Chapter Three

By Abdi A. (Asst. Prof.)

Feb. 2024
 3.1. Emergence of States
 3.2. Ancient States in the Ethiopia & the
Horn
 3.3. External Contacts
 3.4. Economic Formations
 3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements
 The process of state formation in the Horn had a
very long history. In such a way, several pre-
Aksumite states might have flourished and declined
for reasons that we do not certainly know.
 Owing to its nearness to the Red Sea and the center
of ancient civilization of Egypt and Mesopotamia, it
seems that the earliest states first emerged in the
northern part of the region.
 In fact, the process did not stop there since later on a
series of states came into being in various parts of
Ethiopia.
 The main problem in the study of these states is
shortage of sources to reconstruct their history.
 What does a state mean?

 Can you name some of the earliest states in

Ethiopia and the Horn?

 Could you explain how Ethiopian people in

different geographical locations maintained
relationships.

 Explain how religion facilitates peoples’

relations.
 What does a State Mean?
 State refers to an autonomous political unit
having population, defined territory,
sovereignty and government with the power to
decree and enforce laws.
 State is a politically organized group of people
usually occupying a definite territory, having a
government with coercive powers and
supreme authority that maintains a monopoly
of the legitimate use of force within a
territory, whose borders are usually clearly
defined and internationally recognized by
other states.
? How and when exactly the state originated?
 we cannot be certain and exact in estimating out
the date of origin of the state.
 It, therefore, compels us to know the various
propositions regarding the origin and hence so
many theories telling their own ways.
 Important Theories of the Origin of State
• Divine origin theory;
• Force Theory;
• Social Contract Theory;
. Historical/Evolutionary theory; and
1. Divine Right Theory
 is the oldest theory,

 State is a divinely created institution.(created by God)

and governed by His deputy or vicegerent.
 The state was created by God for the benefit of all
people and is governed by God Himself, who sends
His representative to do so.
 The ruler was a divinely appointed agent and he
was responsible for his actions to God alone.
 As the ruler was the deputy of God, obedience to him
was held to be a religious duty and resistance a sin.
 Nobody could limit his will and restrict his power.

 To complain against the authority of the ruler and to

characterize his actions as unjust was a sin for which
there was divine punishment.
 This theory held that it was God's will for humans to
live in a political society, and that as a result, God
created the state to save humanity from extinction.
 The theory holds that the King is God's divinely
appointed agent and representative, and that he is
therefore accountable to God rather than the people.
 On Earth, the King has unrestricted power, and no one
can challenge his authority. The King's actions and
orders are supposed to be just and beneficent.
 All of the King's powers and authority come from God,
and resisting the King's authority is a form of
disobedience to God, and thus a sin. People's
obedience to the King, according to this theory, is a
religious duty.
2. Social Contract Theory
 This theory held that the state came into being
as a result of a contract or agreement between
people.
 This theory considers the state of nature to be
mankind's original condition.
 There was no organization or authority in the
state of nature to regulate human behaviour and
relations with one another.
 Each man living therein led a life of his own,
uncontrolled by any laws of human imposition.
 In the state of nature life is „solitary, poor, nasty,
brutish and short‟.
 Individuals therefore seek to escape from the state of
nature by entering into a social contract, recognizing
that only a sovereign power can secure order and
stability.
 As a result, the people entered into a deliberate
contract that obliges citizens to respect and obey the
state, ultimately in gratitude for the stability and
security that only a system of political rule can deliver
and thus the state was born.
 Therefore, according to this theory, the state is a
human institution and the result of a human contract.
 The state is established by the people for the benefit
of the people.
 The three great thinkers: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke,
and Jean Jacques Rousseau
3. Force Theory
 This theory is of the view that might is right, it
traces the origin of state to conquest and
coercion where the powerful ones impose their
right over the weaker ones.
 A person physically stronger can capture and
enslaved the weak.
 Having increased the number of his followers,
over whom he exercised undisputed authority,
he became a tribal chief.
 This process of conquest and domination
continued till the victorious tribe secured
control over a definite territory.
 It is believed that government exists to protect
and advance the interest of the dominant
groups in the society by enacting law in their
own interest.
 Karl Max support this theory by pointing out
that the state is nothing but the executive
committee of the bourgeoisie.
 He said that the state is nothing more than a
machine for the oppression of one class by
another.
 In other words, it is an instrument of class
oppression.
4. Evolutionary or Historical Theory
 For this theory the state is a natural institution.

