Hand Book

Switching Regulator Basics

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 Hand Book
Switching Regulator Basics

－ Table of Contents －

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1

1. Types of Switching Regulators ...................................................................................................... 1

2. Advantages vs Disadvantages in Comparison with Linear Regulator .......................................... 2

3. Operating Principles of Buck Switching Regulator ....................................................................... 2

3.1 DC/DC Conversion ...................................................................................................... 3
3.2 PWM vs PFM ............................................................................................................... 3
4. Circuit and Operation of Non-synchronous (diode) Rectification Buck Switching Regulator ....... 4

5. Circuit and Operation of Synchronous Rectification Buck Switching Regulator ........................... 5

5.1 Differences between Synchronous and Non-synchronous Rectification ..................... 5
5.2 Current Path of Synchronous Rectification Buck Switching Regulator ....................... 7
6. Feedback Control Method ............................................................................................................. 8
6.1 Voltage Mode ............................................................................................................... 8
6.2 Current Mode ............................................................................................................... 8
6.3 Hysteresis (ripple) Control ........................................................................................... 9
7. Auxiliary Functions of Switching Regulator IC .............................................................................. 9
7.1 Protection Functions .................................................................................................... 9
7.1.1 Thermal Shutdown ..................................................................................... 9
7.1.2 Under Voltage Lockout ............................................................................ 10
7.1.3 Over Current Protection ........................................................................... 10
7.1.4 Short Circuit Protection ............................................................................ 10
7.1.5 Over Voltage Protection ........................................................................... 11
7.1.6 Output Pre-bias Protection ...................................................................... 11
7.2 Sequencing Functions ............................................................................................... 12
7.2.1 Shutdown ................................................................................................. 12
7.2.2 Soft Start .................................................................................................. 12
7.2 3 Power-good Output .................................................................................. 12
7.2.4 Tracking ................................................................................................... 12
8. Other Topics ................................................................................................................................ 13
8.1 Switching Frequency Considerations ........................................................................ 14
8.2 When the Input Voltage of the Buck Converter is Lower Than the Output Voltage ... 14
9. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 16

Revision History .............................................................................................................................. 17

Notes ............................................................................................................................................... 18

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 Hand Book
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Introduction specifically require isolation, such as making 3.3V from

5V, are non-isolated.
Switching regulators, due to their high power conversion
efficiency and flexibility, have made inroads into a growing Because there are suitable circuit systems for
construction of non-isolated and isolated converters,
number of devices and become the preferred power
supply units. Previously, a standard practice for switching switching regulators can be classified by circuit type. In
power supply units was to purchase completed modules Figure 1, the synchronous rectifying and flyback refer to
circuit types. These systems differ in constituent
or units. In recent years, however, with the availability of
ICs for a wide variety of switching power supplies, the components, circuit size, and underlying operating
strategy employed by electric circuit designers has shifted principles.
to the so-called “on-board design” in which a switching Next, it is also possible to classify them by function and
power supply unit is built into the circuit board. That said, operating method, which are outlined in Figure 2.
it is also a fact of life that the various issues presented by Because the AC/DC converter, after rectifying and
switching power circuits, different from the linear regulator, smoothing of the AC voltage at the initial stage, basically
pose a significant challenge to the designer. operates in the same manner as a DC/DC converter, the
In this hand book, focusing on the step-down switching discussion that follows will be based on DC/DC
regulator, its basic aspects, such as its operation and converters.
functions are explained.
1. Types of Switching Regulators
Several types of switching regulators exist, classified from
different perspectives. In this section, starting with types
of input power supplies, an attempt will be made to
categorize them principally by circuit type.
First, switching regulators can be divided into DC/DC
converters and AC/DC converters, depending on whether
the input power is DC (direct current) or AC (alternating
current) (see Figure 1). “DC/DC converter” means a Figure 2. Types of switching regulators by function
regulator that takes a DC voltage as input and outputs a and operation
DC voltage by conversion, and “AC/DC converter” means
A DC/DC conversion can step down or step up the input
that which takes AC input and converts it to a DC voltage.
voltage. As an extension of this capability, buck/boost and
DC/D Converter AC/DC Converter inverting conversions are also possible. Depending on
the type of conversion, the circuit configuration and the IC
●Non isolated ●Isolated ●Non ●Isolated
to be selected will differ.
－Non-sync. －Flyback isolated
rectification －Forward Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and Pulse Frequency
－Sync. －Push-Pull Modulation (PFM) are among the ways to control the
rectification －Half/Full bridge output voltage. PWM is a method of controlling output by
Figure 1. Example of classification of switching adjusting the ON and OFF time ratio with a constant
regulators based on the type of input power supply switching cycle (frequency), while PFM is a method of
changing the frequency with a constant ON or OFF time.
The DC/DC converter and the AC/DC converter each The details are described below.
comprises non-isolated and isolated types. In the isolated
type, the input (primary) and output (secondary) sides are Also, a current mode, a voltage mode, and hysteresis (or
isolated mainly by using transformers. Isolated types are ripple, or comparator) control mode are among the
typically used in industrial and medical instrument available feedback control methods designed to regulate
applications where safety in the event of a malfunction is the output. These will also be discussed later.
vital importance. The non-insulator type provides electric There are roughly these types of switching regulators,
conduction between the input and output. Most voltage and the best one is selected according to the application,
conversions within the same circuit board that do not input and output conditions, design specifications and

