Reference 1

4/19/23, 8:16 PM Carbon Fiber - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Carbon Fiber
Carbon fibers are fibers (filaments, tows, yams, rovings) consisting of
at least 92 wt% (mass fraction) carbon, usually in the non-graphitic
state.
From: Activated Carbon, 2006
Related terms:
Resin, Graphene, Carbon Nanotubes, Mechanical Strength, Epoxy, Graphite,

Glass Fiber, Tensile Strength, Reinforced Plastic
Carbon Fibers
Jens Pusch, Bernd Wohlmann, in Inorganic and Composite Fibers, 2018
Abstract
Carbon fibers can be defined as fibers with a carbon content of 90% or above. They
are produced by thermal conversion of organic fibers with a lower carbon content
such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN) containing several thousand filaments with
diameter between 5 and 10 μm. The main advantage of carbon fibers compared to
other fibers are the high tensile strength, high stiffness, low density, and a high
chemical resistance. All these advantages can be combined with an adequate
(polymer resin) matrix material to give excellent mechanical properties of
composite parts built from both. These composite components are lightweight
with very high mechanical properties compared to parts made of metals like
aluminum or other fiber-reinforced composites. This justifies the use of carbon
fibers compared to other possible fibrous materials such as glass or organic fibers
and metal. The main applications of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers include
aerospace and defense, automotive, wind turbines, sport and leisure, and civil
engineering. Especially the automotive sector is strongly growing with regard to
lightweight constructions that reduce the energy consumption. This chapter gives a
short overview of its development history, chemical structure, production process,
finishing, processing issues, application areas, a market overview, and future
trends.
Read full chapter

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081022283000025
Carbon fibers
Kazim Acatay, in Fiber Technology for Fiber-Reinforced Composites, 2017
6.2.2 Pitch based precursors

Pitch is the general name for the tarry substance that is highly viscous at room
temperature and has very high carbon content. It is a complex mixture of many
hundreds of aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic compounds with an average
molecular weight of 300–400. It can be produced from natural sources by
destructive distillation of petroleum and coal or from synthetic sources by pyrolysis
of polyaromatic compounds and polymers. The composition of a pitch varies
widely according to the source of tar and the processing conditions. Pitch can
contain more than 80% carbon, and as the aromaticity increases, the quality of the
product CF increases.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/carbon-fiber 1/11
Petroleum pitch can be obtained from the bottoms of catalytic crackers, steam
cracking of naphtha and gas oils, and residues from various refinery processes.
Crude product is usually passed through some refining processes before using for
CF industry [1].
Coal tar is a by-product of the coking of bituminous coals to produce cokes. Coal-
tar pitch is obtained from the coal tar using distillation and heat treatment
processes. The pitch is the residue, which follows the removal of the heavy oil
fractions [6]. Coal-tar pitch is generally more aromatic than petroleum pitch.
However, it also contains high solid content that causes filament breakage during
extrusion and thermal treatment. Because of this, petroleum pitch is preferred for
CF production [11].
In the pitch-based precursor industry, two main types of pitch are in use, isotropic
and mesophase pitch. Isotropic pitches are used to make GP grade of pitch CF.
They are not graphitic and have poorer properties than the HP grade. To
manufacture HP grade, a special treatment process is needed to convert the pitch
to mesophase grade. Mesophase grade is optically anisotropic and graphitic in
nature.
The isotropic pitch has to be treated to generate a product suitable for melt
spinning, with a low volatility and filtered to remove solid particles. A wiped film
evaporator is used to remove the low volatility components from the pitch, and the
molten pitch is filtered to remove the solid impurities. This refining process raises
the softening point by avoiding the formation of mesophase. At the end, the
aromaticity of the pitch has been increased and became suitable for melt spinning.
To produce HP-grade pitch-based CF, usage of mesophase pitch is critical. Both
isotropic and mesophase pitch CF are made from the same feedstock. An isotropic
pitch, when pyrolyzed at about 425°C, generates a liquid-/crystal-type structure
containing domains of highly oriented molecules named mesophase [1]. During
the mesophase formation, domains of highly parallel, platelike molecules form and
coalesce until 100% anisotropic material may be obtained [6]. Over the years,
several methods have been investigated for the synthesis of mesophase pitch: (a)
pyrolysis of pitch, (b) solvent extraction, (c) hydrogenation, and (d) catalytic
modification. The catalytic method is preferred in the pretreatment of pitch for the
best control of the processing parameters and the quality of the pitch [7]. It is
claimed that a pitch suitable for spinning should preferably contain 40%–90%
mesophase, with domain sizes greater than 200 μm, which will then produce a
fiber with a highly oriented structure. Domain sizes smaller than 100 μm are
observed unsuitable for spinning [1].
The pitch-based precursors are generated by melt spinning in an extruder. Melt
spinning of pitch is difficult because of the rheological properties of molten pitch,
and very narrow processing conditions are required. Especially, the viscosity of the
mesophase is extremely temperature-dependent and the jet temperature should be
accurately controlled, as a change of ± 3.5°C at jet face will produce ± 15% variation
in the diameter. Also, too high temperature results thermal degradation of the
pitch or dripping owing to low viscosity. The melt-spinning process involves three
steps: melting the precursor, extrusion through a spinneret capillary, and drawing
the fibers as they cool. Solid chips of pitch are fed through the hopper of a screw
extruder fitted with off-gassing ports and evenly heated to give a uniform feed of
molten pitch to the filter and then spinneret at the exit of the extruder. Pitch
spinnerets have a multiplicity of holes, which must be spaced about 1.1 mm apart
of each other to avoid interfilament fusing [1]. Some initial orientation occurs as
the molten pitch passes through the capillaries. After emerging from the
capillaries, it is cooled by quench air. When it is still hot, the solid fiber is drawn
before windup to give a highly oriented precursor fiber. This precursor fiber will not
need further drawing at any subsequent carbonizing process. Fiber handling in the
windup is difficult due to the low strength of the as-spun mesophase pitch (tensile
strength around 0.04 GPa). Mesophase CFs usually have a larger diameter of 10–
15 μm compared with 5–7 μm diameter for PAN carbon fibers. This is because
larger diameter mesophase precursor fibers are preferred for easy handling and
higher carbon yield; thus, size reduction in carbonization process is smaller [11].
Processing speeds up to 1000 m/min are quoted.
Spun mesophase pitch precursor fibers have a microstructure consisting of well-
oriented polyaromatic molecules in microdomains. These microstructures are
described as discotic nematic liquid crystals [7].
Read full chapter

