Chapter 4

Limits and Continuity

4.1 Limit of a Function at a Point

Intuitive Idea of a Limit

Example 4.1.1 (Intuitive Idea). Let f (x) = x2 . What happens to f (x) for values of x near
2?

(a) Use a calculator to compute f (x) for some values of x near 2. Does f (x) approach
some real number as x approaches 2? [Computational Approach]

(b) Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = x2 . Observe the points on the graph of y = f (x)
as x approaches 2. [Graphical Approach]

Solution
For values of x near 2:
x x2 x x2
2:1 4.41 1:9 3.61 y
4
2:01 1:99
2
2:001 1:999

2:0001 1:9999 -1 0 1 2
x
.. ..
. .

Numerically and graphically, we observe that f (x) = x2 approaches as x ap-

proaches 2.

77
78 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

We write this as
lim (x2 ) = 4:
x!2

Limit of a Function at a Point

Suppose that f is de…ned near x = a but not necessarily at x = a.
We say that f (x) approaches the limit L as x tends to a, if we can make f (x) become
arbitrarily close to L by choosing x su¢ ciently close to a.
We express this by writing
lim f (x) = L:
x!a

(a) When lim f (x) exists, which means that there is a real number L such that lim f (x) = L,
x!a x!a
and the limit L is unique.

(b) When there is no …nite real number L such that lim f (x) = L, we say that the limit
x!a
lim f (x) does not exist.
x!a

1 x2
Example 4.1.2. Consider the expression f (x) = .
1 x
(a) Is f (1) de…ned?
(b) Guess the value of lim f (x).
x!1

Solution
Substitution values of x near 2, we have the following:

x>1 f (x) x<1 f (x)

1:5 2.5 0:5 1.5
1:1 0:9

1:01 0:99

1:001 0:999
1:0001 2.0001 0:9999 1.9999

Note that: f (1) is de…ned but lim f (x) = 2.

x!1
4.2. ONE-SIDED LIMIT OF A FUNCTION AT A POINT 79

Multiple Approaching Values –No limit

Example 4.1.3. Does lim sin( x1 ) exist? Is there a real number where sin(1=x) approaches
x!0
as x approaches 0?

Solution
x sin(1=x) x sin(1=x)
1= sin = 0 2= sin =2 = 1
1=(2 ) 2=(5 )

1=(3 ) 2=(9 )

1=(4 ) 2=(13 )

1=(5 ) 2=(17 )

Graph of y = sin( x1 ):

4.2 One-sided Limit of a Function at a Point

Example 4.2.1. Consider the function

1 x<2
f (x) =
1 x 2

Is there a real number where f (x) approaches as x approaches 2?

80 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Solution
Substituting values near 2, we have the following:

x f (x) x f (x)
0:5 1 2:5 1
1:9 2:1

1:99 2:01

1:999 2:001

1:9999 2:0001

Left-hand LimitThe function f (x), as x ! 2 from the left, f (x) ! 1. We shall write

lim f (x) = 1:
x!2

Right-hand Limit: As x ! 2 from the right, f (x) ! 1. We write

lim f (x) = 1:
x!2+

These are known as one-sided limits.

There is no single value that f (x) approaches to as x ! 2. Since lim f (x) 6= lim+ f (x),
x!2 x!2
the limit lim f (x) does not exist.
x!2

One Sided Limits

We also say that the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L.
We write
lim f (x) = L:
x!a

Similarly, the right-hand limit of f (x) is denoted by

lim f (x) = L:
x!a+

Equal One sided limit

The following result provides the relationship between lim f (x) and one-sided limits. We
x!a
use it to determine whether a limit exists.
Theorem 4.2.2 (Equal One-sided Limits.). lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L
x!a x!a
and lim+ f (x) = L .
x!a
4.2. ONE-SIDED LIMIT OF A FUNCTION AT A POINT 81

(Proof Omitted.)
Remark This result is useful for the evaluation of limit at a point a if the function takes
di¤erent mathematical expressions for x < a and x > a when x are near a.

Example 4.2.3. Let g be the function de…ned by

8 2
< x if 0 < x 1;
g(x) = 0:5 if x = 0;
:
sin x if 1 x<0

Does limx!0 g (x) exist?