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Switching Regulator Basics

performance goals, and requirements and limitations Linear Regulator Switching Regulator
such as cost and size. The designer needs to know the Buck Possible Possible
characteristics and pros and cons of each element. Boost Impossible Possible
Buck/Boost Impossible Possible
＜Summary＞ Inverting Impossible Possible
 The switching regulator comprises AC/DC and DC/DC Efficiency Vout/Vin Approx. 95%
converters, which in turn may vary in the conversion Mostly low Usually high
methods employed. Output Generally 2-3W Large power possible
power Depends on
 To select the best possible combination of elements,
thermal design
the designer needs a solid understanding of the
Noise Low Switching noise exists
advantages and disadvantages of each method.
Design Simple Complicated
2. Advantages vs Disadvantages in Comparison with Parts count Low High
Linear Regulator Cost Low Depends

Once the approximate specifications are determined, the Table 2. Comparisons with the linear regulator
next step is to choose whether to use a switching The disadvantage is that the switching regulator requires
regulator or a linear regulator. Setting aside situations passive components like capacitors and resistors;
where the choice is clear from the standpoint of meeting semiconductors, such as diodes and transistors; and
required specifications, there are many cases in which magnetic parts; with an attendant increase in the number
either one could do the job. In such case, an evaluation of required parts and complexity in design. Newer
must be conducted by considering the pros and cons of switching power supply ICs feature higher level of
each option. Table 1 summarizes the advantages and integration and innovations for making the adjustment
disadvantages of switching regulators. process simpler, for greater ease of power supply design.
Advantages Disadvantages Nevertheless, there is no denying that compared with the
linear regulator, the switching regulator is more
‧ Capable of Boost, Buck, Inverting ‧ Complicated design
complicated. In addition, switching operations involve
and Buck/Boost ‧ High parts count
‧ High efficiency ‧ Switching noise and
noise and ripples, to be avoided in noise-averse
‧ Low thermal dissipation ripple exist applications. Also, compliance with electromagnetic
‧ Can handle a large output current ‧ Cost factor interference (EMI) regulations requires labor-intensive,
time-consuming evaluation processes.
Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of switching
regulators The cost is currently higher than that of linear regulators
as far as ICs and components are concerned. That said,
The greatest advantage of the switching regulator lies in
the linear regulator including a heat sink must contend
its flexibility in performing conversions. Although buck
with increased footprint and volume, with the result that
conversion may be the most frequently employed type of
as the magnitude of power to be converted increases, the
conversion, the switching regulator can be used to
switching regulator in some cases may offer a lower total
perform stepping-up from a low-voltage source, such as
cost.
a battery; produce a negative voltage by inverting the
positive voltage; or perform buck/boost conversion when In designing a power supply, it is imperative to select a
the input voltage from a lithium-ion rechargeable battery method that is best suited for a given objective by critically
(e.g. 4.2V to 2.8V) crosses over the output voltage such evaluating the relevant advantages and disadvantages.
as a 3.3V. ＜Summary＞
The next point is high efficiency. Depending on the type,  The main advantage of switching regulators is that they
switching regulators can achieve a maximum of 95% are efficient, but consider using them only after carefully
efficiency, although subject to the magnitude of the load understanding their disadvantages.
current. Basically, as the load current diminishes, the 3. Operating Principles of Buck Switching Regulator
efficiency declines significantly. This fact, related to the
increasingly stringent need to reduce standby power, The operating principle is explained using the buck
represents the significant issue to be addressed in the switching regulator, which is the most commonly used, as
design of switching regulators. an example.

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3.1 DC/DC Conversion DC/DC conversion by switching can be thought of as

taking in from the input as much power as needed for the
Figure 3 shows a schematic circuit example of a buck
output. By contrast, because the linear regulator does not
(step-down) DC/DC converter, which converts the DC
turn on/off as switching, it operates in a 100% duty cycle,
voltage (VIN) to the desired DC voltage by dividing it into
that is, the input is never turned off. By the same token, if
time using a switch and smoothing it with an inductor and
10V is converted to 2.5V, the power equivalent to the 7.5V
a capacitor.
difference is wasted in the form of heat. It is this difference
in the mechanism of operations that accounts for the high
efficiency of the switching regulator.
＜Summary＞
 The switching regulator delivers high efficiency by
chopping (switching) the input DC voltage and
transmitting only the required power to the output side.
3.2 PWM vs PFM
 When S1 is on and S2 off, VIN is applied to L1.
 When S1 is off and S2 on, L1 is connected to GND. Typical switching control methods are Pulse Width
 VIN (DC) is converted to VIN/GND level pulses. Modulation (PWM) and Pulse Frequency Modulation
 The voltage is averaged in C1 and converted to DC. (PFM) (see Figure 5).