Carbon nanofibers-reinforced polymer nanocomposites

as efficient microwave absorber
Dipak K. Setua, ... N. Eswara Prasad, in
Fiber-Reinforced Nanocomposites: Fundamentals and Applications, 2020
Abbreviations
ACF
activated carbon fibers
ALD
atomic layer deposition
AZO
aluminum-doped ZnO
BC
bacterial cellulose
BCN
borocarbonitride
catalytic chemical vapor deposition
CFs
carbon fibers
CgFs
collagen fibers
carbon nanofibers
carbon nanospheres
CNTs
carbon nanotubes
CoAc
cobalt acetylacetonate
CVD
chemical Vapor Deposition
EM
electromagnetic
FeAc
iron acetylacetonate
FHCNBs
ferromagnetic hierarchical CNF bundles
graphene oxide
HCFs
hollow carbon fibers
HCNFs
hollow carbon nanofibers
HlCNFs
helical carbon fibers
IACFFSs
inductive activated carbon-fiber felt screens
linear low-density polyethylene
lanthanum–strontium manganese oxide
MTS
methyltrichlorosilane
MWCNTs
multiwall carbon nanotubes
natural rubber
PAN
polyacrylonitrile
PCFs
porous carbon fibers
porous carbon nanotube
PDMS
polydimethylsiloxane
PMMA
polymethylmethacrylate
PS
polyester
polyurethane
PVA
polyvinyl alcohol
PVDF
polyvinylidene fluoride
PVP
polyvinyl pyrrolidone
radar absorbing materials
RAS
radar absorbing structures
RL
reflection loss
SiC nanofibers
SWCNT
single wall CNT
VACFs
vertical-arranged carbon fibers
VNA
vector network analyzer
Read full chapter

Improving wear resistance of polyolefins

Vincent Ojijo, Emmanuel R. Sadiku, in Polyolefin Fibres (Second Edition), 2017
13.5.4.1.2 Carbon fibre reinforcement

