Gospel of the Ebionites

The Gospel of the Ebionites is one of several Jewish–

Christian gospels, along with the Gospel of the Hebrews
and the Gospel of the Nazarenes; all survive only as frag-
ments in quotations of the early Church Fathers. Due to
their fragmentary state, the relationships, if any, between
the Jewish–Christian gospels and a hypothetical original
Hebrew Gospel are uncertain and have been a subject of
intensive scholarly investigation.[n 9] The Ebionite gospel
has been recognized as distinct from the others,[n 10] and
it has been identified more closely with the lost Gospel of
the Twelve.[n 11] It shows no dependence on the Gospel of
John and is similar in nature to the harmonized gospel
sayings based on the Synoptic Gospels used by Justin
Martyr, although a relationship between them, if any,
is uncertain.[3] There is a similarity between the gospel
and a source document contained within the Clementine
Recognitions (1.27–71), conventionally referred to by
scholars as the Ascents of James, with respect to the com-
mand to abolish the Jewish sacrifices.[n 12]
Epiphanius of Salamis' book the Panarion is the main source of
information regarding the Gospel of the Ebionites.

1 Background
See also: Jewish-Christian gospels, Gospel of the He-
brews and Gospel of the Nazarenes Epiphanius is believed to have come into possession of
a gospel that he attributed to the Ebionites when he was
The Gospel of the Ebionites is the conventional name bishop of Salamis, Cyprus.[4] He alone among the Church
given by scholars[n 1] to an apocryphal gospel extant only Fathers identifies Cyprus as one of the “roots” of the
as seven brief quotations in a heresiology known as the Ebionites.[4] The gospel survives only in seven brief quo-
Panarion, by Epiphanius of Salamis;[n 2] he misidenti- tations by Epiphanius in Chapter 30 of his heresiology
fied it as the “Hebrew” gospel, believing it to be a trun- the Panarion, or “Medicine Chest”, (c. 377)[n 13] as a
cated and modified version of the Gospel of Matthew.[1] polemic against the Ebionites.[5] His citations are often
The quotations were embedded in a polemic to point out contradictory and thought to be based in part on his own
inconsistencies in the beliefs and practices of a Jewish conjecture.[n 14][n 15] The various, sometimes conflicting,
Christian sect known as the Ebionites relative to Nicene sources of information were combined to point out in-
orthodoxy.[n 3] consistencies in Ebionite beliefs and practices relative to
The surviving fragments derive from a gospel harmony Nicene orthodoxy,[n 16] possibly to serve, indirectly, as a
of the Synoptic Gospels, composed in Greek with vari- polemic against the Arians of his time.[n 3]
ous expansions and abridgments reflecting the theology of The term Gospel of the Ebionites is a modern convention;
the writer. Distinctive features include the absence of the no surviving document of the early church mentions a
virgin birth and of the genealogy of Jesus; an Adoptionist gospel by that name.[6] Epiphanius identifies the gospel
Christology,[n 4] in which Jesus is chosen to be God’s Son only as “in the Gospel used by them, called 'according to
at the time of his Baptism; the abolition of the Jewish Matthew'" and “they call it 'the Hebrew [gospel]'".[n 17][7]
sacrifices by Jesus; and an advocacy of vegetarianism.[n 5] As early as 1689 the French priest Richard Simon called
It is believed to have been composed some time during the text “Gospel of the Ebionites”.[8] The name is used
the middle of the 2nd century[2] in or around the region by modern scholars as a convenient way to distinguish a
east of the Jordan River.[n 6] Although the gospel was said gospel text that was probably used by the Ebionites from
to be used by “Ebionites” during the time of the early Epiphanius’ mistaken belief that it was a Hebrew version
church,[n 7] the identity of the group or groups that used of the Gospel of Matthew.[2][n 18] Its place of origin is
it remains a matter of conjecture.[n 8] uncertain; one speculation is that it was composed in the

1
2 2 COMPOSITION

region east of the Jordan where the Ebionites were said “There was a man named Jesus, and he
to have been present, according to the accounts of the was about thirty years old; he has chosen us.
Church Fathers.[n 6] It is thought to have been composed And He came into Capernaum and entered into
during the middle of the 2nd century, since several other the house of Simon, surnamed Peter, and He
gospel harmonies are known to be from this period.[2] opened His mouth and said, 'As I walked by
the Sea of Tiberias, I chose John and James,
the sons of Zebedee, and Simon and Andrew
2 Composition and Thaddaeus and Simon Zelotes, and Judas
Iscariot; thee also, Matthew, when thou wast
sitting at the receipt of custom, did I call and
According to scholars Oskar Skarsaune and Glenn Alan thou didst follow me. According to my inten-
Koch, Epiphanius incorporated excerpts from the gospel tion ye shall be twelve apostles for a testimony
text at a late stage in the composition of Panarion 30, unto Israel'.” (13.2b–3)
primarily in chapters 13 and 14[n 19][n 20] As Epiphanius
describes it, “The Gospel which is found among them
... is not complete, but falsified and distorted ...” (13.1–
2). In particular, it lacked some or all of the first two
chapters of Matthew, which contain the infancy narra-
tive of the virgin birth of Jesus and the Davidic geneal-
ogy via Solomon, “They have removed the genealogies of
Matthew ...” (14.2–3).[7]
There is general agreement about the seven quotations by
Epiphanius cited in the critical edition of “Jewish Chris-
tian gospels” by Philipp Vielhauer and Georg Strecker,
translated by George Ogg, in Schneemelcher's New Tes-
tament Apocrypha.[n 21][n 22] The translations of Bernhard
Pick (1908),[9] with the sequence of four fragments ar-
ranged in the order of Vielhauer & Strecker from the be-
ginning of the gospel are as follows:

It came to pass in the days of Herod, King

of Judaea under the high priest Caiaphas, that
John came and baptized with the baptism of
repentance in the river Jordan; he is said to be
from the tribe of Aaron and a son of Zacharias
the priest and of Elizabeth and all went out to
him. (13.6) And it came to pass when John
baptized, that the Pharisees came to him and
were baptized, and all Jerusalem also. He had Matthew the Apostle is depicted as narrating directly to the reader
a garment of camels’ hair, and a leather girdle in the Ebionite gospel, having been sent by Jesus “for a testimony
about his loins. And his meat was wild honey, to Israel”.
which tasted like manna, formed like cakes of
oil. (13.4) The people having been baptized, The three quotations by Epiphanius in Panarion 30.13.6,
Jesus came also, and was baptized by John. 4, and 7, respectively, form the opening of the gospel nar-
And as he came out of the water the heavens rative, including the mission of John the Baptist, his ap-
opened, and he saw the Holy Spirit descend- pearance and diet, and the baptism of Jesus by John.[n 23]
ing under the form of a dove, and entering The beginning of the gospel (13.6) has parallels to the
into him. And a voice was heard from heaven: Gospel of Luke but in abbreviated form. The text shows
'Thou art my beloved Son, and in thee am I well a familiarity with the infancy narrative of Luke 1:5 de-
pleased'. And again: 'This day have I begot- spite lacking a birth narrative of its own. Quoting from
ten thee'. And suddenly shone a great light in the text regarding the diet of John (13.4), Epiphanius
that place. And John seeing him, said, 'Who complains that the Ebionites have falsified the text by
art thou, Lord'? Then a voice was heard from substituting the word “cake” (egkris ἐγκρίς) for “locust”
heaven: 'This is my beloved Son, in whom I am (akris ἀκρίς, in Matthew 3:4).[10][11] The similarity of
well pleased'. Thereat John fell at his feet and the wording in Greek has led scholars to conclude that
said: 'I pray thee, Lord, baptize me'. But he Greek was the original language of composition.[n 24] In
would not, saying 'Suffer it, for so it behoveth the narrative of the baptism of Jesus by John (13.7), the
that all should be accomplished'. (13.7) voice of God speaks three times in close parallels to the
 3