Example 4.2.4. Sketch the graph of

8
< x if x < 1;
2
f (x) = x if jxj 1;
:
2 if x > 1

Use the graph to determine whether each of the following (if exists)
(a) limx!3 f (x)
(b) limx! 1+ f (x)
(c) limx! 1 f (x)
(d) limx!1 f (x)
82 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

4.3 In…nite Limit

Let f be a function be a function de…ned on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself. Then

lim f (x) = 1 or f (x) ! 1 as x ! a

x!a

means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large (as large as we like) by taking
x su¢ ciently close to a but not equal to a.
Similarly for lim f (x) = 1.
x!a

1
Example 4.3.1. What is lim ?
x!0 x2

1
We evaluate f (x) = for some small values of x as shown in the following table.
x2
x f (x) x f (x)
0:1 100 0:1 100
0:01 0:01

0:001 0:001

0:0001 0:0001

As x becomes close to 0, x12 becomes very large. We say the limit does not exist. However,
to re‡ect this blow-up behavior, we write

1
lim = 1:
x!0 x2

Vertical Asymptotes
The vertical line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if at least
one of the following statements is true:

lim f (x) = 1 lim f (x) = 1 lim f (x) = 1

x!a x!a x!a+
lim f (x) = 1 lim f (x) = 1 lim f (x) = 1
x!a x!a x!a+

Example 4.3.2. (a) The vertical line with equation x = 0 (i.e., the y-axis) is a vertical
1
asymptote of the curve y = 2 .
x
(b) The lines x = are vertical asymptotes of the curve y = tan x.
2
(c) The vertical line x = 0 is a vertical asymptote of y = ln x.
4.4. LIMITS AT INFINITY 83

4.4 Limits at In…nity

Let f (x) be a function be a function de…ned on some interval (a; 1) ( resp. ( 1; a)). Then

lim f (x) = L( resp. lim f (x) = L)

x!1 x! 1

means that the values of f (x) can be made as close to L as we like by taking x su¢ ciently
large (resp. su¢ ciently negatively large).
1
Example 4.4.1. For the function f (x) = , what happens to the values of f (x) as x
x
increases to large positively large values?

Horizontal Asymptotes
The horizontal line y = b is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if

lim f (x) = b or lim f (x) = b:

x!1 x! 1

1 1
Example 4.4.2. (a) For every positive integer n, note that lim n
= 0, and lim n = 0.
x!1 x x! 1 x

1
The horizontal line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of the curve y = n .
x
x
(b) Note that lim e = 0. The horizontal line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of the
x! 1
curve y = ex .

Example 4.4.3. The following do not exist: limx!1 sin x; limx!1 cos x; limx!1 tan x;
limx!1 ex ; limx!1 ln x:

Example 4.4.4.
1
lim tan x=
x!1 2
1
lim tan x=
x! 1 2
84 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

4.5 Limit Theorems

Limit Laws
Theorem 4.5.1. (a) limx!a C = C.
(b) limx!a x = a.
Theorem 4.5.2. (1) limx!a Cf (x) = C limx!a f (x)
(2) limx!a (f (x) g(x)) = limx!a f (x) limx!a g(x)
Example 4.5.3. (1) limx! 7x = 7 limx! x = 7
p p p
(2) limx! (7x + 3) = limx! 7x + limx! 3 = 7 + 3
Theorem 4.5.4. (3) limx!a f (x)g(x) = limx!a f (x) limx!a g(x)
(4) limx!a (f (x))n = (limx!a f (x))n , where n is a positive integer.
Example 4.5.5. (3) limx! (7x)(x) = limx! (7x) limx! (x) = (7 )( ) = 7 2 .
(4) limx!a (x)n = (limx!a x)n = an , where n is a positive integer.

f (x) lim f (x)

x!a
Theorem 4.5.6. (5) lim = ; if lim g(x) 6= 0
x!a g(x) lim g(x) x!a
x!a

7 lim 7 7
x!
Example 4.5.7. (5) lim 3 = 3
= 3; since lim x3 = 3
6= 0
x! x lim x x!
x!

All the above Limit Laws hold for

lim lim lim & lim :

x!a+ x!a x!1 x! 1

Example 4.5.8. Evaluate limx! x3 (2x 5):

3
As limx! x3 = (limx! x) 3 = and limx! (2x 5) = 2 5, we have

lim x3 (2x 5) = lim x3 lim (2x 5) = 3

(2 5):
x! x! x!

Remark We will not write out all these details from now, but you should understand that it
is the limit theorems that allow us to evaluate limits of sums, products, quotients and other
expressions.
Limits of a Polynomial
It follows from limits laws that
4.5. LIMIT THEOREMS 85

Theorem 4.5.9. For a polynomial

p(x) = an xn + an 1 xn 1
a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 ;

we have lim p(x) = p(a).

x!a

We can simply substitute the value of a into the polynomial p(x) to obtain the limit of
p(x) at a.

p p
Example 4.5.10. limx!1 2x5 x3 + 19 x 5 =2 + 1
9
5.