Carbon fibres are usually used for reinforcement of various polymers due to its
high specific strength among other properties. Very little has however been
reported on the reinforcement of PP with carbon fibre for the purposes of
enhancement of wear resistance [83,84]. In one study, surface treatment of the
carbon fibre was deemed important for its dispersion in PP and improvement of
interfacial adhesion [83]. The carbon fibre was treated with dielectric barrier
discharges (DBD) in ambient air to improve its surface activity. The wear rate and
coefficient of friction of the polypropylene filled with DBD-treated carbon fibre
were lower than those of untreated carbon fibre composite. This was attributed to
the better interfacial adhesion as a result of the surface treatment of carbon fibre
[83].
Read full chapter
Radiation Technology Application in High-Performance

Fibers and Functional Textiles
Weihua Liu, ... Guozhong Wu, in Radiation Technology for Advanced Materials,
2019
2.2.3 Radiation modification of carbon fiber

CF is usually used as a reinforced fiber, and CF reinforced materials are the most
widely used. However, due to the lack of active functional groups on the surface of
CF, its surface energy is low, and the surface inertia of CF is relatively large. To
make full use of the high performance of CF, it is necessary to improve its surface
properties and enhance the wettability and cohesiveness between the fiber and the
matrix resin. CF surface modification methods can be mainly classified into two
categories: (1) oxidation methods, such as electrochemical oxidation and chemical
oxidation (2) nonoxidizing methods, such as whisker growth, surface coating, and
radiation modification. Radiation modification is an efficient, environmentally
friendly and very promising modification method.
High energy irradiation can increase the surface roughness of CF by atomic
displacement. Meanwhile, some oxygen-containing functional groups, such as
hydroxyl groups, ether bonds and carboxyl groups, can be introduced on the
surface, and the mechanical properties of CF are not impaired. The carboxyl groups
can effectively improve the interface binding between the CF surface and the matrix
resin, thereby enhancing the strength of the composite. The CFs were irradiated in
air or epoxy solution and the changes in structure and properties of CFs were
further studied using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), torsion brazing
analysis, micro-off testing, and other methods.19 The results showed that the ILSS
of CF reinforced composites increased by 37%. The improvement in the ILSS of
CF/epoxy composites could be attributed to the enhancement of interfacial
adhesion strength of the fiber and matrix after radiation grafting.
In addition to the direct radiation modification of CF, radiation grafting is also an
effective modification method that can not only improve the surface roughness of
CF, but also increase the surface activity, and improve the surface energy of the CF
surface by introducing a large number of reaction functional groups. Radiation
grafting also promotes the interface reactions between the CF and matrix resin,
and enhances the interfacial strength of the composite. An epoxy resin matrix
composite were made by γ-ray irradiation grafting of epoxy resin, epoxy
chloropropane, and acrylic acid (AA) onto the surface of CF (Fig. 2.25). Compared
with untreated CF epoxy composites, the ILSS of grafted CF epoxy composite was
raised by 21.8%, 18.1%, and 17.5%, respectively.20
Figure 2.25. Effect of γ-ray irradiation grafting on ILSS of carbon fiber/epoxy.20

ILSS, Interlaminar shear strength.
Read full chapter
Sustainable synthetic fibre production

T. Karthik, R. Rathinamoorthy, in Sustainable Fibres and Textiles, 2017
8.6.8 Carbon fibre remanufacturing

Carbon Fibre Remanufacturing (CFR) develops new products for industrial,
commercial and retail product applications using reclaimed carbon fibre. The
company developed an alternative to landfilling of excess postindustrial carbon
fibre materials. It was estimated that 30% of carbon fibre from the composites
industry becomes excess or part of the waste stream in the manufacturing process.
The company developed carbon fibre fire-retardant fabric, insulation,
friction/brakes, filtration, thermal barriers and laminate compounds using
reclaimed carbon fibre waste from composite industries. Remanufactured carbon
fibres retain 100% of their virgin properties. They can be cut to specified lengths;
be incorporated into nonwoven rolled cloth, veil, mat/felt product; and
compounded to specifications for bulk and sheet-moulded product applications
(Van de Velde and Kiekens, 2002). CFR is in various stages of moving excess
postindustrial carbon fibres into various carbon fibre material forms as well as
working with an increasing number of fabric and composite firms in the
development of final whole goods (Anon, 2015). Reclaimed carbon fibres are
optimized when produced in various broad goods, including:
• veil/cloth for fire-retardant benefits for pultruded products
• fabric-in blend with other fibres, producing fire-retardant and self-
extinguishing results
• felts/mats to preform for friction/brakes and rigid insulation product for high-
temperature industrial furnaces
• carbonized: advancing broad goods to designed carbon content levels
optimizes their use in bulk and sheet-moulded composite laminates
Read full chapter