Figure 3. Schematic circuit example of buck DC/DC PWM is a method of controlling output voltage by
conversion adjusting the time ratio (duty cycle) between ON and OFF
with a constant switching cycle (frequency).
In a nutshell, the DC/DC conversion process involves the
conversion of DC to AC, smoothing it, and reconverting it PFM controls the output voltage by keeping the ON or
to DC. In terms of a PWM operation as an example, if with OFF time constant and changing the frequency (Figure 5
S1＝ON and S2＝OFF the time to supply VIN is set to 25%, shows an example with constant ON time).
and if with S1＝OFF and S2＝ON the zero-voltage state
(GND) is set to a 75% pulse cycle and the pulses are
averaged, a 25% DC is produced. If VIN is 10V, VO will be
25%, or 2.5V. For ease of visualization, the process may
be depicted in terms of areas.
In actual PWM, since the load current of the averaged
output fluctuates, if the ON time remains constant the
voltage ends up increasing or decreasing as a function of
the load current, which defeats the purpose of
constructing a regulator. Therefore, when the output
declines, the ON time is increased, and more energy is
supplied from the input side to increase the output voltage.
Figure 5. Comparison of PWM and PFM operation
When the output voltage has been restored sufficiently,
(PFM is an example of constant ON time).
the ON time is shortened to suppress the rise of the
output.

Figure 4. PWM buck DC/DC conversion

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Since PWM has a constant frequency, it switches at a shown. This circuit is a feedback control circuit, where the
constant rate regardless of the load, resulting in a output voltage is returned to the comparison circuit and
noticeable drop in efficiency at light loads. In contrast, compared with a reference voltage. The result of the
PFM reduces the number of switching cycles (slows down comparison is replaced by the control of the ON/OFF time
the frequency) at light loads, so efficiency can be (duty cycle) of the switch (MOSFET).
maintained.
Although PFM appears to be superior in terms of
efficiency, the switching frequency of PFM varies with the
load, so the frequency of the switching noise becomes
indefinite, making it difficult to filter the noise. Also, if the
frequency changes and enters the audible band, there is
a possibility of noise ringing. PWM, on the other hand,
has the advantage that the frequency is constant and the
Figure 6: Schematic circuit example of DC/DC buck
frequency of the noise generated can be estimated,
conversion
making it easy to filter the noise.
The choice of PWM or PFM depends on the application Figures 7 and 8 are specific circuit examples, showing the
based on these characteristics. Some switching regulator current paths when the switch is ON and OFF. In this
circuit example, switch S1 is replaced by a MOSFET and
ICs are equipped with a function to maintain efficiency by
switching to PWM operation normally and PFM operation S2 by a Schottky barrier diode. The comparison and
under light load. control circuits, which were omitted in Figure 6, are also
shown. This circuit is a feedback control circuit, where the
＜Summary＞ output voltage is returned to the comparison circuit and
 PWM is a method to control the output voltage by compared with a reference voltage. The result of the
adjusting the ON and OFF time ratio (duty cycle) with a comparison is replaced by the control of the ON/OFF time
constant switching frequency. (duty cycle) of the switch (MOSFET).
 PFM controls the output voltage by changing the
frequency while keeping the ON or OFF time constant.
 PWM has a noticeable decrease in efficiency at light
loads, but it is relatively easy to filter out noise.
 PFM maintains efficiency even at light loads, but it is
difficult to filter noise due to its indefinite frequency.
4. Circuit and Operation of Non-synchronous (diode)
Rectification Buck Switching Regulator
The main rectification methods of buck switching
Figure 7. Non-synchronous Rectification Buck
regulators are non-synchronous (diode) rectification and
Switching Regulator: Current path when switch is ON
synchronous rectification. First, we will start with the non-
synchronous rectification method.
Figure 6 is the same as the schematic circuit example of
the buck DC/DC conversion shown in Figure 3, where S1
is replaced with a transistor and S2 with a diode, which is
the circuit of the buck switching regulator called non-
synchronous rectifier type or diode rectifier type.
Figures 7 and 8 are specific circuit examples, showing
the current paths when the switch is ON and OFF. In this
circuit example, switch S1 is replaced by a MOSFET and
S2 by a Schottky barrier diode. The comparison and Figure 8. Non-synchronous Rectification Buck
control circuits, which were omitted in Figure 6, are also Switching Regulator: Current path when switch is OFF

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The behavior is as follows. The numbers at the beginning synchronous rectification switching regulators with higher
of the sentence match the numbers shown in Figure 7 and efficiency were developed one after another. With the
Figure 8. introduction of ICs, it became easier to design
synchronous rectifiers with complex control and circuits,
① Compare the output voltage with the reference voltage
and synchronous rectification became the mainstream in
to see if it is at the set voltage.
various fields. The synchronous rectification type can
② If the output voltage is lower than the set voltage, the achieve efficiencies of up to nearly 95%.
switch is turned on and power is supplied from the input
Figures 10 and 11 show the schematic circuit and
to the output.
operation of each method.
③ At this time, magnetic energy is stored in the inductor.
④ When the output voltage becomes higher than the set
voltage, the switch turns OFF.
⑤ The magnetic energy stored in the inductor becomes a
current and is supplied to the output load, then returns
to the inductor.
⑥ When the magnetic energy in the inductor is lost and
the output voltage drops, the switch turns ON again.
Figure 9 shows the current waveforms of a switch
(MOSFET), a diode, and an inductor.  When S1 is ON, no current flows to D1 (OFF)
 When S1 is OFF, a forward current flows to D1 (ON)
 Less efficient than the synchronous type
 The circuit is relatively simple