Gospel of Mark 1:11, Luke 3:23 (Western text-type), and Referring to a parallel passage in Luke 22:15, Epipha-
Matthew 3:17, respectively. The presence of multiple nius complains that the Ebionites have again falsified the
baptismal theophanies has led to a consensus among mod- gospel text:
ern scholars that the text quoted by Epiphanius is a gospel
harmony[n 25] of the Synoptic Gospels.[n 26] The appear- “They destroyed the true order and
ance of a great light on the water may be an echo of St. changed the passage ... they made the disci-
Paul's conversion or an additional harmonization of the ples say, 'Where wilt Thou that we prepare
Gospel of the Hebrews to this work.[n 27] for Thee to eat the Passover'? To which He
Epiphanius begins his description of the gospel text replied: 'I have no desire to eat the flesh of
(13.2b–3) with a quotation which has the apostle this Paschal Lamb with you'." (22.4)
Matthew narrating directly to the reader. Jesus re-
calls how the twelve apostles were chosen and addresses thereby making Jesus declare that he would not eat
Matthew in the second person as “you also Matthew”. meat during the Passover. The immediate context
Although twelve apostles are mentioned, only eight are suggests the possible attribution of the quotation to a
named.[n 28] They are said to be chosen by Jesus, “for Clementine source;[n 34] however a linkage between the
a testimony to Israel”. The phrase “who chose us” has gospel fragments and the Clementine literature remains
been interpreted as evidence that the text may be the lost uncertain.[13]
Gospel of the Twelve mentioned by Origen. However,
the identification of the gospel text quoted by Epiphanius
with this otherwise unknown gospel is disputed.[n 29] The 3 Christology
position of this quotation was tentatively assigned based
on a parallel to the Synoptic Gospels.[n 30]
The fifth and sixth quotations (following Vielhauer &
Strecker’s order) are associated with a Christological con-
troversy. The polemics of Epiphanius along with his quo-
tations of the gospel text (in italics) are shown in parallel:

“Moreover they deny that he was a man,

evidently on the ground of the word which the
Savior spoke when it was reported to him: 'Be-
hold, thy mother and thy brethren stand with-
out' , namely: 'Who is my mother and who are
my brethren'? And he stretched forth his hand
towards his disciples and said: 'These are my
brethren and mother and sisters, which do the
will of my Father'." (14.5)

“They say that he was not begotten of God

the Father, but created as one of the archangels
... that he rules over the angels and all the crea-
tures of the Almighty, and that he came and
declared, as their Gospel, which is called ac-
cording to the Hebrews, reports: 'I am come
to abolish the sacrifices, if ye cease not from
sacrificing, the wrath will not cease from you'."
Jesus became one with God by Adoption at his Baptism according
(16.4–5) to the Gospel of the Ebionites, fulfilling a proclamation of Psalm
2:7 “You are my son, this day I have begotten you.”
The fifth quotation (14.5) appears to be a harmony of
Matthew 12:47–48 and its Synoptic parallels. However, The baptismal scene of the gospel text (13.7) is a har-
Jesus’ final proclamation shows a closer agreement to 2 mony of the Synoptic Gospels, but one in which the Holy
Clement 9:11 than any of the Synoptics.[n 31] The unity of Spirit is said to descend to Jesus in the form of a dove
this quotation with the gospel text in Chapter 13 has been and enter into him. This divine election at the time of his
questioned.[n 32] The command to abolish the sacrifices in baptism is known as an Adoptionist Christology,[n 4][n 35]
the sixth quotation (16.5) is unparalleled in the Canonical and it is emphasized by the quotation of Psalm 2:7, as
Gospels, and it suggests a relationship to Matthew 5:17 (“I found in the “Western text” of Luke 3:22, “You are my
did not come to abolish the Law”)[12] that is echoed in the son, this day I have begotten you.”[n 36][n 37] The Spirit
Clementine literature.[n 33] entering into Jesus and the great light on the water are
4 5 RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER TEXTS

thought to be based on the prophecies of Isaiah 61:1 and 5 Relationship to other texts
9:1, respectively.[n 38] His Adoptionist son-ship is charac-
terized by the belief that Jesus was a mere man, who, by Epiphanius incorrectly refers to the gospel in his posses-
virtue of his perfect righteousness, was imbued with the sion as the Gospel of Matthew and the gospel “accord-
divinity of the eternal Christ through his Baptism in or- ing to the Hebrews”, perhaps relying upon and conflat-
der to carry out the prophetic task for which he had been ing the writings of the earlier Church Fathers, Irenaeus
chosen.[n 39][n 40] and Eusebius, respectively.[n 53][n 54] His 4th century col-
The absence of any reference to a Davidic son-ship in league Jerome remarks that the Nazarenes and Ebionites
the gospel text suggests that Jesus has been elected to be both used the Gospel of the Hebrews, which was consid-
the end-time prophet, the Chosen One, sent to abolish ered the original Matthew by many of them. Jerome’s
the Jewish sacrifices.[n 5][n 41] The Prophet-Christology of report is consistent with the prior accounts of Irenaeus
the gospel text quoted by Epiphanius is more at home and Eusebius.[n 55]
with the Clementine literature than the Christology of The relationship between the Gospel of the Ebionites, the
the Ebionites known to Irenaeus.[n 42][n 43] According to Gospel of the Hebrews, and the Gospel of the Nazarenes
scholars Richard Bauckham and Petri Luomanen, Je- remains unclear. All the Jewish–Christian gospels sur-
sus is understood in this gospel as having come to abol- vive only as fragments in quotations, so it is difficult to
ish the sacrifices rather than substituting for them;[14] tell if they are independent texts or variations of each
thus it is unlikely that it contained the same institu- other. Scholar Albertus Klijn established the modern
tion of the Eucharist as practiced by Nicene orthodox consensus, concluding that the gospel harmony composed
Christianity.[n 44] However, scholars have yet to reach a in Greek appears to be a distinctive text known only
consensus over the sacrificial significance of Jesus’ mis- to Epiphanius.[n 10] Scholar Marie-Émile Boismard has
sion as depicted in the Ebionite gospel.[n 45] claimed the Ebionite gospel is partly dependent upon a
hypothetical Hebrew gospel as a source; however this
conjecture remains a minority view.[n 9][n 56] Its puta-
tive relationship to the gospel text known to Origen as
the Gospel of the Twelve remains a subject of scholarly
4 Vegetarianism debate.[n 11]
The Ebionite gospel is one example of a type of gospel
The change in wording of the gospel text from “locust” harmony that used the Gospel of Matthew as a base text
(akris) to “cake” (egkris) for John the Baptist’s diet (13.4) but did not include the Gospel of John; it is believed to
has been interpreted as evidence of Jewish vegetarian- pre-date Tatian's Diatessaron (c. 170) which included
ism.[n 46][n 47] However, the association of the diet of all four canonical gospels.[16] The gospel has a paral-
John the Baptist with vegetarianism has been questioned. lel to a quotation in a mid-2nd-century homily known
Epiphanius gives no indication of concern for vegetarian- as 2 Clement, suggesting that both may be dependent
ism in this part of the Gospel text,[7] and it may instead on a harmonizing tradition from an earlier 2nd century
be an allusion to the manna in the wilderness of Exodus source.[n 57][n 58] The harmonized gospel sayings sources
16:31 and Numbers 11:8,[n 48] or, according to scholar used by Justin Martyr to compose his First Apology and
Glenn Alan Koch, to 1 Kings 19:6 where Elijah eats cakes Dialogue with Trypho were similarly based on the Syn-
in oil.[n 49] optic Gospels.[n 59] According to scholar George Howard,
Further evidence has been found in the quotation based harmonization was a widely used method of composition
on Luke 22:15 (22.4), where the saying has been mod- in the early Patristic period. Many of the heterodox vari-
ified by insertion of the word “flesh” to provide a ra- ants found in the Gospel of the Ebionites may have been
tionale for vegetarianism.[n 50] The immediate context of adopted from a larger pool of variants that were in circu-
the quotation suggests that it may be closely related to a lation; an example is the appearance of a great light that
Clementine source, the Journeys of Peter. Reading from shone during Jesus’ Baptism which is also found in the
the same source, Epiphanius states that the Ebionites ab- Diatessaron.[17]
stained from “meat with soul in it” (15.3), and he at- The Recognitions of Clement contains a source document
tributes this teaching to Ebionite interpolations “they cor- (Rec. 1.27–71), conventionally referred to by scholars
rupt the contents and leave a few genuine items”. Due to as the Ascents of James,[n 60] which is believed to be of
the close association of this saying with the Clementine Jewish–Christian origin.[n 61] The Ascents shares a sim-
literature of the 3rd and 4th century, the earlier practice ilarity to the Gospel of the Ebionites with regard to the
of vegetarianism by the 2nd-century Ebionites known to baptism of the Pharisees by John (Pan. 30.13.4; Rec.
Irenaeus has been questioned.[n 51] The strict vegetarian- 1.54.6–7)[18] and the command to abolish the Jewish
ism of the Ebionites known to Epiphanius may have been sacrifices,[n 12] adding that a Christian water baptism is
a reaction to the cessation of Jewish sacrifices and a safe- to be substituted for the remission of sins.[n 62][19] Based
guard against the consumption of unclean meat in a pagan on these similarities, scholars Richard Bauckham and F.
environment.[n 52][15] Stanley Jones have postulated a direct dependence of the
 5