Electromagnetic Shielding Capabilities of Metal Matrix

Composites
Anisha Chaudhary, ... Dipen K. Rajak, in Encyclopedia of Materials: Composites,
2021
Carbon fibers
Carbon fibers are very strong and lightweight strands of interconnected hexagonal
carbon atoms or graphene sheets with about 5–10 µm in diameter. The excellent
properties of carbon fibers such as high strength (five times higher than steel),
high stiffness (2 times higher than steel), lightweight, chemical and thermal
stability and low thermal expansion made them very popular as an ideal material in
many industrial applications. Carbon fibers are made by the series of process
involving spinning a long strand of fibers, stabilization at low temperature in
presence of oxygen followed by carbonization to a very high temperature in
absence of oxygen and finally treating the surface and sizing. Generally,
polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is used for making turbostratic carbon fibers and
mesophase pitches are used for making graphitic carbon fibers. A carbon-matrix
composite containing continuous carbon fibers are recently reported as an
excellent EMI shielding materials. Carbon fibers composite are the desired choice
of materials over the traditional metallic alloys. Nickel and copper coated carbon
fibers have been reported in this regard which shows excellent EMI shielding
properties. The high electrical conductivity, high aspect ratio, ferromagnetic
behavior and small diameter favors absorption of EMI radiations (Lu et al., 1996;
Shui and Chung, 2000). Similarly, polymer-based composites with carbon fibers as
reinforcement are gaining attention because carbon fibers forms of a conductive
network path within the nonconductive polymer matrix and enhances its EMI
shielding ability. The conductive network depends on the fibers length and
improves if the longer length fibers used. Luo and Chung (1999) compare the EMI
shielding abilities of the long length continuous carbon fibers with short carbon
fibers and found that former shows higher EMI shielding properties. Likewise,
when short carbon fiber was compared at the same concentration with carbon
black powder, higher aspect ratio of short carbon fiber provided a better shielding
performance than the latter (Sau et al., 1998).
Read full chapter

Lightning strike damage on carbon fiber-reinforced

composites: Prediction and protection
Huixin Zhu, ... Bin Yang, in Composite Materials, 2021
Abstract
Carbon fiber-reinforced composites (CFRCs) are increasingly used to replace metal
alloys in aerospace industries, due to their high strength-to-weight ratio and high
stiffness-to-weight ratio. However, the wide use of CFRCs in the main structures of
an aircraft raises the potential threat of damage by lightning strike. Compared to
their metallic counterparts, CFRCs have much lower electrical conductivity, which
may not easily conduct away high lightning current. As such, lightning causes
intensive heating within CFRCs, resulting in ablation damage such as the pyrolysis
of matrices and vaporization of carbon fibers. To prevent lightning strike damage
to CFRCs, lightning strike protection (LSP) systems such as metal mesh or
conductive carbon coating have been embedded in or attached to composite
surfaces to facilitate the conduction of high lightning current. This chapter details
the recent advances in lightning strike damage prediction models and protection
techniques for CFRCs in aerospace applications. Associated factors affecting direct
damage to CFRCs are initially covered. Numerical modeling of lightning strike
damage to CFRCs is the main topic of interest, and advantages and drawbacks of
existing models are holistically reviewed and discussed. The effectiveness of LSP is
further elaborated, with the final outline of a roadmap for future research
directions in this field.
Read full chapter