Rational Functions
A function f (x) is a rational function if it is a quotient of two polynomials, i.e.,
f (x) = p(x)
q(x)
; where p and q are polynomials.

p(x)
Theorem 4.5.11. If f (x) = and a is such that q(a) 6= 0, then, using the quotient
q(x)
rule, we have
p(x) p(a)
lim = :
x!a q(x) q(a)

p(x)
I.e., we can also simply substitute the value of a into the rational function f (x) = ,
q(x)
to obtain the limit of f (x) at a, provided q(a) 6= 0.
3x + 6
Example 4.5.12. Evaluate lim :
x!3 x2 4

3x + 6 p(x)
Solution lim = ; where q (x) =
x!3 x2 4 q(x)

Substitution May Fail

We cannot apply substitution to …nd the following limits
x2 2x 3
lim ;
x!3 x2 9
86 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

because lim x2 9 = 0.
x!3

WARNING In general, we cannot simply substitute values of a directly into the function
f (x) to obtain the limit of f (x) at a. Such substitution holds when the functions involved
is continuous at a. We shall discuss this concept of continuity in the next section.

4.6 Continuity
Most functions you have come across in your pre-university mathematics courses are nice
functions in the sense that the curves of their respective graphs are ‘continuous’.
Such nice functions allow us to substitute the value c directly into f (x) in the evaluation
of lim f (x). A mathematical name is ‘continuity at x = c’.
x!c

Continuity at a Point

De…nition 4.6.1 (Continuity at a Point). Let f be a function de…ned on an interval I and

let c be an interior point of I. We say that f is continuous at x = c if

lim f (x) = f (c):

x!c

In words, the de…nition tells us that:

The function f is continuous at x = c means that the limit lim f (x) can be obtained
x!c
by substituting x = c into f (x).

The function f is continuous at x = c means that the we may interchange the order
of "lim" and "f "; i.e.,
x!c

lim f (x) = f lim x = f (c) :

x!c x!c

Basic Functions
p
Polynomials, rational functions, n x , sin x cos x, tan x, ex and ln x are continuous at
every point at which the function is de…ned (i.e., its domain).

Example 4.6.2. (a) f (x) = sin x is continuous at x for each x 2 R.

(b) g (x) = ln x is continuous at x for each x 2
(c) h (x) = tan x is continuous at x for each x 2
4.6. CONTINUITY 87

Limits of Basic Functions

p p
Theorem 4.6.3. (a) lim n x = n c, where n is a positive integer.
x!c

For an odd integer n, c 2 R. For an even integer n, note that c > 0.

(b) lim sin x = sin c
x!c

(c) lim cos x = cos c

x!c

(d) lim tan x = tan c, wherever tan c is de…ned.

x!c

(e) for any b > 0; limx!c bx = bc , in particular, limx!c ex = ec

(f) lim ln x = ln c, where c > 0
x!c

(g) limx!c sinh x = sinh c

(h) limx!c cosh x = cosh c
(i) limx!c tanh x = tanh c
(j) Inverse trigonometric functions and inverse hyperbolic functions are continuous at c
which are not end-points.

Test for Continuity

To check if a function f is continuous at a point x = c, we have to check that limx!c f (x) = f (c).
This means that

(i) f (c) is de…ned.

(ii) the limit lim f (x) exists.

x!c

(iii) f (c) and lim f (x) are equal.

x!c

Example 4.6.4. Consider the function

1 x2
f (x) = :
1 x
Is f continuous at x = 1?

Solution (i) f (1) is not de…ned.

Thus f is not continuous at x = 1.

Note that (ii) limx!1 f (x) = 2.

88 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Example 4.6.5. Let f : R ! R be de…ned by

(
1 for x = 2;
f (x) =
0 for x =
6 2:

Is f continuous at x = 2?

Solution (
1 for x = 2;
f (x) =
0 for x 6= 2:

Note f (2) = 1.

Example 4.6.6. Let

(
sin x1 for x 6= 0;
f (x) =
1 for x = 0:

Is f continuous at x = 0?

Solution
(
sin x1 for x 6= 0;
f (x) =
1 for x = 0:

Note that f (0) = 1.

However, the limit limx!0 f (x)
4.7. ONE-SIDED CONTINUITY 89

4.7 One-sided Continuity

De…nition 4.7.1. (One sided continuity) We say that f is continuous from the left at x = c
if
lim f (x) = f (c)
x!c

and that f is continuous from the right at x = c if

lim f (x) = f (c):

x!c+

Example 4.7.2. Discuss whether the Heaviside function H de…ned by

(
0 ; for x < 0;
H(x) =
1 ; for x 0:

is continuous at x = 0.If it is not, is it continuous from the left or right of x = 0?

Note that lim H(x) = 0 and lim+ H(x) = 1.

x!0 x!0

Since lim H(x) 6= lim+ H(x), the limit lim H(x) does not exist.
x!0 x!0 x!0

Therefore, H(x) is not continuous at x = 0.