Ascents of James on the Gospel of the Ebionites.[20] Christian history.[n 80] These gospel fragments offer one
of the few glimpses into their world.

6 Inferences about the Ebionites

7 Notes
The gospel Epiphanius attributed to the Ebionites is a
valuable source of information that provides modern [1] Cameron 1982, p. 103; The original title of the gospel is
scholars with insights into the distinctive characteristics unknown.
of a vanished branch of Jewish Christianity.[n 63] How- [2] Paget 2010, pp. 325–80; Paget provides a scholarly review
ever, scholars disagree on whether the information con- of the recent academic literature on the Ebionites.
tained within the seven fragments preserved by Epipha-
nius accurately reflects the traditions of the second- [3] Finley 2009, pp. 291–3; p. 291 – “Unfortunately, Epipha-
century Ebionite sect known to Irenaeus, or if their be- nius’ reliability as an historical witness is less than could
lief system changed, perhaps greatly, over a span of be hoped. The statements he made about the Ebionites are
200 years compared to this early group.[n 64][21] The relatively inconsistent, and cover a wide range of subjects.
Epithanius did not make any statement about the Ebionites
Ebionites[n 65][n 66] known to Irenaeus (first mentioned in
contrary to his strident sense of Nicene orthodoxy. There-
Adversus Haereses 1.26.2, written around 185) and other
fore, it seems possible that Epiphanius was merely using
Church Fathers prior to Epiphanius were described as a the Ebionites and literature that may or may not have been
Jewish sect that regarded Jesus as the Messiah but not as associated with the Ebionites to argue against all types
divine. They insisted on the necessity of following Jewish of heretical views.” p. 292 – “Epiphanius’ main focus
law and rites and they used only the Jewish–Christian in the chapter on the Ebionites was Christological, and
gospel.[22] The Ebionites rejected the epistles of Paul because of Epiphanius’ efforts in support of the Nicene
of Tarsus, whom they regarded as an apostate from the Christology, we should regard his statements about Ebion-
Law.[23] ite Christology as particularly suspect.” p. 293 – “It seems
to me quite plain that Epiphanius was not attacking Jew-
In Epiphanius’ polemic against the Ebionites found in ish Christianity in Panarion 30, but instead Christological
Panarion 30, a complex picture emerges of the beliefs beliefs and Scriptural interpretations.”
and practices of the 4th century Ebionites that can-
not easily be separated from his method of combining [4] Kloppenborg 1994, pp. 435–9; p. 435 – “This belief,
together disparate sources.[n 14] While scholars such as known as “adoptionism”, held that Jesus was not divine
Hans-Joachim Schoeps literally interpreted Epiphanius’ by nature or by birth, but that God chose him to become
his son, i.e., adopted him.”
account as describing a later syncretic development of
Ebionism,[n 67][n 68] more recent scholarship has found it [5] Vielhauer & Strecker 1991, pp. 166–71; p. 168 – “Jesus’
difficult to reconcile his report with those of the earlier task is to do away with the 'sacrifices’. In this saying (16.4–
Church Fathers, leading to a conjecture by scholar Petri 5), the hostility of the Ebionites against the Temple cult is
Luomanen that a second group of Hellenistic-Samaritan documented.”
Ebionites may also have been present.[n 8][n 69][n 70] The
rejection of the Jewish sacrifices and the implication of [6] Vielhauer & Strecker 1991, pp. 166–71; p. 169 – “The
place of origin is uncertain. It was possibly composed in
an end-time prophet Christology due to the lack of a birth
the region east of Jordan,”
narrative lend support for the association of the Gospel of
the Ebionites with a group or groups different from the [7] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 457–61; p. 461 – “To conclude,
Ebionites known to Irenaeus.[n 71] Epiphanius’ portrayal of the Ebionites in Pan. 30 is a
learned construction, based almost exclusively on writ-
Scholarship in the area of Jewish Christian studies has
ten sources, ... At no point is there any certain evidence
tended to be based on artificial constructs similar to those
that Epiphanius’ knowledge is based on firsthand, per-
developed by the early Christian heresiologists, with the sonal contact with Ebionites who called themselves by this
underlying assumption that all of the beliefs and practices name.”
of these groups were based on theology.[n 72] This has
led to the perpetuation of ideological definitions that fail [8] Luomanen 2007, pp. 101–2,115; pp. 101–2 – “Thus,
to take into account the pluriformity of these groups,[24] we may have to reckon with the possibility that, from
reflecting differences in geography[n 73][n 74] , time peri- very early on, there may have been at least two types of
ods in history[n 75] , and ethnicity[n 76] . With respect to Ebionites: (1) Hebrew/Aramaic-speaking Ebionites (Ire-
naeus Ebionites?) who shared James the Just’s positive at-
Epiphanius, and the Ebionites in particular, insufficient
titude toward the temple, used only Matthew’s Gospel and
attention has been paid to the highly speculative nature of
accepted all the prophets; and (2) Hellenistic-Samaritan
his theological constructs[n 77] and his mixing together of Ebionites (Epiphanius’ Ebionites) who totally rejected
disparate sources[n 78] , including his use of a gospel har- worship in the temple, used only the Pentateuch, and, car-
mony that may have had nothing to do with the Ebionite rying with them the memory of Stephen’s execution, per-
sect known to Irenaeus[n 79] . In the end, he presents an ceived Paul as one of their major opponents.”, p. 115 –
enigmatic picture of the Ebionites and their place in early “The Jewish Christianity of Irenaeus’ Ebionites involved
6 7 NOTES