Carbon Fibers and Their Thermal Transporting

Properties
FuKe Wang, in Thermal Transport in Carbon-Based Nanomaterials, 2017
6.1 Introduction
Carbon fibers are the top one choice fiber in industry due to their high tensile
strength, low densities, good thermal and electrical conductivities, and high
thermal and chemical stabilities [1–4]. Carbon fibers were first employed by
Thomas Edison. In 1897, he baked the cotton threads at high temperatures to
carbonize them into pure carbon fiber filament for his incandescent light bulb
experiments [5]. Practical uses of carbon fibers started in the 1960s when the
manufacturing of high mechanical strength and stiffness carbon fibers was
developed from Rayon. High mechanical performance carbon fibers were
subsequently developed based on two scientists research work: In the early of
1960s, Dr. Akio Shindo from Japan developed the pre-oxidation process to increase
the ratio of carbon to above 55% by using polyacrylonitrile (PAN) as a raw material.
He made the carbon fibers from PAN in lab, which showed a modulus of more
than 140 GPa, around 3 times higher than the Rayon-based carbon fibers at that
time [6]. In 1963, Dr. William Watt from United Kingdom developed the process to
prepare high potential strength of carbon fiber by maintaining the PAN chains
parallel to the fiber axis through tension in the early stages of pyrolysis [7]. Both
inventions of Shindo and Watt eventually lead to the modern PAN high-
performance carbon fibers manufacturing, and the PAN-based carbon fibers
dominate the world market till now.
Currently the biggest user of carbon fibers is the aerospace industry because
carbon fibers are lighter and stronger than their metal counterparts. However, not
all the carbon fibers are strong enough for aerospace industry. The properties and
performance of carbon fibers depends strongly on the manufacturing process and
the starting precursor materials [8,9]. Different precursors require different
conditions but the essential processes are similar. Generally the carbon fiber
manufacture requires a heating and stretching treatment to get the high strength
products. A thermoset treatment is first applied in the temperature range from 200
to 400 °C in air under stretching to get the stabilized fiber, followed by a
carbonization process in the temperature range from 800 to 1500 °C in the oxygen-
free conditions to remove impurities and to improve the crystallinity of carbon. To
further improve the performance of carbon fibers, a graphitization process is
required to graphitize carbonized fibers with temperature up to 3000 °C. During
these processes, stretching is required to get preferred orientated carbon
crystalline [10,11].
Depends on the manufacturing conditions, the resulting carbon fibers can be in
crystalline, amorphous, or partly crystalline. The crystalline region is quite similar
to graphite where 𝑠𝑝2 hybridized carbon atoms are bonded covalently in a honey-
comb lattice, forming the graphene layer. In each graphene layer, the 𝑠𝑝2
hybridized orbital overlap and delocalize the π electrons similar as metallic bonds.
These hybridized π-bonds are responsible for the high electrical and thermal
conductivity of carbon fibers. These graphene layers are stacked parallel to one
another via weak van der Waals bonds. However, it is hard to get perfect crystalline
carbon in carbon fibers, and the base unit in most of carbon fibers is the stack of
turbostratic layers. Figure 6.1 shows a typical structure of carbon fibers containing
the microdomains of parallel graphene sheets, defect and disclination regions.
These domains could twist, fold and join each other in the carbon fibers [12].
Figure 6.1. Microdomains in a carbon fiber. A: skin region; B: core region; C:

hairpin defect; D: wedge disclination. Reproduced with permission. (Ref. [12].)
Copyright © 2013 Elsevier
Based on the fiber structure and degree of crystallite orientation, together with the
mechanical performance, carbon fibers have been classified in the following
groups: ultrahigh-modulus (UHM), high-modulus (HM), intermediate-modulus
(IM), Standard elastic modulus type (HT), and Low elastic modulus type (LM) (Table
6.1) [13]. Both UHM and HM carbon fibers are highly graphitized at temperature
between 2000 to 3000 °C, and they are characterized by a high modulus (>350
GPa). They are assigned to the high modulus type I carbon fibers in some reviews
and articles. The type II carbon fibers are called high strength fibers but low
modulus due to the lower heat treatment temperature (∼1500–2000 °C). It
includes both IM and HT carbon fibers, and the tensile strength of IM carbon
fibers can be greater than 3 GPa with a strength-to-modulus ratio > 1 × 10−2 .
Type III is what people called isotropic carbon fibers which show a random
orientation of the crystallites and possess a modulus lower than 100 GPa. The main
advantages of type III carbon fibers are their low cost and large quantities due to
low heat treatment temperature, mainly used for thermal insulation, heating
elements, filters, concrete, and sports products [14].
Table 6.1. Classification of carbon fibers
Classes of carbon Tensile Tensile Heat treatment Crystallite