Figure 10. Non-synchronous rectification buck

conversion circuit and operation

Figure 9. Non-synchronous rectification buck

switching regulator: Current waveform of main node

When the switch is ON, the current flows through the

MOSFET, and when it is OFF, the current flows through
the diode. The inductor current is a composite of the two.
5. Circuit and Operation of Synchronous Rectification
Buck Switching Regulator
Then, the circuit and operation of the synchronous  When S1 is ON, S2 is turned OFF
rectification buck switching regulator will be explained.  When S1 is OFF, S2 is turned ON
5.1. Differences between Synchronous and Non-  Current path is the same as the non-synchronous
synchronous Rectification type
 ON/OFF of S1 and S2 is done by the control circuit
To speed up the understanding, we will first explain the  High efficiency due to low loss of S2, which is an
difference between synchronous and non-synchronous non-synchronous diode
rectification buck switching regulator. After that, as the  Circuitry is more complex than non-synchronous type
applications that require relatively large power with
battery operation such as notebook PCs emerged, the Figure 11. Synchronous rectification buck
power supply efficiency was required to be improved in conversion circuit and operation
order to increase the operation time, and the ICs for

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As can be seen from each circuit diagram, the non- Especially when the step-down ratio is high, such as
synchronous rectification type uses diodes for the low- when stepping down from 12V to 1.5V, the ON time of the
side (lower) switch, while the synchronous rectification low-side switch becomes long, accounting for nearly 90%
type uses transistors for both the high-side (upper) and of the cycle. Since the non-synchronous rectifier low-side
low-side switches. In the non-synchronous rectification switch is a diode, it operates with a loss of VF for about
type, the control circuit controls the ON/OFF of the high- 90% of the cycle. Since it involves a voltage drop of 0.5 V
side switch, and the current flows to the diode or not for an output of 1.5 V, the effect on efficiency is significant
depending on the ON/OFF of the high-side switch. In (Figure 12).
contrast, in synchronous rectification, the basic current
Another significant difference is the behavior of the
path is the same, but the control circuit turns both the
regulator with light load. In Figure 13, the wave forms
high-side and low-side switches ON and OFF. This
represent inductor currents under light load, for the
control is complex. For example, if both switches are
nonsynchronous rectifying type (orange) and
turned ON at the same time, a current called "through
synchronous rectifying type (green).
current" flows directly from VIN to GND, so it is necessary
to perform advanced control such as creating a timing As shown in the figure, the inductor current describes
called "dead time" when both switches must be turned triangular waves due to switching actions. When the load
OFF. current declines to a significant extent, the inductor
current drops to a level where a period of zero inductance
However, by using transistors (especially MOSFETs) for
occurs. In this state, since the non-synchronous low-side
the low-side switches, the losses generated by the diodes
switch is a diode, current can only flow in one direction
are greatly reduced, thus improving the efficiency. In both
(orange arrow in Figure 12), and as shown in the orange
circuits, current flows through the switch, so there are
waveform in Figure 13, the current in the waveform that
losses in the switch, which affect the efficiency. For
enters the minus region becomes zero, and the current
diodes, the loss is the forward voltage VF. For a transistor,
waveform becomes an interrupted state with a zero
it is the saturation voltage or on-resistance. The VF of a
period. This condition is called a continuous mode.
diode increases with the current it conducts, and even a
barrier diode with low VF has a VF of about 0.3 to 0.5V at
1A. In contrast, the on-resistance of an Nch MOSFET, for
example, is very low at about 50mΩ, and the voltage drop
is calculated to be 50mV at 1A, much lower than the VF
of a diode.

 Under light load, the inductor current remains at 0A

for some time
 In the non-synchronous type, a current flows through
 When the step-down ratio is high, the conduction the diode only in one direction, resulting in a
time of D1 is long discontinuous operation and a ringing condition
 When VO is low, the percentage of loss due to VF in  In the synchronous type, a current can flow in a
D1 becomes large reverse direction in the transistor, for a continuously
Figure 12. Losses due to diodes in non- regulated operation at the expense of lower efficiency
synchronous rectification Figure 13. Difference in inductor current under light load

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On the other hand, in the synchronous rectification type, CBYPASS is a high-frequency decoupling capacitor, and CIN
the switch is a transistor, so reverse current flow is is a large-value capacitor. Most of the sudden current
possible, and the current in the negative region continues. flowing at the moment when the high-side switch Q1 is
This operation is called continuous mode. turned on is supplied from CBYPASS and then from CIN. The
slowly changing current is supplied by the input power
In the discontinuous mode, ringing occurs in the switch
supply.
voltage, and harmonic noise is emitted. The synchronous
rectification type maintains the continuous mode, so it The current path when the low-side switch Q2 is ON (the
continues stable operation. However, the reverse current high-side switch is OFF) is then shown in Figure 15 as a
will be supplied from the output capacitor, so the red dashed line.
efficiency will be slightly reduced.
Overall, consider the trade-off between circuit complexity,
cost, efficiency, and harmonic noise due to ringing to
determine which method is more appropriate for your
application.