Since lim+ H(x) = 1 = H(0), H is continuous from the right at x = 0.

x!0

As lim H(x) = 0 6= H(0), H is not continuous from the left at x = 0

x!0

4.8 Properties on Continuity

It follows readily from limit laws that if f and g are continuous at x = c, then
(1) f g,
(2) (f g) and
(3) f =g (provided g(c) 6= 0) are continuous at x = c.
This can be shown easily by limit laws, for instance for (1),

lim(f g)(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x)

x!c x!c x!c

= f (c) g(c) = (f g)(c):

(2) and (3) can be shown similarly.

90 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

2
p
Example 4.8.1. Evaluate limx!1 x 4x1=7 5x5 + 2x + :
p
Solution Note that x 2 ; 4x1=7 ; 5x5 ; 2x are continuous at x = 1.
p
Therefore, the function x 2 4x1=7 5x5 + 2x + is continuous at x = 1, and we
have

2
p
lim x 4x1=7 5x5 + 2x +
x!1

2
p p
=1 4(11=7 ) 5(15 ) + 2(1) + = 8+ 2+ :

Limit Law for Composite Functions

The limit law for composition requires some additional conditions. We record one result
here which requires the continuity of the outermost function.

Theorem 4.8.2. Suppose that limx!c g(x) = b and f is continuous then

lim f (g(x)) = lim f (y) = f (b) :

x!c y!b

That is,
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) = f (b):
x!c x!c

The theorem says that we can interchange the order of taking limit and applying the function f .
(I.e., we can bring "limx!c " into f ( )).
p p
Corollary 4.8.3. 1. limx!c n g(x) = n limx!c g(x).
2.limx!c eg(x) = elimx!c g(x) .

Example 4.8.4. The following functions are continuous at the speci…ed x = c. Hence, the
limits can be evaluated by direct substitution.
p
(a) limx!7 3 x + 20 cos( 2x )
sin(x ex )
(b) limx!e2 ln x

4.9 Techniques in Finding Limits

4.9.1 Eliminating Zero Denominators

The next example demonstrates a special situation for rational functions when both numer-
ator and denominator have a common factor (x a).
4.9. TECHNIQUES IN FINDING LIMITS 91

3x+6
Example 4.9.1. Evaluate the limit lim 2 .
x! 2 x 4

Question Can we apply limit law as follows:

3x + 6 lim 3x + 6
x! 2
lim = ?
x! 2 x2 4 lim x2 4
x! 2

3x+6
Example 4.9.2. Evaluate the limit lim 2 .
x! 2 x 4

Solution We should simplify …rst:

3x + 6 3(x + 2)
lim 2
= lim
x! 2 x 4 x! 2 (x + 2)(x 2)

x3 +4x2 +4x+3
Example 4.9.3. lim 3 2
x! 3 x 2x +5x+6

Since both polynomials have a zero at x = 3, the Factor Theorem tells us that both
polynomials have a factor (x + 3).
By long division, we can …nd the other factors.

x3 + 4x2 + 4x + 3 = (x + 3)(x2 + x + 1);

x3 2x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 3)( x2 + x + 2):

We evaluate the limit:

x3 + 4x2 + 4x + 3 (x + 3)(x2 + x + 1)
lim = lim
x! 3 x3 2x2 + 5x + 6 x! 3 (x + 3)( x2 + x + 2)

x2 + x + 1 9 3+1 7
lim 2
= = :
x! 3 x +x+2 9 3+2 10
92 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

4.9.2 Rationalization
We can make use of the simple factorization a2 b2 = (a b)(a + b) in some expressions
involving square root function.
p
2 x 1
Example 4.9.4. Find lim+ x 1
.
x!1

Question: Can you evaluation the limit by substitution?

p
2 x 1
Example 4.9.5. Find lim+ x 1
.
x!1

p p p
2 x 1 2 x 1 2 x+1
Solution lim+ = lim+ p
x!1 x 1 x!1 x 1 2 x+1

4.9.3 Squeeze Theorem

Theorem 4.9.6 (Squeeze Theorem). Suppose f , g and h are de…ned on an open interval I
containing a, except possibly at x = a.
If f (x) g(x) h(x) on I, except possibly at x = a, and lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L, then
x!a x!a

lim g(x) = L:
x!a

Example 4.9.7. Evaluate lim x2 sin( x12 ):

x!0

[COMMON WRONG SOLUTION]

lim x2 sin( x12 )=lim x2 lim sin( x12 ) = 0, since lim x2 = 0.
x!0 x!0 x!0 x!0

1
The product rule for limits is wrongly applied in the above ‘solution’. As lim sin( )
x!0 x2
does not exist, the product rule cannot be applied at (*).

A correct solution makes use of Squeeze Theorem.

4.10. ONE-SIDED LIMITS 93

We have to construct two functions f and h with g(x) = x2 sin(1=x2 ).