fibers elastic strength temperature orientation
modulus (MPa) (°C)
(GPa)
Ultra high elastic 600 or 2500 or >2000 largely parallel

modulus type higher higher to fiber axis
(UHM)
High elastic 350–600 2500 or >2000 largely parallel

modulus type higher to fiber axis
(HM)
Intermediate 280–350 3500 or ∼1500–2000 Largely

elastic modulus higher parallel to
type (IM) fiber axis
Standard elastic 200–280 2500 or ∼1500 largely parallel

modulus type higher to fiber axis
(HT)
Low elastic 200 or lower 3500 or <1000 Random

modulus type lower
(LM)
Carbon fibers could also be classified based on their commercial availability into
high performance (HP) carbon fibers, general-purpose (GP) carbon fibers, and
activated carbon fibers (ACF). GP-carbon fibers have low tensile strength and
modulus but with low cost, mostly ascribed to the isotropic carbon fibers. HP
carbon fibers are characterized by their remarkable mechanical strength and
modulus that arising from their higher content graphitic carbon and more
anisotropy, which is mostly used in the carbon fibers reinforced polymer
composites (CFRPs) for aircraft industry. These carbon fibers are also used in metal
matrices (e.g. aluminum) for high-temperature aerospace applications such as in
Space Shuttle. ACFs are the carbon fibers with large specific surface area and
micro-pore volume, mainly used as adsorbents, membrane for separation and
purification, and catalytic supports [15–19]. ACFs have now been drawn more
attention in energy materials as adsorbents for hydrogen and CO2. ACFs showed
substantially higher CO2 absorption than the well-known adsorbent materials such
as MOF-5, zeolite, and active carbon owing to their nano-pore structures and
specific CO2 affinity of ACF surfaces [20].
Till bow, there is only few companies include Toray, Mitsubishi Chemical, Hexcel,
Toho Tenax, and Zoltek, SGL carbon, Cytec Engineered Materials, and Nippon
Graphite Fiber Corporation have succeeded in the mass production of carbon
fibers due to the multistage manufacturing processes of carbon fibers. Among
these companies, Toray in Japan is the recognized worldwide leader in the carbon
fiber industry, and is the largest producer of PAN-based carbon fibers.
The PAN-based carbon fibers can be divided into small tows and large tows fiber.
The small tow means the carbon fibers with 3 to 24 K monofilaments, most often
standing for high performance carbon fibers that can be used for all kind of
applications. The large tows have 48 to 320 K monofilaments, which are mainly
used for less demanding applications. The main PAN-based carbon fibers
producers are listed in Table 6.2 according to their capability and brands name.
Table 6.2. Worldwide producer for PAN-based carbon fibers [21]
Producer Brand Main fibers Production capacities in

name type 2010 (tonnes)
Toray Group Torayca Small tows 20,900
Toho Tenax Co. Ltd. Tenax Small tows 13,500
Mitsubishi Rayon Co. Ltd Pyrofil, Small tows 10,100

Grafil
Formosa Plastics Group Tairyfil Small tows 8750
Hexcel HexTow Small tows 5800
Cytec Engineered Thornel Small tows 3000

Materials
Dalian Xingke Carbon Small tows 760

Fiber Co., China
Aksa Turkey Aksaca Small tows 1500
ZOLTEK Group Panex large tows 13,500
SGL Group Sigrafil large tows 6000
Read full chapter

Manufacture and application of lignin-based carbon

fibers and lignin-based carbon nanofibers
Jiayuan Wei, Kristiina Oksman, in
Micro and Nanolignin in Aqueous Dispersions and Polymers, 2022
4.1 Composite reinforcement