obedience to Jewish laws (including circumcision), anti- only by Epiphanius, and once his literary method is rec-
Paulinism, rejection of Jesus’ virginal conception, rever- ognized as a juxtaposition of sources, it is more difficult
ence for Jerusalem (direction of prayer), use of Matthew’s to accept this evolution of Ebionite thought as historical
Gospel, Eucharist with water, and possibly the idea that fact.”
Christ/Spirit entered Jesus at his baptism. ... However,
the explicit rejection of the temple and its cult, the idea [15] Williams 1987, p. xix – “In Epiphanius’ view, then, the
of the True Prophet and the (selective) acceptance of the three bases of the Panarion are observation, documenta-
Pentateuch only, show that Epiphanius’ Ebionites were not tion, and oral testimony. In some cases we should add a
direct successors of Irenaeus’ Ebionites. Because it is not fourth to these: historical conjecture on Epiphanius’ own
easy to picture a linear development from Irenaeus’ Ebion- part. ... In other words, Epiphanius may not without fur-
ites to Epiphanius’ Ebionites, and because the Samaritans ther investigation be assumed to be in possession of much
seem to link Epiphanius’ Ebionites with the Hellenists of historical information about the origins of the sects he dis-
the early Jerusalem community, I am inclined to assume cusses.”
that Epiphanius’ Ebionites were in fact successors of the
[16] Klijn 1992, p. 41 – “The Gospel according to the Ebion-
Hellenistic “poor” of the early Jerusalem community, and
ites was quoted by Epiphanius to show its absurdities.
that Irenaeus’ Ebionites were successors of the Hebrews
The selection of the references is, therefore, arbitrary
(see Acts 6–8) of the same community.”
and probably does not indicate the real contents of the
[9] Petersen 1992, p. 262 – “A dissenting position, however, Gospel.”
is that of Boismard, who detects two traditions in Epipha- [17] Vielhauer & Strecker 1991, p. 140 – “That the two cannot
nius’ quotations from the gospel used by the Ebionites. be identical and are not so for Epiphanius, is shown by
One is a later, more developed tradition, which is proba- another note on the Gospel of the Ebionites: 'In the Gospel
bly a Greek language original; the second is a much more used by them',..”
primitive tradition and has a strong imprint of a Semitic
language. It is this latter tradition which Boismard equates [18] Jones 2000, p. 364 – “Epiphanius connects his Ebionites
with the Hebrew (i.e. pre-Greek) recension of Matthew - with the Pseudo-Clementines, with the anti-Pauline As-
the document described by Epiphanius.” For further de- cents of James, and with a gospel conveniently called the
tails, see Boismard 1966, p. 351. Gospel of the Ebionites by modern scholars.”

[10] Klijn 1992, pp. 27–30; p. 27 – “we have to reckon with [19] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 457–61; p. 457 – “At a late stage
at least two different Gospels because we meet two dif- in the writing of his Panarion, Epiphanius chanced upon
ferent versions of the Baptism of Jesus, one referred to a fourth source (a Greek gospel), which he immediately
by Epiphanius, Panarion 30.13.7–8 and another one by took to be Ebionite. He interpolated fragments from this
Jerome, in Es. 11,1–3. At present it is generally assumed Gospel in 30.13–4, at the end of another large interpola-
that Epiphanius quoted from a Gospel that was known to tion, the Count Joseph story in 30.4–12.”
him only.”
[20] Koch 1976, pp. 359–68; Koch provides a detailed analy-
[11] Puech & Blatz 1991, p. 374 – “the majority of critics sis of Epiphanius’ use of disparate sources and his edito-
today are inclined to identify it (the Gospel of the Twelve) rial method of combining them to produce Panarion 30,
with the Gospel of the Ebionites,” including a gospel in his possession, which he attributed
to the Ebionites. pp. 359–60 – “The GE materials are
[12] Luomanen 2007, p. 95 – “there is such a fundamental also clustered, which suggests that when Epiphanius de-
agreement among the Pseudo-Clementine sources (espe- cided to include these materials, he inserted them into the
cially Rec. 1.27–71), the “Gospel of the Ebionites”, and older materials in clusters. In other words, the addition
Epiphanius’ description of the Ebionites that there has of these materials to previous knowledge of the Ebionites
to be a connection between them. The idea that Jesus is Epiphanius’ own contribution to the subject.” p. 365 –
came to abolish the sacrifices and that the temple was de- “An analysis of the distribution of the sources shows that
stroyed because the people were reluctant to cease sacri- the earlier patristic information is distributed throughout
ficing is unique within the early Christian tradition, mak- the chapters without obvious clustering. However, follow-
ing its appearance both in Rec. 1.27–71 and the “Gospel ing the digression of chapters 4–12, clustering is quite ev-
of the Ebionites” hardly coincidental.” (Bauckham 2003, ident in the other materials: the Ebionite Gospel materials
p. 168) are given for the most part in chapters 13 and 14.”

[13] Williams 1987, p. xvi – “It was begun in 374 or 375 (Pa- [21] Elliott 2005, pp. 5–6,14–6; Elliott’s 1993 critical edition
narion Proem II 2,3) and was written in great haste in less has a similar list of 7 quotations.
than three years.
[22] Vielhauer & Strecker 1991, pp. 166–71; Vielhauer &
[14] Koch 1976, pp. 366–7; p. 366 – “It would seem that Strecker; Schneemelcher’s New Testament Apocrypha 2nd
Epiphanius has composed Panarion 30 by combining var- edition (6th German edition) is considered the standard
ious resources at hand. At several points he contradicts edition for new testament apocryphal writings. Three tes-
himself, which is largely occasioned by his method of timonies to that effect are as follows: 1. Christopher
composition – the juxtaposing of different sources.” p. R. Matthews Philip, Apostle and Evangelist: configura-
367 – “One could choose to believe that Ebionitism in tions of a tradition 2002 " given the high visibility of
Epiphanius’ day had become quite syncretistic. ... How- Schneemelcher’s assessment in the standard edition of the
ever, it should be underscored that this picture is presented New Testament Apocrypha, ...”, 2. Helmut Koester From
 7