Observe that for x 6= 0,
1 sin(1=x2 ) 1:

Multiplying the above throughout by x2 , which is positive, gives

x2
|{z} x2 sin(1=x2 ) x2 :
|{z}
| {z }
f (x) g(x) h(x)

Moreover, we have lim x2 = 0 and lim x2 = 0.

x!0 x!0

By Squeeze Theorem, we conclude that lim x2 sin(1=x2 ) = 0.

x!0

4.10 One-sided Limits

Recall the following result:

Theorem 4.10.1 (Equal One-sided Limits).

limf (x) = L
x!c

if and only if
lim f (x) = L and lim+ f (x) = L:
x!c x!c

Example 4.10.2. Consider the function

8
< x if x < 1;
f (x) = x2 if jxj 1; i.e., 1 x 1;
:
2 if x > 1

Determine whether each of the following limits exists. If it does, what is its value?

(a) lim f (x)

x! 1

(b) lim f (x)

x! 1+

(c) lim f (x)

x! 1

(d) lim f (x)

x!1

Solution
94 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

4
y

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x

(a) lim f (x) = lim ( x) = ( 1) = 1

x! 1 x! 1

(b) lim f (x) = lim + (x2 ) = ( 1)2 = 1

x! 1+ x! 1

(c) Since lim f (x) = lim + f (x) = 1, the limit lim f (x) exists and lim f (x) = 1.
x! 1 x! 1 x! 1 x! 1

(d) To determine whether lim f (x) exists, we evaluate lim f (x) and lim+ f (x) as fol-
x!1 x!1 x!1
lows:

lim f (x) = lim (x)2 = (1)2 = 1

x!1 x!1

and

lim f (x) = lim (2) = 2:

x!1+ x!1

Since lim f (x) 6= limx!1+ f (x), the limit lim f (x) does not exist.
x!1 x!1

Example 4.10.3. Determine whether lim f (x) exists where

x!2
8 3x 6
< x2 4
if 0 < x < 2;
f (x) = 0 if x = 2; :
: px 2
3 x 1
if 2 < x < 3:
4.11. LIMIT LAWS FOR INFINITE LIMITS 95

4.11 Limit Laws for In…nite Limits

Theorem 4.11.1. Suppose that limx!a f (x) = 1, limx!a g(x) = 1, and limx!a h(x) = c,
where c is a constant. Then
(1) limx!a (f (x) + g(x)) = 1; limx!a (f (x) + h(x)) = 1.
(2) limx!a f (x) g(x) = 1
(3) limx!a f (x) h(x) = 1 if c > 0 and limx!a f (x) h(x) = 1 if c < 0.
1
(4) limx!a f (x)
= 0.
The same Laws holds for lim+ and lim :
x!a x!a

Example 4.11.2. Evaluate lim (tan x + 2 sin x)

x! =2

Solution Note that lim (tan x) = +1 and lim (2 sin x) = 2 sin( =2) = 2. Thus,
x! =2 x! =2

lim (tan x + 2 sin x) = +1:

x! =2

Example 4.11.3. Evaluate lim ( 3 tan x sin x)

x! =2

Solution Since lim (tan x) = +1 and lim ( 3 sin x) = 3 sin( =2) = 3, we have
x! =2 x! =2

lim 3 tan x sin x = 1:

x! =2

x
Example 4.11.4. Evaluate lim
x! =2+ tan x

Solution Note that lim x = =2 and lim tan x = 1. Thus, we have

x! =2+ x! =2+

x
lim + = 0:
x! =2 tan x

Some Useful Techniques

1
When we have lim f (x) = 0, intuitively, we know that lim will diverge.
x!a x!a f (x)

One of the following will hold:

1
(1) lim = 1;
x!a f (x)
1
(2) lim = 1;
x!a f (x)
1
(3) lim does not exist.
x!a f (x)

Question: How do we know which one will hold?

96 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Theorem 4.11.5. Suppose lim f (x) = 0.

x!a
1
(a) If f (x) > 0 on some deleted neighborhood of a, then lim = 1,
x!a f (x)
1
(b) If f (x) < 0 on some deleted neighborhood of a, then lim = 1;
x!a f (x)
1
(c) Otherwise, lim does not exist.
x!a f (x)

Note: A neighborhood of a is an interval (a ; a + ) containing a:

A deleted neighborhood of a is the set (a ;a + ) fag ( =(a ; a) [ (a; a + ) ).
Some Useful Techniques - One sided limits
For one-sided limits, we expect similar results to hold. We only state for lim+ . You can
x!a
write down the result for lim .
x!a

Proposition 4.11.6. Suppose lim+ f (x) = 0.