＜Summary＞
 Understand the differences in the configuration and
operation of the two typical rectification methods.
– Synchronous and non-synchronous operation
– Continuous mode and discontinuous mode Figure 15. Current path when the low-side switch of
5.2 Current Path of Synchronous Rectification Buck synchronous rectification buck converter is turned on
Switching Regulator The solid gray line is the current path when the high-side
To begin with, current paths during operation are switch is ON and is for comparison.
essentially the same in non-synchronous rectification and To understand the relationship between switch current
in synchronous rectification. This is because in a and inductor current, each current waveform in ON/OFF
synchronous rectification circuit, the diode that is the low- operation is shown in Figure 16.
side switch in non-synchronous rectification is replaced
with a transistor. Given this premise, we explain the
current paths to be noted in a synchronous rectification
buck converter.
Figure 14 shows the main current flowing when the high-
side switch Q1 of the synchronous rectification type buck
switching regulator is ON (the low-side switch is OFF)
(solid red line). For easy comparison, the current path
when the low-side switch is ON is included in the gray
dashed line.

Figure 16. Switch current and inductor current of

synchronous rectification buck converter

Think of the SW pin voltage waveform as indicating the

ON/OFF of the high-side and low-side switches; IHG is the
Figure 14. Current path when the high-side switch of current waveform of the high-side switch and ILG is the
synchronous rectification buck converter is turned on current waveform of the low-side switch; IL is the inductor

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current, which is a composite of IHG and ILG. The output 6.1 Voltage Mode
current IO is the average value of IL.
Voltage mode control represents the most basic method,
One of the reasons why we need to understand these in which only the output voltage is returned through a
current paths and the characteristics of the current feedback loop. The output voltage is controlled by
flowing through them is because they are greatly related determining the pulse width of the PWM signal by further
to the layout of the mounting board. In particular, we need comparing the voltage difference compared to the
to pay attention to the current difference between ON and reference voltage by the error amplifier with the triangular
OFF shown in blue in Figure 17. wave (Figure 18).

Figure 18. Voltage mode control

Figure 17. Difference of current between ON and Advantages of this method are its relative simplicity
OFF of synchronous rectification buck converter based on the use of a feedback loop consisting solely of
This differential current changes drastically every time the voltages, the ability to control shorter on-time, and high
high-side switch Q1 changes from OFF to ON and from noise tolerance.
ON to OFF. Therefore, a waveform with a lot of harmonics Possible drawbacks are the complexity of the phase
appears in this system, and a PCB layout that minimizes compensation circuit and a cumbersome design process.
this effect is necessary. For more information on PCB
6.2 Current Mode
layout, please refer to "PCB Layout of DC/DC Converter"
in Tech Web Basic Knowledge DC/DC Design. The current mode is a modification of voltage mode
control, where the inductor current in the circuit is
＜Summary＞
detected and used instead of the triangular waveforms
 Current paths during operation of a synchronous
used in the voltage mode control. The current sensing can
rectification buck converter are basically the same as in
also be done by using the on-resistance of high side
a non-synchronous (diode) rectification buck converter.
MOSFET or a current sense resistor instead of the
 Current paths and the lines in which sudden changes in inductor current (Figure 19).
current occur must be understood when undertaking
PCB layout.

6. Feedback Control Method

The feedback loop is basically used for the output

regulation of the switching regulator, and there are three
types of feedback control methods: voltage mode, current
mode, and hysteresis control. The characteristics of each
method are described below. Each method has its own
advantages and disadvantages, so it is necessary to
consider the balance when choosing which method to use.

Figure 19. Current mode control

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The advantages are that the feedback loop has both comparator and the elimination of the need for phase
voltage and current loops, which makes the control compensation.
relatively complex, but the design of the phase
The method suffers from the problems of variable
compensation circuit is much simpler. Also, the feedback
switching frequencies, large jitter, and the need for an
loop is more stable and the load transient response is
output capacitor with a relatively large equivalent series
faster than the voltage mode.
resistor (ESR) for output ripple detection. However,
The disadvantage is that the current detection is sensitive innovations in these areas have advanced, and
and thus vulnerable to noise, but in the case of ICs, this increasing ICs are incorporating this method.
is less of a problem since this part is internal.
Table 3 summarizes the features of each control method.
6.3 Hysteresis (ripple) Control Control Method Voltage Current Hysteresis
Mode Mode Control
The hysteresis control method was developed to meet the
Features Old control Mainstream Good load
power requirements of even faster load transient methods with improved response
response of load elements, such as the CPU and FPGA. voltage mode
Because it performs controls by detecting ripples in the Transient resp. Ordinary Good Excellent
fsw Constant Constant Variable w/load
output, this method is also referred to as a ripple control
Compensation Complex Easy Unnecessary
method (Figure 20). Output capacitor Ceramic Ceramic OK Ceramic OK or
(Lower ripple) OK or NG NG
Multi-phase Easy Easy Difficult
Parallel run