Jesus to the Gospels: interpreting the New Testament 2007 [31] Koester 1990, p. 351 – “The same harmonization of
p311 “The new standard edition of the New Testament Matthean and Lukan redactional changes of Mark’s text of
Apocrypha in English translation is somewhat more cau- this saying appears in its quotation in Clement of Alexan-
tious. Wilhelm Schneemelcher grants that some of the dria (Eclogae propheticae 20.3) and the Gospel of the
apocryphal writings “appear in ...”, 3. Michael J. Wilkins, Ebionites. 2 Clem. 9.11 thus presupposes a more widely
James Porter Moreland – Jesus under fire 1995 “The stan- known document or a tradition in which this saying al-
dard edition is the two-volume work of E. Hennecke and ready appeared in a harmonized version.”
W. Schneemelcher, New Testament Apocrypha, trans. R.
McL. Wilson (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1965)" [32] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 457–61; p. 458, referencing Alfred
Schmidtke (1911), Neue Fragmente, p. 223: Schmidtke
[23] Kloppenborg 1994, pp. 435–9; p. 437 – Note: The com- speculated that the fragment may derive from Origen’s
position of the opening narrative with the first 3 quotations commentary on John, (Comm. Jo. 2.12), which quotes
follows Pick’s order. from the Gospel of the Hebrews.
[24] Klijn 1992, pp. 67–8 – “The quotation shows the influence [33] Kloppenborg 1994, pp. 435–9; p. 439 – “In saying, 'I did
of the LXX. This and the word-play with regard to ἐγκρίς not come to do away with the law', and yet doing away
and ἀκρίς definitely shows that we are dealing with an with something, he indicated that what he did away with
original Greek work.” had not originally been part of the law.” (Ps-Cl Homilies
[25] A gospel harmony is a blending of two or more gospels 3.51.2)
into a single narrative; the earliest known examples, dating
[34] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 457–61; p. 459 – “It is far from
to the 2nd or 3rd century, are Tatian's Diatessaron, Dura
certain, however, that this saying derives from the Ebionite
Parchment 24, and, possibly, an unnamed gospel conven-
Gospel.”, p. 460 – “The probability that Epiphanius took
tionally known as the Egerton Gospel.
this from the same source he is exploiting in the context –
[26] Ehrman 2005, p. 102 – “this particular Gospel of the the Pseudo-Clementine Journeys – seems to me so great
Ebionites appears to have been a “harmonization” of the that attributing the saying to the Ebionite Gospel is the less
New Testament Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke. Ev- likely hypothesis.”
idence that it harmonized the earlier sources comes in the
account that it gave of Jesus’ baptism. As careful readers [35] Paget 2010, pp. 349–57; Paget provides an overview of
have long noticed, the three Synoptic Gospels all record the recent scholarly literature on the Adoptionism of the
the words spoken by a voice from heaven as Jesus emerges Ebionites.
from the water; but the voice says something different in [36] Evans 2007, pp. 251–3; p. 251 – “This Gospel’s statement
all three accounts: “This is my Son in whom I am well that the Spirit “entered into” Jesus is an important addition
pleased” (Matt. 3:17); “You are my Son, in whom I am to the story. This Gospel also adds a quotation of part of
well pleased” (Mark 1:11); and, in the oldest witness to Psalm 2:7 (“Today I have begotten you”).”
Luke’s Gospel, “You are my Son, today I have begotten
you” (Luke 3:23). ... In the Gospel of the Ebionites ... [37] Ehrman 1993, pp. 49–51,62–7; p. 49 – “With respect
the voice speaks three times, saying something different to other New Testament traditions concerning Jesus’ bap-
on each occasion.” tism, the earliest textual witnesses of the Gospel according
to Luke preserve a conspicuously adoptionistic formula in
[27] Edwards 2009, pp. 71–4; p. 71, referencing E.B. Nichol-
the voice from heaven, 'You are my son, today I have be-
son (1879), The Gospel according to the Hebrews, pp. 40–
gotten you' (Luke 3:22).” p. 62 – “This is the reading of
2, on the great light on the water during the baptism of
codex Bezae and a number of ecclesiastical writers from
Jesus.
the second century onward.”
[28] Kloppenborg 1994, pp. 435–9; p. 438, fn. 2:5 – “Ebion-
ites specifies twelve apostles, while Epiphanius names only [38] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 457–61; p. 461 – “The Spirit “going
eight.” into” Jesus recalls prophetical endowment with the Spirit,
cf. Isa 61:1: 'The Spirit of the Lord is with me, for he
[29] Klijn 1992, pp. 6,28; p. 6 – “The Gospel of the Twelve has anointed me to preach good news to the poor..'. The
is sometimes identified with the Gospel of the Ebionites great light shining recalls Isa 9:1: 'The people wandering
mentioned by Epiphanius. If this were true, the Gospel in darkness shall see a great light; those who dwell in the
could be called Jewish–Christian, but this identification land and shadow of death, over you the light shall shine.'"
is a matter of dispute.” p. 28 – Klijn follows Waitz and
Zahn in tentatively assigning this text as the Gospel of The [39] Lapham 2003, pp. 84–7; p. 86 – “Christ was no more than
Twelve, “At the beginning of this quotation there is a men- a man (albeit the most righteous and wisest of all) upon
tion of us, viz. the twelve apostles, who also seem to be re- whom, after his baptism by John, the eternal Christ of the
sponsible for the contents of this Gospel. This would mean heavens descended and rested upon him until the time of
that the Gospel could be called 'Gospel of the Twelve', his Passion. This idea is clearly represented in another of
which is the name of a Gospel mentioned in a passage in Epiphanius’ quotations from the Ebionite Gospel.” (Pa-
Origen. (Origen, Comm. Matt. 1:1–10)" narion 30.13.7)

[30] Vielhauer & Strecker 1991, pp. 166–71; p. 166 – “De- [40] Häkkinen 2008, pp. 267–8; Häkkinen provides a detailed
spite the arguments advanced by Waitz, it remains ques- description of the Christology of the Ebionite gospel. A
tionable whether the fragment cited by Epiphanius is to be translation of Epiphanius’ commentary relevant to Jesus’
reckoned with the GE.” Adoption reads as follows: p. 267 - (1) “This is because
8 7 NOTES

they mean that Jesus is really a man, as I said, but that [46] Klijn 1992, pp. 67–8; p. 68 – “John the Baptist is sup-
Christ, who descended in the form of a dove, has entered posed to have followed a vegetarian life-style.” with a ref-
him - as we have found already in other sects - <and> been erence to S. Brock, (1970) The Baptists Diet in Syriac
united with him. Christ himself <is from God on high, Sources, Oriens Christianus, vol.54, pp. 113–24
but Jesus> is the product of a man’s seed and a woman.”
(Pan. 30.14.4); (2) “And they say that this is why Jesus [47] Lapham 2003, pp. 84–7; p. 85 – “The deviation in the
was begotten of the seed of a man and chosen, and thus description of John’s food is doubtless an indication of the
named the Son of God by election, after the Christ, who vegetarian customs of the Ebionites.”
had come to him from on high in the form of a dove.”
[48] Evans 2007, pp. 251–3; p. 251 – “Linking John’s wilder-
(Pan. 30.16.3); (3) “They say, however, that Christ is
ness food with the food the Israelites ate while crossing the
prophet of truth and Christ; <but> that he is Son of God
wilderness and preparing for entry into the promised land
by promotion, and by his connection with the elevation
may lend an additional element of restoration theology to
given to him from above. ... He alone, they would have
the ministry and activity of John.”
it, is prophet, man, Son of God, and Christ - and yet a
mere man, as I said, though owing to virtue of life he has [49] Koch 1976, pp. 328–9; p. 328 – “While it is not clear
come to be called the Son of God.” (Pan. 30.18.5-6); For which version is older, one might perhaps see at work here
additional details, see Verheyden 2003, pp. 193–4. an exegetical principle which was practiced in Judaism ...
– the change in meaning occasioned by the change of a
[41] Klijn 1992, p. 41 – “During his baptism, Jesus is chosen syllable.” p. 329 – “On the other hand, one might argue
as God’s son. At that moment, God generated him. ... He just as convincingly that the Exodus-manna typology is
is the Chosen One, and at the moment that this becomes older than the “locust” texts, ... This would have the ef-
evident a light radiates.” fect of identifying John the Baptist with the desert expe-
rience, perhaps conveying the impression that he was the
[42] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 457–61; p. 461 – “it does not seem new prophet like Moses.”
far-fetched to conclude that the Ebionite Gospel under-
stood Jesus’ baptism as his being called and endowed to [50] Evans 2007, pp. 251–3; p. 253 – The saying may indi-
be the end-time prophet (rather than the Davidic Mes- cate that Christ is the Passover sacrifice, so that eating the
siah). ... It is clear, however, that he (Epiphanius) was Passover lamb is no longer required and a vegetarian diet
quite mistaken in identifying the group authoring or us- may be observed.
ing this Gospel with the Irenaen Ebionites. The Prophet-
Christology of the Gospel would rather point to the group [51] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 454–5; p. 454 – “The 'Ebionite' rea-
behind the Pseudo-Clementines Grundschrift as near the- son for not eating meat seems to be based on a fear of
ological relatives.” eating souls, which was the main reason for Pythagorean
vegetarianism.” p. 455 – “In summary, Epiphanius’ report
[43] Luomanen 2007, p. 92 – “The idea that Jesus, the True of the vegetarianism of the 'Ebionites’ seems to be based
Prophet, came to abolish the sacrifices is central to the on his reading of the Pseudo-Clementine Journeys of Pe-
Pseudo-Clementines. In this regard, it is clear that the ter (and possibly other pseudo-apostolic works) ... which
'Gospel of the Ebionites’ agreed with them.” makes one hesitate very much in ascribing any of this to
the Ebionites of Irenaeus and his followers.”
[44] Luomanen 2012, pp. 153–4; p. 153 – “The Ebionites
[52] Gregory 2008, pp. 61–66; p. 65 – “There may also be
did not believe that the sacrifices could be abolished by
evidence for vegetarianism elsewhere in Epiphanius’ ci-
replacing them with Jesus’ own once-and-for-all sacrifice.
tations from the Gospel of the Ebionites, for it has Je-
In this regard, the Ebionites theology clearly differed from
sus deny that he wished to eat meat with his disciples at
the theology expressed in the Letter to the Hebrews.” p.
Passover (Pan. 30.22.4). Yet care must be taken in assess-
154 – “To summarize the conclusions of the reconstruc-
ing this evidence. The link between those whose practices
tion: Epiphanius’ quotation from the Gospel of the Ebion-
are reflected in the Pseudo-Clementines and in the Gospel
ites indicates that there was a description of preparations
of the Ebionites is by no means certain, and Jesus’ state-
for the Last Supper where Jesus says he does not want
ment about the Passover may reflect an aversion primarily
to eat meat. Because another quotation from the Gospel
to sacrifices and to meat associated with sacrifices rather
of the Ebionites reveals that the Ebionites opposed sacri-
than to meat as such.”
fices, it is unlikely that they would have granted a sacrifi-
cial value to Jesus’ blood. Thus, it is also unlikely that the [53] Paget 2010, pp. 331–2,341; pp. 321-2 - “Epiphanius
Gospel of the Ebionites would have included the institu- seems simply to have combined the claim of Irenaeus and
tion of the Eucharistic cup of blood. Epiphanius’ remark many others that the Ebionites used Matthew only, the
a bit earlier in the Panarion about the Ebionites practice claim of Papias that Matthew was written in Hebrew (Eu-
of celebrating Passover year after year with unleavened sebius, Hist. eccl. 3.39.16), and the claim of Eusebius
bread and water confirms that the assumption that there that they called their Gospel 'according to the Hebrews’.”
could not have been any institution of the Eucharistic cup p. 341 - “most scholars would accept that Epiphanius’ in-
of blood in the Gospel of the Ebionites. troduction to the Gospel is an odd amalgam of different
statements about the Ebionite gospel.”
[45] Ehrman & Pleše 2011, p. 211 – “In particular, it is clear
that they maintained that Jesus was the perfect sacrifice for [54] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 435,446,457–8; p. 435, Irenaeus
sins, so that there was no longer any need for the Jewish – “For the Ebionites who use the Gospel according to
sacrificial cult.” Matthew only, are confuted of this very same book, when
 9