x!a

1
(a) If f (x) > 0 for x 2 (a; a + ), then lim+ = 1.
x!a f (x)
1
(b) If f (x) < 0 for x 2 (a; a + ), then lim+ = 1.
x!a f (x)
1
Example 4.11.7. Evaluate lim+ 1 x3
:
x!1

Solution Note that lim+ 1 x3 = 0. For x > 1, note that x3 > 1 and hence 1 x3 < 0.
x!1
1
Therefore, we conclude that lim+ 1 x3
= 1.
x!1

x 1
Example 4.11.8. Evaluate lim x+2
x! 2

1
Solution Note that lim x 1= 3; and that lim x+2
= 1, since x + 2 < 0 for
x! 2 x! 2
x< 2.
x 1
Therefore, lim x+2
= 1.
x! 2

4.12 Evaluation of Limits at In…nity

Limits at In…nity
Limit Theorem or laws also hold for lim and lim provided the respective limits exist.
x!1 x! 1
4.12. EVALUATION OF LIMITS AT INFINITY 97

For example, suppose lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M exist. Then we have
x!1 x!1

lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = L + M;

x!1 x!1 x!1

lim (f (x) g(x)) = lim f (x) lim g(x) = LM:

x!1 x!1 x!1

and n
lim (f (x))n = lim f (x) = Ln ; n 2 Z+ :
x!1 x!1

Some Useful Limits

Theorem 4.12.1. (a) If n is a positive integer, then
1 1
lim = 0 and lim = 0:
x!1 xn x! 1 xn

(b) If m and n are positive integers, then

1
lim = 0 and
x!1 xm=n

1
lim = 0;
x! 1 xm=n

provided n is an odd integer.

1
Example 4.12.2. (a) lim = 0:
x!1 x5

1
(b) lim + ex = 0:
x! 1 x7=3
1
(c) lim = 0:
x!1 x3=4
Evaluating Limits at In…nity for Rational Functions
x+4
Example 4.12.3 (Divide by highest power of x). Evaluate lim 2 , if it exists.
x!1 x 6x+5

Solution

x+4 x+4 1=x2

lim = lim
x!1 x2 6x + 5 x!1 x2 6x + 5 1=x2

1 4
x
+ x2
= lim 6 5
x!1 1 x
+ x2
=
98 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

x3 +4x 5
Example 4.12.4. Evaluate lim 7x 3 6x+5
x!1

Solution
x3 + 4x 5
lim
x!1 7x3 6x + 5
x3 4x 5
x3
+ x3 x3
= lim 7x3 6x
x!1
x3 x3
+ x53
=
1
=
7
Limits of Hyperbolic Functions
Proposition 4.12.5. (a)
lim sinh x = +1 and lim sinh x = 1:
x!1 x! 1

(b)
lim cosh x = +1 and lim cosh x = +1:
x!1 x! 1

(c)
lim tanh x = +1 and lim tanh x = 1:
x!1 x! 1

Proof of (a):
Since lim ex = +1 and lim ex = 0, we have
x!1 x! 1

ex e x
lim sinh x = lim = +1;
x!1 x!1 2
and

ex e x
lim sinh x = lim = 1:
x! 1 x! 1 2
(b) (Exercise.)
4.12. EVALUATION OF LIMITS AT INFINITY 99

Proof of (c)
ex e x
lim tanh x = lim
x!1 x!1 ex + e x

Since lim ex = +1 and lim ex = 0, we divide both numerator and denominator by ex

x!1 x!1
to obtain the following

ex e x
1=ex
lim tanh x = lim
x!1 x!1 ex + e x 1=ex
2x
1 e 1 0
= lim 2x
= = 1:
x!1 1 + e 1+0
(Exercise.) lim tanh x = 1.
x! 1

Limits involving Square Roots

p
2x2 + 1
Example 4.12.6. Evaluate lim .
x!1 3x 5
p
Solution For x > 0, note that x = x2 .
p p
2x2 + 1 2x2 + 1 x1
lim = lim 1
x!1 3x 5 x!1 3x 5 x
q
p 2x2
2
2x + 1 p1
2 x2
+ x12
x
= lim 1 = x!1lim 3x 5
x!1 3x 5 x x x
q
2 + x12 p
2
= lim 5 =
x!1 3
x
3
p
2x2 +1
Example 4.12.7. limx! 1 3x 5
:
p
Solution For x < 0, note that x = x2 .
p p 1
2x2 + 1 2x2 + 1 x
lim = lim 1
x! 1 3x 5 x! 1 3x 5 x
p 1
p
2x2 + 1 x2
= lim 1
x! 1 3x 5 x
=
p
2
: =
3
4x 1 4x2 + 3x
Example 4.12.8. If < f (x) < , …nd lim f (x).
x x2 x!1
100 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