Table 3. Characteristics of each feedback control method

＜Summary＞
 Evaluate the features and pros/cons of each control
Figure 20. Illustration of hysteresis control method and select the method best suited for a given
design.
The method directly monitors the output voltage by
means of a comparator without going through an error 7. Auxiliary Functions of Switching Regulator IC
amp. When detecting that the output voltage has In recent years, switching regulator ICs have been
exceeded or fallen below a set threshold level, the equipped with most of the protection functions that may
comparator directly turns the switch on/off. The two be required, as well as auxiliary functions such as
control schemes are available: detecting a voltage below sequencing functions that can adjust the order and timing
the threshold level with a fixed on-time, and detecting of power-on.
above the threshold with a fixed off-time (Figure 21).
Although it is possible to realize the auxiliary functions in
ICs with external circuits, it is not realistic because it
requires much more complicated circuit design and many
additional components than power supplies. In this
section, we will introduce typical protection and
sequencing functions.
7.1 Protection Functions
It is not limited to switching regulators, but power supplies
need to ensure reliability and safety. Today's switching
regulator ICs are equipped with most of the basic
protection functions. Depending on the protection
function, the threshold value and other parameters can
be adjusted by the user to meet various conditions.
Figure 21. Illustration of hysteresis control
7.1.1 Thermal Shutdown
This method offers the advantages of extremely fast
transient responses due to the direct control exerted by a Thermal shutdown is a mechanism that stops the circuit
operation and shuts down the output when the junction

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temperature of the IC rises excessively. The junction 7.1.3 Over Current Protection
temperature at which it operates varies from IC to IC, but
Over Current Protection is a function to limit the output
it is generally set around Tjmax (Figure 22).
current when the output current flows more than the limit
value to prevent damage to the IC and load. It is also
called OCP, an acronym for Over Current Protection.
When OCP monitors the inductor current and detects that
it exceeds the limit value, it limits the current by
shortening the ON time of the high-side switch and
reducing the output voltage.
If the over current condition continues, the OCP continues
Figure 22. Thermal shutdown to flow the current of the set limit value during that time.
After a shutdown, the IC takes operation either by auto- Therefore, keep in mind that the load will continue to
restart or latching. In the auto-restart type, the IC shuts receive that amount of current (probably larger than
down when the temperature rises to a pre-set threshold normal). When the current value returns to normal, the
level and the IC automatically resumes operation when operation of the IC also returns to normal (Figure 24).
the temperature declines to a set level. In the latch type,
the IC operation remains shut down even when the
temperature falls to a set level. Thus to resume the
operation, the IC needs to be explicitly powered on again.
Which operating mode after these two types of
shutdowns is to be selected depends upon the type of
safety design to be provided in a given application.
As an important reminder, the thermal shutdown function
is intended to prevent any fumes generation or ignition in
the IC itself in the event of a malfunction; it is not a
function designed for the board or system to which power
is supplied.
7.1.2 Under Voltage Lockout
The under voltage lockout (UVLO) function is often
referred to as UVLO, which is an acronym for Under
Voltage Lock Out. UVLO protects itself and the load by
forcibly stopping the circuit operation when the input
voltage becomes lower than the input voltage range of the
switching regulator IC, which may cause the circuit to
behave unexpectedly and produce abnormal output
(Figure 23).

Figure 24. Over current protection (OCP)

7.1.4 Short Circuit Protection

In some ICs short-circuit protection, mostly employed in
pairs with over-current protection, is identified as part of
the over-current protection function. It is also called SCP
from the acronym of Short Circuit Protection.
Figure 23. Under voltage lockout (UVLO) protection

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When an overcurrent condition occurs, the forementioned acronym Over Voltage Protection. It monitors the output
over current protection is activated to lower the output voltage and, when detecting a voltage exceeding a set
voltage, but if the voltage remains below the threshold level, turns off the high side switch and shuts off the
voltage of the short circuit protection circuit for a certain supply of power.
period of time, the short circuit protection circuit stops
However, because merely shutting off the supply of power
switching operation and the output is reduced to zero
leaves unattended the problem of a continued rise in
(Figure 25).
voltage due to the release of charges accumulated in the
inductor, the function turns on the low side switch, and
releases the charges in the inductor to GND to arrest any
further increase in voltage (Figure 26).

Figure 25. Short Circuit Protection (SCP)

The SCP function is also of two types: auto-restart and

latching. In the auto-restart type, the switching operation
is resumed after a few milliseconds, and produces a
voltage output. Normal operation is restarted when the
cause of the over-current is eliminated, and any over-
current stops flowing at this point in time. If the over-
current condition returns, the output repeats in shut-on/off Figure 26. Over voltage protection (OVP)
cycles. In the latching type, the output is retained at a zero
7.1.6 Output Pre-bias Protection
level, and the condition is not resumed until the power for
the IC is reset. As in the case of thermal shutdown, which The voltage of output pin when a switching regulator is
type of protective function is to be employed must be started is assumed to be essentially 0 volts. However,
selected depending upon the type of safety design to be due to the circuit configuration, restarting after a short
provided in a given application. time interval, and other factors, a voltage of output pin
may exist prior to startup, that is, the voltage may not be
7.1.5 Over Voltage Protection
zero. This causes charge remains on the output capacitor
Over voltage protection is also called OVP, from the connected to output pin, or on an input capacitor of the

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load (the IC being fed) or the like; or, it may be due to a function of the IC, preventing the power from starting
leakage current via another route, or to a bias from a pull- properly (latched-off condition). The time constant used
up resistor or the like. by the soft start function is of two types: one that is fixed
internally in the IC and one that can be set by means of
In a state with this pre-bias, when the low-side switch
an external capacitor with an adjusting pin (Figure 28).
(MOSFET) of a synchronous rectification buck converter
is turned on, an excessive current is drawn, and
breakdown of the MOSFET is possible. In order to
prevent such an occurrence, the pre-bias production
function executes control so as not to turn on the low-side
switch until the output voltage exceeds the pre-bias
voltage (Figure 27).