they make false suppositions with regard to the Lord.” section of the Recognitions (Rec. 1.27–71) may indeed
(Haer. 3.11.7); p. 446, Eusebius – “These men more- preserve the Ascents of James, which Epiphanius ascribes
over thought that it was necessary to reject all the epis- to the Ebionites in Pan. 30.16.7 (Van Voorst 1989).”
tles of the Apostle, whom they called an apostate from
the Law; and they used only the so-called Gospel accord- [61] Van Voorst 1989, pp. 177,180; p. 177 – “There is, in fact,
ing to the Hebrews and made small account of the rest.” no section of the Clementine literature about whose origin
(Hist. eccl. 3.27.1); p. 457, Epiphanius – “They also ac- in Jewish Christianity one may be more certain.” (quoting
cept the Gospel according to Matthew. For they too use the conclusion of Martyn 1978, p. 271)
only this like the followers of Cerinthus and Merinthus.
[62] Skarsaune 2007, p. 395 – “The most striking parallel to
They call it, however, 'according to the Hebrews’, which
this concept (Christian baptism as a substitute for sacri-
name is correct since Matthew is the only one in the New
fices for purification from sin) is to be found in the Jewish–
Testament who issued the Gospel and the proclamation in
Christian source in the Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions,
Hebrew and with Hebrew letters.” (Panarion 30.3.7); p.
1.27–71. Here we read the following: '[The prophet like
458 – “It seems rather clear that Epiphanius’ characteri-
Moses] would first of all admonish them ... to cease with
zation of the Gospel used by the Ebionites in (30.)3.7 is
sacrifices; lest they think that with the ceasing of the sacri-
not based on firsthand knowledge of the Gospel quoted
fices remission of sins could not be effected for them, [he]
in (30.)13–14, nor are the contents of the introductory
instituted for them baptism by water, in which they might
remarks in (30.)13.2 taken from the Gospel itself. They
be absolved of all sins through the invocation of his name,
are rather an attempt to adjust the traditional description
... [so that] henceforth following a perfect life they might
in (30.)3.7 to the new document Epiphanius has got hold
remain in immortality, purified not through the blood of
of and which he took to be the Gospel his predecessors
animals but through the purification of God’s wisdom'.”
among the Fathers had been talking about.”
(Rec. 1.39.1–2)
[55] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 544–5 Jerome – “In the Gospel
[63] Bauckham 2003, pp. 162–4,172; p.163 – “Epiphanius’
which the Nazoraeans and the Ebionites use which we
much fuller and not entirely consistent account of the
translated recently from Hebrew to Greek and which is
Ebionites draws on significant literary sources unknown
called the authentic text of Matthew by a good many, it is
to the earlier Fathers as well as his own deductions and
written ...” Comm. Matt. 12.13
guesses. His most valuable contribution is the quotations
[56] Boismard 1966, p. 351 – “Si ce renseignement he provides from a gospel he attributes to them, and which
d'Épiphane est exact, Ébion. 2 pourrait representer une is therefore called by modern scholars the Gospel of the
forme plus ou moins remaniée, de l'évangile primitif de Ebionites.” p. 172 – “If the Gospel of the Ebionites and
Matthieu, lequel correspondrait donc au texte que nous the Ascents of James were Ebionite texts, the implica-
avons appele Y (Éb. 2).” tions, not only for their beliefs, but also for their origins,
are considerable.”
[57] Luomanen 2012, pp. 206–12,223–5; Luomanen provides
a detailed text-critical analysis of the synoptic and non- [64] Luomanen 2007, p. 88 – “Much of what Epiphanius re-
canonical parallels to the Gospel of the Ebionites frag- ports about the Ebionites is consistent with the accounts of
ment Pan. 30.14.5, including Gospel of Thomas logion his predecessors, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Origen, and Euse-
99. He concludes that the Gospel of the Ebionites, Gospel bius.” p. 314, notes: See Irenaeus, Haer. 1.26.2; 3.11.7;
of Thomas, and 2 Clement are dependent upon a pre- Hippolytus, Haer. 7.34.1–2; 10.22; Origen, Cels. 5.65;
Diatessaronic harmonizing gospel tradition. Hom. Gen. 3.5; Hom. Jer. 19.12.2; Eusebius, Hist. eccl.
3.27.1–6; 6.17.
[58] Tuckett 2012, pp. 201–2; p. 202 – “we may also note the
[65] Ehrman 2005, pp. 95–103; Ehrman offers a popular
presence of a similar harmonized version of the saying (2
treatment of the subject, see pp. 95–103.
Clem. 9.11) in Gos. Eb. (Pan. 30.14.5) and in Clement
of Alexandria (Ecl. 20.3). Hence it may well be that 2 [66] Klijn & Reinink 1973, pp. 19–43; Klijn & Reinink offers
Clement here is dependent on a separate source that had a rigorous academic treatment of the subject, see pp. 19–
already harmonized the different versions of the saying in 43.
the synoptics into its present form here.
[67] Schoeps 1969, pp. 9–17; p. 12 – “That the “patriarch of
[59] Bellinzoni 1967, pp. 140–1; Bellinzoni states that Justin orthodoxy,” as Epiphanius was called, had in any event a
was primarily dependent upon an early Christian cate- positive knowledge of the Ebionites, and that the original
chism and a reference manual (vade mecum) of sayings Clementines, in some form or another, were connected
against heresies for his sources of harmonized gospel say- with them, I believe I have irrefutably demonstrated.”
ings. According to Bellinzoni, p. 141 – “It must, however,
be emphasized that there is absolutely no evidence that [68] Bauckham 2003, pp. 163–4; In a recent affirmation of
Justin ever composed a complete harmony of the Synop- this view, Bauckham argues that the Gospel of the Ebion-
tic Gospels; his harmonies were of limited scope and were ites was written by the same group of Ebionites known to
apparently composed for didactic purposes.” Irenaeus. He further states that Irenaeus’ report that the
2nd-century Ebionites used the Gospel of Matthew was a
[60] Luomanen 2007, p. 93 – “Scholars also largely agree that reference to their name for the Ebionite gospel.
one section of the Recognitions, Rec. 1.27–71, is based on
an independent source, but there is no consensus about the [69] Luomanen 2012, pp. 17–49,161–5,233–5,241; See Lu-
possible original title of the writing. Some think that this omanen 2012 for further details on the origins and
10 8 CITATIONS