4.13 Continuous Functions

Very often, we are interested in functions which are continuous on an intervals, or disjoint
union of intervals. We shall discuss two useful results related to a function which is contin-
uous on a closed and bounded interval [a; b]. Namely, the Intermediate Value Theorem
and the Extreme Value Theorem.
Intervals and End-points
Consider the intervals

(a; b); [a; b); (a; b]; [a; b]; (a; 1); [a; 1); ( 1; b); ( 1; b]:

The points a and b are called endpoints. The point a is a left endpoint and b is a right
endpoint. A point x in an interval is called an interior point of the interval if it is not an
endpoint.
Continuity on an Interval
De…nition 4.13.1. The function f is said to be continuous on the interval I if

1. f is continuous at every interior point c of I, i.e., lim f (x) = f (c).

x!c

2. If the left endpoint a of I is included in I, f is continuous from the right there, i.e.,
lim+ f (x) = f (a).
x!a

3. If the right endpoint b of I is included in I, f is continuous from the left there, i.e.,
lim f (x) = f (b).
x!b

Graph of a Continuous Function on an interval

will be a curve which has no break and no jump.
4.13. CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 101

Some Known Continuous Functions

Some known functions which are continuous on their domains.

polynomials. E.g., f (x) = x3 + x + 1

p
nth -root functions. E.g., g (x) = 5 x

trigonometric functions. E.g., sin x, cosx

exponential functions and logarithmic functions. E.g., ex ; 3x ; ln x

ex e x ex +e x
hyperbolic functions. E.g., sinh x = 2
; cosh x = 2

For the above functions, to determine lim f (x) limit at a point x = c, we can simply
x!c
substitute the value c into the function.
Heaviside Function

Example 4.13.2. The Heaviside function

(
0 if x < 0;
H(x) =
1 if x 0:

is continuous on the interval [0; 1), but not on ( 1; 1) and not on ( 1; 0].

Combination of Continuous Functions

Theorem 4.13.3. Suppose functions f and g are continuous on a set S. Then the following
combinations of functions

f g; f g; f =g( provided g(c) 6= 0)

are also continuous on S.

sin(x ex )
Example 4.13.4. The function f de…ned by f (x) = is continuous on (1; 1).
ln x
102 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Composite of Continuous Functions

Proposition 4.13.5. Suppose the function f is continuous on its domain Df and the func-
tion g is continuous on the range Rf of f . Then the composite function g f is continuous
on Df .
Example 4.13.6. Consider f (x) = x3 and g(x) = sin x which are continuous on R. Their
composite functions f g(x) = and g f (x) =
are also continuous on R.
p
Example 4.13.7. Let f (x) = x 4 on [4; 1) and g(x) = x2 .
Find the composite function g f and its the domain where g f is continuous on.

Solution
Since f is continuous on [4; 1) and g(x) = x2 is continuous on R, the composite function
g f is continuous on the domain on which (g f )(x) is de…ned.
To …nd this domain, we note that g f (x) = g (f (x))
p
= g x 4 provided x 4 0; i.e., x 4
= = provided x 4:
Thus, we have (g f )(x) = x 4 and its domain is [4; 1).
We conclude that (g f )(x) = x 4 is continuous on [4; 1).
Remark 4.13.8. Although the composite function g f and h(x) = x 4 have the same
expression, they are considered di¤erent functions because (g f )(x) = x 4 is only de…ned
on [4; 1) while h(x) = x 4 holds for every x in R.
p
Example 4.13.9. Let f (x) = x 4 on [4; 1) and g(x) = x2 .
Find the composite function f g and its the domain where f g is continuous on.

Solution To …nd the domain and f g, we proceed to determine (f g)(x) as follows:

(f g)(x) = f (g(x))

= ; which holds for every real number x;

p
= x2 4; which holds provided x2 4:
p
Thus, we have (f g)(x) = x2 4 where x 2 or x 2. The domain of f g is
( 1; 2] [ [2; 1).

The composite function f g is continuous on its domain ( 1; 2] [ [2; 1).

Inverse of Continuous Functions
4.14. THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 103

1
Proposition 4.13.10. If f is an one-to-one continuous function, then its inverse f is
continuous.

Inverse of Trigonometric Functions

Note that sin x and cos x are not one-to-one functions on R. However, they can be
one-to-one on a restricted domain. For instance,

1. sin x, x 2 2
; 2
;
2. cos x, x 2 [0; ] ; and
3. tan x; x 2 2
; 2
are one-to-one
1 1
So, we have more continuous functions: sin x; cos x; : : :

4.14 The Intermediate Value Theorem

For a function f which is continuous on a closed and bounded interval [a; b], there are
interesting and useful results. One of them is the Intermediate Value Theorem.
Theorem 4.14.1. Suppose that f is continuous on the closed and bounded interval [a; b]
where f (a) 6= f (b).
Let p be any real number between f (a) and f (b).
Then there exists a number c in the open interval (a; b) such that f (c) = p.