Carbon fiber-reinforced composites are very important materials for lightweight
construction and it is reported that more than 60% of the steel used in a vehicle
can be replaced by carbon-fiber-reinforced composites without impacting the
safety of the vehicle (Baker et al., 2012). In 1992, Sudo and Shimizu reported the
preparation of carbon fibers from steam-exploded lignin. After melt spinning of
lignin, thermal stabilization and carbonization of the spun fibers, carbon fibers
with a fiber diameter of 7.6 μm were obtained. These lignin-based carbon fibers
have an elastic modulus of 40.7 GPa and a tensile strength of 660 MPa (Sudo &
Shimizu, 1992). Uraki et al. (Uraki et al., 1997) extracted lignin from birch using an
aqueous acid pulping method. The melt-spinning efficiency of the obtained lignin
was improved by heat treatment or fractionation by pH inversion. The final carbon
fibers have a strength of up to 355 MPa and a modulus of 39.1 GPa. Kadla et al.
(Kadla et al., 2002) produced carbon fibers from commercially available kraft lignin
by melt spinning. It is reported that the excellent spinnability of the kraft lignin can
be achieved by thermal pretreatment under a vacuum. The final tensile strength of
the carbon fibers ranges from 400 to 550 MPa and the modulus is between 30 and
60 GPa.
Despite the possibilities of converting lignin-based fibers to carbon fibers, very few
studies on using these carbon fibers as reinforcements in composites have been
reported. The reason is probably due to the poor mechanical properties of the
lignin-based carbon fibers as shown above. For example, carbon fibers used in the
automotive industry are supposed to have a tensile strength of 1.72 GPa and a
modulus of 172 GPa (Baker & Rials, 2013).
Therefore, the mechanical properties of lignin-based carbon fibers need to be
improved to be used as reinforcements in composites.
Read full chapter

Recommended publications
Carbon
Journal
European Structural Integrity Society

Book series
Advances in Filament Yarn Spinning of Textiles and

Polymers
Book • 2014
Materials in Sports Equipment, Volume 2

Book • 2007
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4/19/23, 8:16 PM Carbon Fiber - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

Resin, Graphene, Carbon Nanotubes, Mechanical Strength, Epoxy, Graphite,

Read full chapter

6.2.2 Pitch based precursors

Read full chapter

Carbon nanofibers-reinforced polymer nanocomposites

Read full chapter

Improving wear resistance of polyolefins

13.5.4.1.2 Carbon fibre reinforcement

Radiation Technology Application in High-Performance

2.2.3 Radiation modification of carbon fiber

Figure 2.25. Effect of γ-ray irradiation grafting on ILSS of carbon fiber/epoxy.20

Sustainable synthetic fibre production

8.6.8 Carbon fibre remanufacturing

Read full chapter

Electromagnetic Shielding Capabilities of Metal Matrix

Read full chapter

Lightning strike damage on carbon fiber-reinforced

Read full chapter

Carbon Fibers and Their Thermal Transporting

Figure 6.1. Microdomains in a carbon fiber. A: skin region; B: core region; C:

Table 6.1. Classification of carbon fibers

Classes of carbon Tensile Tensile Heat treatment Crystallite

Ultra high elastic 600 or 2500 or &gt;2000 largely parallel

High elastic 350–600 2500 or &gt;2000 largely parallel

Intermediate 280–350 3500 or ∼1500–2000 Largely

Standard elastic 200–280 2500 or ∼1500 largely parallel

Low elastic 200 or lower 3500 or &lt;1000 Random

Table 6.2. Worldwide producer for PAN-based carbon fibers [21]

Producer Brand Main fibers Production capacities in

Toray Group Torayca Small tows 20,900

Toho Tenax Co. Ltd. Tenax Small tows 13,500

Mitsubishi Rayon Co. Ltd Pyrofil, Small tows 10,100

Formosa Plastics Group Tairyfil Small tows 8750

Hexcel HexTow Small tows 5800

Cytec Engineered Thornel Small tows 3000

Dalian Xingke Carbon Small tows 760

Aksa Turkey Aksaca Small tows 1500

ZOLTEK Group Panex large tows 13,500

SGL Group Sigrafil large tows 6000

Read full chapter

Manufacture and application of lignin-based carbon

4.1 Composite reinforcement

Read full chapter

European Structural Integrity Society

Advances in Filament Yarn Spinning of Textiles and

Materials in Sports Equipment, Volume 2

Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors.

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Ultra high elastic 600 or 2500 or >2000 largely parallel

High elastic 350–600 2500 or >2000 largely parallel

Low elastic 200 or lower 3500 or <1000 Random