characteristics of the Ebionites known to Epiphanius; ... This was defined by their ethnic background and by
p. 241 – Summary and Conclusion: "Epiphanius’ this only. The border line between Jewish and Gentile be-
Ebionites/Hellenistic–Samaritan Ebionites probably were lievers in Jesus was exactly as sharp and as blurred as the
an offspring of the missionary activity of the Hellenists border line between Jews and Gentiles in general.”
of the early Jerusalem community among the Samari-
tans. Later on, they also adopted some Elchasaite ideas. [77] Skarsaune 2007, p. 754 – “It is understandable that
Epiphanius found the Gospel of the Ebionites among many modern histories of Jewish Christianity have taken
them.” Epiphanius and his predecessors as their starting point and
have taken over his classification of the Jewish Christian
[70] Van Voorst 1989, pp. 177,180; Similarly, Van Voorst sects. ... This approach was, in my view, based on an
concludes that the Jewish–Christian tradition on which insufficient awareness of the highly speculative nature of
Rec. 1.33–71 is based may be traced back, albeit indi- Epiphanius’ constructions. If any description of heresies
rectly, to the Hellenists of the Jerusalem Church; p. 180 should be characterized as little more than artificial con-
– “While there is not enough evidence to conclude that structs, Epiphanius’ reports on the Jewish Christian sects
the community of the AJ (Ascents of James) is the lineal are worthy candidates.”
physical descendent of the Hellenist Jewish Christians of
Acts, it certainly is a spiritual descendant of Stephen and [78] Paget 2010, pp. 332–3 – “Epiphanius’ account of the
his circle.” Ebionites is obviously polemical in intent and that polemic
manifests itself not least in a desire to make the Ebionites
[71] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 457–61; pp. 460–1 – “There is one look hybrid ... Such a presentation obviously leads to a
more feature of this Gospel that clearly makes it distinct ... view of the sect as inconsistent, and 'the receptical of all
it contained no genealogy of Jesus. According to Epipha- sorts of heretical ideas’. ... These so-called 'conflicting
nius, it began with a short version of Luke 3:1–3. ... This accounts’, as Epiphanius calls them, come from a medley
probably reveals something about the genre this Gospel of sources.”
was intended to represent. This is clearly the beginning of
a prophet’s book. We have seen repeatedly how important [79] Skarsaune 2007, p. 754 – “His (Epiphanius’) portrait of
the Davidic genealogy was for Ebionite Christology; it was the Ebionites is not based on firsthand knowledge of this
the importance of this Davidic lineage through Joseph that group. It is a very mixed composite of every scrap of lit-
made them deny the virgin birth. For them, Jesus was the erary information Epiphanius thought he could ascribe to
Davidic Messiah. For the author of the Ebionite Gospel them. ... As a consequence he attributed to them both
this seems to have been no concern at all. Instead, he may Elkesaite ideas and a harmonistic gospel that apparently
have conceived of Jesus as the end-time prophet, endowed had nothing to do with the Ebionites.”
with the Spirit at his calling – his baptism by John.”
[80] Paget 2010, pp. 341,376; p. 341 – “in the end we are
[72] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 745–7; p. 746 – “Especially in stud- wholly dependent upon Epiphanius for the view that the
ies of 'Jewish Christianity', a history of ideas approach GE is Ebionite and that such dependence raises consid-
has often been dominant, constructing an ideological en- erable problems, not least because the contents of the
tity that was studied as such. Quite apart from the fact that Epiphanian GE do not obviously square with what we hear
this entity had all the marks of being a modern scholarly about either the Gospel or the Ebionites in earlier sources.
construct based on similar constructs by the early Chris- p. 376 - “In the end the Ebionites, in spite of, perhaps even
tian heresiologists, this Jewish Christianity was often con- because of, the plentiful information we potentially have
structed as a uniform entity. ... And it was assumed that about them, remain somewhat of a mysterious witness to
their practice was determined by their theology. If, there- an important aspect of early Christian history.”
fore, differences of practice were observed among mem-
bers of Jewish Christianity, this was explained by differ-
ences in theology.
8 Citations
[73] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 745–7,755–67; The synchronic per-
spective distinguishes differences in practice based on ge- [1] Koch 1990, pp. 224–5.
ographic location and social setting.
[2] Cameron 1982, pp. 103–6.
[74] Lapham 2003, pp. 84–7; Fred Lapham takes a geographi-
cal approach to describing different forms of early Jewish [3] Petersen 1992, p. 262.
Christianity; he classifies the Gospel of the Ebionites as a
document of the “Church in Samaria”. [4] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 451–5.

[75] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 745–7,767–77; The diachronic per- [5] Gregory 2008, pp. 61–2.
spective distinguishes differences in practice based on
time periods in history, e.g. the “Constantinian Revolu- [6] Edwards 2009, p. 65.
tion”. [7] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 457–61.
[76] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 748–9; p. 748 – “In the ancient
[8] Simon 1689, p. 74.
Christian sources a clear distinction is made between Jew-
ish believers in Jesus and Gentile believers in Jesus. The [9] Pick 1908, pp. 14–8.
two groups were not distinguished from each other by any-
thing that was believed or done by all within each group. [10] Klauck 2003, p. 51.
 11

[11] Vielhauer & Strecker 1991, p. 167. • Ehrman, Bart D. (2005) [2003]. Lost Christianities:
The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never
[12] Edwards 2009, pp. 71–4. Knew. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
[13] Gregory 2008, p. 65.
514183-2.

[14] Bauckham 2003, p. 168.