Figure 28. Soft Start

7.2.3 Power-good Output

Power-good is a function that raises a flag when the
output reaches a set voltage level. This function notifies
the CPU that the power supply has started up without any
problem. Additionally, it can be combined with the enable
function to construct a startup sequence for multiple
power supply units. Figure 29 illustrates an example of
building a sequence in which supplies from 1 to 3 are
started, through the use of power-good and enable
functions.

Figure 27. Output pre-bias protection

7.2 Sequencing Functions

Devices that require multiple power supplies, such as
CPUs and FPGAs, have specifications for power-on
sequence and timing, which must be addressed by power
supply circuits. For this purpose, power supply ICs with
sequencing functions and sequencer ICs for power
supplies are available.
7.2.1 Shutdown
The shutdown function turns on/off the operation of the IC.
If the circuit does not need any power, the Point of Load Figure 29. Example of power-good and startup
(POL: a power supply unit exclusively for a part of the sequence construction
board or a device) approaching performs a shutdown in
7.2.4 Tracking
tandem with a request from the load. This contributes to
reductions in power consumption or standby power Tracking refers to a function that can set the sequence
requirements. and timing at which multiple power supplies are started.
The starting of the outputs from multiple power supplies
7.2.2 Soft Start
in a specified sequence ensures the safety of circuits and
Soft start refers to a function, designed to prevent the devices. Tracking has three types: coincident tracking,
occurrence of any on-rush current to the output capacitor ratiometric tracking, and offset tracking.
at startup. This ensures that the output voltage rises only
In coincident tracking, all power supplies are turned on
slowly by providing a time constant. Remember that an
simultaneously; they start at the same slope, and reach a
on-rush current triggers the over-current protection

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set voltage in ascending order of voltages. This feature is In offset tracking, power supplies are started by
useful in applications where the core supply with a low maintaining the fixed offset voltages (voltage differences)
voltage must be started first, followed by peripheral I/O between the power supplies. This method is useful for
power supplies, as in the case of an FPGA (Figure 30). devices that are governed by requirements regarding the
difference between power supply voltages (Figure 32).
To conduct these controls, sequencer ICs and tracking
controller ICs are generally used (Figure 33).

Figure 33. Control example using a sequencer IC

Figure 30. Coincident tracking
Some power supply ICs have a built-in tracking function.
In ratiometoric (proportional) tracking, power supplies In these devices, the slave is controlled through the use
start at different slopes. This method is designed to adjust of the output voltage of the master power supply unit
the slopes so that no large on-rush currents flow into the (Figure 34).
decoupling capacitors on the respective power lines
(Figure 31).

Figure34. Example of using a built-in tracking function

＜Summary＞
 Power supply ICs are equipped with many auxiliary
functions, but these functions vary from IC to IC.
 A solid understanding is needed as to whether a
protective function protects the input side, output side,
or the IC itself, and what operations are performed by
Figure 31. Ratiometoric (proportional) tracking the function.
 Simple sequencing or tracking is performed by a built-
in function in the IC; for complex sequencing, separate
ICs are available.
 Rather than designing and adding auxiliary functions
separately, it is more practical to select ICs with the
necessary functions.
8. Other Topics
There are some tips and precautions that you should
know when designing or using switching regulators. We
have listed the following two points for your reference.

Figure 32. Offset tracking

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8.1 Switching Frequency Considerations ＜Summary＞

 In many cases, efficiency, size, and noise need to be
Switching regulator ICs generally use switching
optimized through trade-offs.
frequencies ranging from several tens of kHz to several
MHz, and recently, some of them operate at even higher  If the switching frequency is changed, the values of
frequencies. In order to determine the switching external components need to be reviewed.
frequency for design, it is necessary to consider the
8.2 When the Input Voltage of the Buck Converter is
relationship between the switching frequency and various
Lower Than the Output Voltage
characteristics, and select it according to the
requirements of the application. The buck switching regulator converts the input voltage
to a lower voltage. However, the input voltage may
One of the most common considerations is the trade-off
become lower than the set output voltage due to input
between efficiency and size. High switching frequencies
voltage fluctuation. The following is an example of the
permit the use of small external inductor and capacitor
behavior that may occur under this condition.
values, which necessarily favors size reductions. This
reduces the form factor which measures the mounting In the buck switching regulator, the normal relationship is
area times the height, contributing to space savings. The input voltage > output voltage. Strictly speaking, the
high-speed switching, on the other hand, increases output voltage plus the voltage drop between input and
switching loss, penalizing efficiency to an extent output is the input voltage for normal operation. For
amounting to a few percentage points. This is an item that example, the minimum operating input voltage for 3.3V
we do not want to trade off, especially for small portable output is 3.8V.
devices, but optimization that balances efficiency and However, for some reason the input voltage may fall to a
size is necessary. Table 4 shows the relationship between voltage below the output voltage for a short time. For
general considerations and switching frequency. example, another device which shares the same input
voltage may draw a large current suddenly, so that the
Switching frequency hundreds kHz 1MHz
Component size Larger Smaller
voltage drops momentarily.
Efficiency Increase Decrease Normally, when the input voltage becomes lower than the
Noise (EMI) Decrease Increase output voltage, the output voltage cannot be maintained
Output ripple Larger Smaller at the preset voltage, and so falls. In general, the voltage
Transient response Slower Faster resulting by subtracting the amount of the voltage drop
Table 4. Relationship between switching frequency across the switch (transistor) from a somewhat lower the
and each characteristic input voltage is output as the output voltage; but if the
input voltage falls further, anomalous operation may occur,
Another consideration is the application-specific
and the output voltage may enter an indeterminate state.
"unpopular frequencies". For example, in automotive
Not only could this state cause the operation of the device
equipment, the AM radio frequency range (about 500 kHz
or system being powered to be indeterminate, but
to 1.8 MHz) falls into this category. Switching power
damage could be imparted as well.
supplies that operate at frequencies in this range have the
potential to degrade the sensitivity and S/N of AM radios. In order to avoid such events, in recent years nearly all
For this reason, in-vehicle devices are designed to avoid step-down switching regulator ICs have been provided
this frequency range. with a function for protection in the event of an input
voltage drop called UVLO (Under Voltage Lock Out).
Thus, tradeoffs are always needed. One must undertake
When the input voltage falls below a preset UVLO
a design process with a thorough review of application
threshold value, the IC shuts down, and when the input
requirements and the operating environment. Although a
voltage is restored the IC restarts, thereby protecting the
number of ICs exist that offer modifiable switching
system.
frequencies, it should be borne in mind that a modification
not only involves the frequency, but it also requires a However, the input voltage may fall below the output
careful review of external part constants including voltage at a level where UVLO is not activated. In that
inductor and capacitor. case, a certain behavior may occur when the input
voltage returns.