Remark The number p is an intermediate value between f (a) and f (b).

Intermediate Value Theorem - Graphical Illustration

Intermediate Value Theorem: Applications

104 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

A typical use of the Intermediate Value Theorem is to locate a root of a function.

Recall that for a function f , we say x = c is a root of f if f (c) = 0.
IVT: Application(1) Finding Roots
Suppose f is continuous on [a; b] where f (a) and f (b) are opposite in signs. Then p = 0
is an intermediate value.
By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there is a real number c 2 (a; b) at which f (c) = 0.

Example 4.14.2. For the polynomial f (x) = x3 5x2 + 3, do you think there is a root of
f in the interval (0; 1)? Justify your answer.

Solution

Application(2) Intersection of Curves

Example 4.14.3. Use Intermediate Value Theorem to explain why the two curves y = cos x
and y = x2 intersect at some point with x- coordinate c where c 2 (0; 2 ).

Solution Curves y = cos x and y = x2 intersect at some point with x- coordinate c means
that
cos c = c2 :
By shifting all expressions to one side of the equation, the above equation is equivalent to

cos c c2 = 0:

To …nd an appropriate function f , the above suggests f (c) = cos c c2 and 0 is the inter-
mediate value.
Thus, we consider
f (x) = cos x x2 where x 2 [0; =2]:
Note that f is continuous on [0; =2], the values f (0) = 1 > 0 and f ( =2) = ( =2)2 < 0.
By Intermediate Value Theorem, there is a real number c 2 (0; =2) at which f (c) = 0,
which means that the curves intersect at x = c.
4.15. THE EXTREME VALUE THEOREM 105

4.15 The Extreme Value Theorem

Another important result related to a continuous function de…ned on an closed and bounded
interval [a; b] is the Extreme Value Theorem, which will be stated without proof. To discuss
this theorem, we have to know what is meant by extreme values.
Global Maximum/Minimum

De…nition 4.15.1. (a)A function f has a global maximum (also known as an absolute
maximum) at c if f (c) f (x) for all x in D, where D is the domain of f . The number f (c)
is called the maximum value of f on D.
(b)Similarly, f has a global minimum (also known as an absolute minimum) at c if
f (c) f (x) for all x in D, where D is the domain of f . The number f (c) is called the
minimum value of f on D.
(c) The maximum and minimum values of f are called the extreme values of f .

Example 4.15.2. Consider f : [ 1; 1] ! R de…ned as follows:

(
x if x < 0;
f (x) =
1 if x 0:

Does f have a global maximum and a global minimum on [ 1; 1]?

Solution Note that f is not continuous on [ 1; 1].

For x 2 [ 1; 1] 0 < f (x) 1. The range of f is (0; 1]. The function f has a global
maximum since f (0) = 1, the maximum value for f on [ 1; 1]. However, f has no global
minimum.

Example 4.15.3. Let

1
f (x) = ; x 2 (0; 1]
x
Then f has no global (or local) maximum. Its global minimum is 1 = f (1).

Note that f is continuous on (0; 1] but (0; 1] is not a closed interval.

Extreme Value Theorem
The important theorem below says that global maximum and global minimum are guar-
anteed when both continuity and closed-and-bounded condition are satis…ed. We shall state
without proof the Extreme Value Theorem.

Theorem 4.15.4 (Extreme Value Theorem). If f is a continuous function on a closed and

bounded interval [a; b], then there are points c1 and c2 in [a; b] such that f (c1 ) = m is a global
minimum and f (c2 ) = M is a global maximum for f .
106 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Extreme Value Theorem - Consequence

As a consequence of both Intermediate Value Theorem and Extreme Value Theorem, we
have:

Corollary 4.15.5. If f : [a; b] ! R is a continuous function, then the range Rf of f is

a singleton ff (a)g or a closed and bounded interval [f (c1 ); f (c2 )], for some c1 2 [a; b] and
c2 2 [a; b].

Example 4.15.6. Determine the range of the function f de…ned by f (x) = 3x2 ; x 2 [ 2; 1].

Solution The function f (x) = 3x2 is continuous on [ 2; 1].

For 2 x 1, note that f (x) = 3x2 3( 2)2 = 12 = f ( 2) and f (x) = 3x2
2
3(0) = f (0). That is, f (0) f (x) f ( 2).
Thus, the global maximum of f on [ 2; 1] is f ( 2) = 12 while its global minimum is
f (0) = 0. The range of f is [0; 12].

In the topic on applications of di¤erentiation, we shall learn a systematic way to search

for extreme values of a continuous function over a closed and bounded interval [a; b].