreceptors (for detecting chemicals).
1. Mechanoreceptors (Papillae)
o Oral papillae: Located on the lips around the mouth.
o Cephalic papillae: Positioned just behind the lips.
o Caudal papillae: Found near the tail (especially in males) and aid
in copulation.
2. Chemoreceptors
o Amphids: Present at the anterior end; detect environmental
chemicals.
o Phasmids: Found at the posterior end; assist in sensing chemicals
within the host.

Excretory System
Nematodes have a simple excretory system designed to maintain
osmoregulation and remove waste products.
 Renettes: These unicellular glands release waste products into
longitudinal excretory canals that empty through an excretory pore
near the head.
 The excretory system helps control water balance, especially in parasitic
species that face variable environments.

Reproductive System
Nematodes reproduce sexually through copulation. Males are smaller and
possess specialized structures for mating.
Male Reproductive System
 Single Testis: Produces sperm.
 Vas deferens: The sperm duct that leads to the cloaca, where sperm are
stored in the seminal vesicle.
 Copulatory Spicules: Hard structures that help the male open the
female's vulva during copulation, ensuring sperm transfer.
 Copulatory Bursa or Caudal Alae: These structures embrace the
female during mating, helping with alignment.
Female Reproductive System
 Two Ovaries: Produce eggs.
 Oviducts and Uteri: Transport and develop eggs.
 Vulva: The opening to the reproductive tract.
 Vagina: Connects the two uteri to the vulva.
 Fertilization occurs inside the receptaculum seminis.
 Parthenogenesis: In some species, females can produce offspring
without fertilization (asexual reproduction).
Lifecycle Types
 Free-Living Nematodes: Live in soil or water, feeding on
microorganisms.
 Parasitic Nematodes: Infect animals or humans, depending on a host for
survival and reproduction.
Most nematodes have a direct life cycle without the need for intermediate
hosts. However, some parasitic species require specific hosts or vectors (like
mosquitoes) for transmission.

Egg and Hatching Mechanisms

 Eggs may hatch either inside the host or in the external environment.
 Environmental factors such as temperature, oxygen, and moisture
influence hatching.
 Some eggs hatch only after being ingested by the host, triggered by
factors such as pH, temperature, or carbon dioxide levels inside the
host's body.

Lifecycle of Nematodes
The life cycle involves four larval stages (L1–L4), followed by the adult
stage:
1. Egg: Laid by adult females.
2. L1 and L2 (Rhabditiform larvae): These are non-infective larvae found
in free-living nematodes or in early stages of parasitic forms.
3. L3 (Filariform larvae): This is the infective stage for parasitic
nematodes, ready to infect a host.
o The L3 stage is often ensheathed in the remains of the previous
cuticle to protect it.
4. L4: This stage transitions into adulthood after one more molt.
5. Adult: Final stage, where the nematode is sexually mature.
Molting Process
 Nematodes undergo four molts during their development.
 Each molt involves the formation of a new cuticle, loosening and
shedding of the old cuticle, and the release of the larva from the old
skin.
 This process is aided by exsheathing fluid produced by the larva, which
helps break down the old cuticle.

Larval Forms
1. Rhabditiform
o The first-stage larva (L1) in many species, such as hookworms or
Strongyloides.
o These larvae feed on bacteria and are non-infective.
2. Filariform
o The L3 infective stage of many parasitic nematodes.
o These larvae have an elongated, cylindrical esophagus without a
terminal bulb.
3. Microfilaria
o The pre-larvae of filarial nematodes (e.g., Wuchereria bancrofti).
o They are often ensheathed and circulate in the host's bloodstream,
waiting for transmission to another host (via mosquitoes or other
vectors).
Classification of Nematodes Based on Egg or Larva Production
Nematodes can be classified into three reproductive types based on how they
produce offspring: oviparous, ovoviviparous, and viviparous. Each type
reflects whether the nematode releases eggs or live larvae, and these offspring
forms are critical for identifying the species.

1. Oviparous (Egg-laying Nematodes)

In oviparous nematodes, the female lays eggs that hatch outside the body. Eggs
vary in shape, size, and color, which can help identify the specific nematode
species. These eggs contain varying developmental stages (segmented or
unsegmented), depending on the nematode.
Types of Oviparous Eggs:
1. Strongylid Type
o Segmented ovum: The egg contains multiple blastomeres (cells
formed by the division of the fertilized egg).
o Example: Hookworms, Strongylus, and Trichostrongylus species.
2. Ascaridoid Type
o Unsegmented ovum: The egg contains one blastomere (a single
fertilized cell) without any division.
o Example: Ascaris species.
3. Oxyuroid Type
o Egg with a morula or larva inside: The egg may contain a morula
(a cluster of cells) or a developing larva.
o The egg is flattened on one side.
o Example: Enterobius and Oxyuris species.
4. Trichuroid Type
o Egg with unsegmented ovum and a mucus plug at both ends.
These plugs seal the egg, protecting the embryo.
o Example: Trichuris species (whipworms).

2. Ovoviviparous (Eggs with Fully Formed Larvae)

  In ovoviviparous nematodes, the female lays eggs that already contain
fully formed larvae. The larvae may hatch immediately after being
released into the environment.
 This strategy helps the larva bypass early development stages, increasing
its chances of survival.
 Example: Strongyloides species.

3. Viviparous (Larva-bearing Nematodes)

 In viviparous nematodes, the female gives birth directly to larvae
without laying eggs. The larval stage is already developed inside the
female before release.
 This strategy avoids the vulnerability of egg stages and allows the larvae
to begin infecting hosts immediately.
 Example:
o Filarial worms (e.g., Wuchereria bancrofti, Onchocerca).
o Trichinella spiralis, which releases larvae that migrate to muscle
tissues.

Summary Table of Reproductive Types:

Reproductive
Description Examples
Type
Lays eggs with varying stages of Ascaris, Hookworms,
Oviparous
development Trichuris
Lays eggs containing fully
Ovoviviparous Strongyloides
developed larvae
Gives birth to live larvae (no egg Filarial worms,
Viviparous
stage) Trichinella spiralis