• Ehrman, Bart D.; Pleše, Zlatko (2011). “The Gospel
of the Ebionites”. The Apocryphal Gospels: Texts
[15] Klauck 2003, p. 52. and Translations. Oxford University Press. pp.
210–5. ISBN 978-0-19-973210-4.
[16] Bertrand 1980, pp. 548–63.
• Elliott, James Keith (2005) [1993]. The Apocryphal
[17] Howard 1988, pp. 4039,4043,4049. New Testament. Oxford University Press. ISBN
978-0-19-826181-0.
[18] Luomanen 2012, pp. 217–8.
• Evans, Craig A. (2007). “The Jewish Christian
[19] Bauckham 2003, pp. 176–7.
Gospel Tradition”. In Skarsaune, Oskar; Hvalvik,
[20] Bauckham 2003, pp. 166–7,172–3. Reidar. Jewish Believers in Jesus (PDF). Hendrick-
son Publishers. pp. 241–77. ISBN 978-1-56563-
[21] Luomanen 2012, pp. 30–4,45–9. 763-4.
[22] Goranson 1992, p. 261. • Finley, Gregory C. (2009). “The Ebionites and
“Jewish Christianity": Examining Heresy and the
[23] Jones 2000, p. 364.
Attitudes of the Church Fathers” (PhD Thesis). The
[24] Skarsaune 2007, pp. 747–8,779-80. Catholic University of America. ISBN 978-1-109-
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• Goranson, Stephen (1992). “Ebionites”. In Freed-

9 Sources man, David Noel. The Anchor Bible Dictionary 2
(1 ed.). Doubleday. pp. 260–1. ISBN 978-0-385-
• Bauckham, Richard (2003). “The Origin of the 42583-4.
Ebionites”. In Tomson, Peter J.; Lambers-Petry,
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Doris. The Image of the Judeo-Christians in Ancient
Gospels”. In Foster, Paul. The Non-Canonical
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• Bellinzoni, Arthur J. (1967). The Sayings of Je- • Häkkinen, Sakari (2008) [2005]. “Ebionites”. In
sus in the Writings of Justin Martyr. Brill. ASIN Marjanen, Antti; Luomanen, Petri. A Companion to
B0007ISJW6. Second Century Christian Heretics. Brill. pp. 247–
• Bertrand, Daniel A. (1980). “L'Evangile Des Ebion- 78. ISBN 978-90-04-17038-4.
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Diatessaron”. New Testament Studies (in French) ites”. Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt
(Cambridge University Press) 26 (4): 548–63. (Walter De Gruyter) 2 (25.5): 4034–53. ISBN 978-
doi:10.1017/S0028688500005816. 3-11-001885-1.
• Boismard, Marie-Émile (1966). "Évangile des • Jones, F. Stanley (2000). “Ebionites”. In Freed-
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(in French) (Lecoffre) 73 (1–4): 321–52. ISSN Eerdman’s Dictionary of the Bible. Wm. B. Eerd-
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• Cameron, Ron (1982). The Other Gospels: Non-
Canonical Gospel Texts. Westminster/John Knox • Klauck, Hans-Josef (2003). The Apocryphal
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• Edwards, James R. (2009). The Hebrew Gospel and
the Development of the Synoptic Tradition. Wm. B. • Klijn, Albertus F.J.; Reinink, Gerrit J. (1973).
Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-6234-1. Patristic evidence for Jewish–Christian sects. Brill.
ISBN 90-04-03763-2.
• Ehrman, Bart D. (1993). The Orthodox Corruption
of Scripture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19- • Klijn, Albertus F.J. (1992). Jewish–Christian
508078-5. Gospel Tradition. Brill. ISBN 90-04-09453-9.
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• Kloppenborg, John S. (1994) [1992]. “The Gospel • Simon, Richard (1689). A critical history of the
of the Ebionites”. In Miller, Robert J. The Complete text of the New Testament: wherein is firmly estab-
Gospels. Polebridge Press. pp. 435–40. ISBN 0- lished the truth of those acts on which the founda-
06-065587-9. tion of Christian religion is laid. R. Taylor. OCLC
228723131.
• Koch, Glenn Alan (1976). “A Critical Investiga-
tion of Epiphanius’ Knowledge of the Ebionites: A • Skarsaune, Oskar (2007). “The Ebionites”. In
Translation and Critical Discussion of 'Panarion' 30” Skarsaune, Oskar; Hvalvik, Reidar. Jewish Believers
(PhD Thesis). University of Pennsylvania. in Jesus (PDF). Hendrickson Publishers. pp. 419–
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• Koch, Glenn Alan (1990). “Ebionites, Gospel of
the”. In Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey. • Tuckett, Christopher M. (2012). 2 Clement: Intro-
Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University duction, Text, and Commentary. Oxford University
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• Koester, Helmut (1990). Ancient Christian Gospels: • Van Voorst, Robert E. (1989). The Ascents of
Their History and Development. Trinity Press. James: History and Theology of a Jewish–Christian
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Testament Apocrypha. Continuum International • Verheyden, Joseph (2003). “Epiphanius on the
Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-6979-3. Ebionites”. In Tomson, Peter J.; Lambers-Petry,
• Luomanen, Petri (2007). “Ebionites and Doris. The Image of the Judeo-Christians in Ancient
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Groups and Texts. Fortress Press. pp. 81–118. • Vielhauer, Philipp; Strecker, Georg (1991).
ISBN 978-0-8006-3865-8. “Jewish–Christian gospels”. In Schneemelcher,
• Luomanen, Petri (2012). Recovering Jewish Chris- Wilhelm; Wilson, Robert McLachlan. New Tes-
tian Sects and Gospels. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04- tament Apocrypha: Gospels and Related Writings
20971-8. Volume 1 (2 ed.). John Knox Press. pp. 134–
78. ISBN 0-664-22721-X. (6th German edition,
• Martyn, J.L. (1978). “Clementine Recognitions translated by George Ogg)
1.33 to 71, Jewish Christianity, and the Fourth
Gospel”. In Jervel, Jacob; Meeks, Wayne A. God’s • Williams, Frank (1987). The Panarion of Epipha-
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• Paget, James Carleton (2010). “The Ebionites in

recent research”. Jews, Christians, and Jewish–
Christians in Antiquity. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 325–80.
10 Further reading
ISBN 978-3-16-150312-2.
• Broadhead, Edwin K. (2010). Jewish Ways of Fol-
• Petersen, William L. (1992). “Ebionites, Gospel of lowing Jesus: Redrawing the Religious Map of Antiq-
the”. In Freedman, David Noel. The Anchor Bible uity. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-150304-7.
Dictionary 2 (1 ed.). Doubleday. pp. 261–2. ISBN
978-0-385-42583-4. • Frey, Jörg (2012). “Die Fragmente des Ebionäere-
vangeliums”. In Markschies, Christoph; Schröter,
• Pick, Bernhard (1908). Paralipomena: Remains of Jens. Antike christliche Apokryphen in deutscher
Gospels and Sayings of Christ. Bibliolife (repub- Übersetzung: I. Band – Evangelien und Verwandtes
lished). ISBN 978-1-113-44804-0. Republished in (in German) (7 ed.). Mohr Siebeck. pp. 607–22.
2009. ISBN 978-3-16-149951-7.
• Puech, Henri-Charles; Blatz, Beate (1991). • Petersen, William Lawrence (1994). Tatian’s Di-
“Gospels Attributed to the Apostles”. In atessaron: Its Creation, Dissemination, Significance,
Schneemelcher, Wilhelm; Wilson, Robert McLach- and History in Scholarship. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-
lan. New Testament Apocrypha. John Knox Press. 09469-7.
ISBN 0-664-22721-X.
• Schoeps, Hans-Joachim (1969). Jewish Christian-
ity: Factional Disputes in the Early Church. Fortress 11 External links
Press. ASIN B0006BYSW4. (translated by Dou-
glas R.A. Hare) • Apocryphal Gospels at DMOZ
 13

• Early Christian Writings – Gospel of the Ebionites

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