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Figure 35 shows the schematic diagram of the feedback The waveform diagram in the center of Figure 36 is the
circuit that controls the output stabilization of the behavior we are focusing on here. The condition is that
synchronous rectification buck converter. "the input voltage falls below the set value of the output
voltage, but does not fall to the level where UVLO is
activated (red line).
The behavior of the output voltage when the input voltage
falls below the output voltage setting value is as explained
earlier, and is approximately the level of the input voltage
- switch voltage drop. This is the state where the output
voltage drops below the set value, and the Error Amp
detects this and Error out goes High, the high side switch
turns ON, the low side turns OFF to supply power to the
output, and the output voltage starts to rise.
The problem is that when the input voltage is suddenly
restored in this state, the power supply from the high-side
switch increases rapidly, and the output voltage also rises
rapidly, resulting in a large increase in output voltage for
Figure 35. Feedback circuit of synchronous rectification a short period of time, which may greatly exceed the set
buck converter value.
For output regulation, the Error Amp compares a After that, the Error Amp detects this and turns off the
feedback voltage from voltage dividing resistors high-side switch to lower the output voltage and return the
connected to Vo in the circuit diagram with a reference output voltage to the set value, but if the output voltage
voltage to control a switch. If the output voltage is lower exceeds the power supply rating of the device being
than the setting value, the Error out output of the Error powered, damage may occur.
Amp goes to high, and a switching controller circuit turns
This phenomenon is related to the steepness of the input
the high-side switch (transistor) on and the low side
voltage recovery and the response speed of Error Amp,
switch off. Feedback control is executed in which power
and should be checked for occurrence under actual use
is supplied from Vin, Vo rises, and upon reaching the
conditions. If this becomes a problem, it is necessary to
preset voltage operation is reversed such that Vo is
review the input voltage and response characteristics of
maintained at the preset voltage.
the power supply IC.
The waveform diagram on the left of Figure 36 indicates
The waveform diagram on the right of Figure 36 is for a
the behavior when the input voltage falls in a range so as
case in which the input voltage falls below the UVLO
not to drop below the output voltage (shown as Vo in the
threshold value, so that the UVLO action causes the
circuit diagram). In general, fluctuations in the input
power supply IC to shut down, and upon restoration of
voltage have almost no effect on the output voltage.

Figure 36. Behavior when the input voltage drops below the output voltage

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the input voltage, the output voltage is restarted in

conjunction with a soft start.
＜Summary＞
 If the input voltage of the buck converter falls below the
output voltage setting value at the level where UVLO is
not activated, the output voltage may be lifted up
significantly at the timing of input.
 If there are adverse effects, the input voltage conditions
and response characteristics of the power supply IC
should be reexamined.
9. Conclusion
As the basics of switching regulators, we have explained
the operating principles and circuit operations of the buck
converter of non-synchronous rectification type and
synchronous rectification type switching regulators as
examples. First of all, we would like you to start from
understanding the basic contents described here.
In order to understand the operation of switching
regulators, it is best to observe the voltage, current, and
waveform by actually operating them. Nowadays,
simulation software and device models are provided free
of charge, and the reproducibility and accuracy are high,
so using a simulator is also a good method.

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Revision History

Date Version Details

2021.03.30 001 Initial version

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Notes
1. The information contained herein is subject to change without notice.
2. Before you use our Products, please contact our sales representative and verify the latest specifications.
3. Although ROHM is continuously working to improve product reliability and quality, semiconductors can break down
and malfunction due to various factors. Therefore, in order to prevent personal injury or fire arising from failure,
please take safety measures such as complying with the derating characteristics, implementing redundant and fire
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4. Examples of application circuits, circuit constants and any other information contained herein are provided only to
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