 Modern sociological, historical, and

anthropological research have all contributed to
the theory.
 This theory contends that the state did not

 emerge suddenly, but rather as a result of a slow

and steady evolution extending over a long
period of time and shaping itself into the
complex structure of a modern State.
 Social instinct, kinship, force or war, religion,
economic activities, and political consciousness
have all played a role in the evolution of the
state.
 Historically, states arose independently in
different places and at different times, for
example, it emerged in Ethiopia and the Horn
independently from other parts of the world.
 One important factor for the emergence of states
was the beginning of sedentary agriculture which
made people to engage in farming by forming
settlement.
 Intermediaries (traders) also began to buy
agricultural products of sedentary people.
 In such way states were formed mainly through
the expansion of agriculture that gave rise to
class differentiation.
 Moreover, the growth of trade facilitated the
development of states.
 The first states were theocratic states, where priests
maintained the social and religious affairs of their
people.
 Gradually, however, as production became market
oriented, the priests were gradually replaced by
chiefs, who began collecting regular and compulsory
tributes known as protection payments.
 Hence, Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in
Africa, where early state formation took place.
 From small beginnings, such states gradually
developed into powerful kingdoms and even empires
with a well-demarcated social structure.
 In North and Northeast
A. Punt
 Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the
Horn.
Evidence for the existence of Punt:
 Egyptian hieroglyphic writings and vivid paintings tell us a
series of naval expeditions, which the Egyptian
Pharaohs/kings sent to Punt. For example:
 1.Expedition sent by Pharaoh Sahure (r.2743-2731 B.C.) to
collect myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy).
 2.Expedition sent by the Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut
(1490-1468 B.C.), under the leadership of Black Nubian
Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat and the expedition was
welcomed by Punt‟s King Perehu and his wife Ati.
 The expedition was able to return collecting
frankincense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods
(sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard
and leopard skins, ostrich feathers and egg,
monkeys, giraffes, people, etc.
 Exports of Punt to Egypt: Iron, bronze, foxes,
cattle, animals fur, dying and medicinal plants
 Its imports from Egypt: axes, daggers, swords,
knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces,
beads and other trinkets(cheap jewelry).
 Where do you think is the exact location of Punt state?
 The exact location of Punt has remained vague.
 Some scholars suggest that Punt might be located in
Northern or Northeastern Somalia because of the
reference to incense and myrrh. Some others suggest
that Punt might be located in Northern Ethiopia
because of the reference to gold, ebony and
monkeys.
 The latter group argue that at that early period,
Egyptian sailboats might not have been strong
enough to pass through the Strait of Bab-el Mandeb
into the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean.
 Considering the two suggestions, still some others
argue that it probably stretched from Swakim or
Massawa to Babel Mandeb and Cape Guardafui.
 It was the first locally known state, while the second
regionally known state (next to Punt state)
 The state of Da‟amat had a center a located to the
south of Aksum.
 According to the inscription of the king of Da‟amat ,
dated to the 5th C. BC Da‟amat king‟s is said to have
used politico-religious title known as Mukarib and
worshipped various gods and goddesses like
Almouqah (principal god), Astarr (Venus god),
Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin
(moon god).
 There were similar practices in South Arabia at the
time.
 i) The State of Yeha
 located to the Northeast of Aksum and was the
oldest of all centers next to Damat.
 It probably emerged around 1, 000 BC as a small
center where South Arabian merchants and their
agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros horn
and other goods.
 reached its climax from about 750 to 500 B.C.
 Remains of walls of some of its buildings and
stone masonry as well as still standing temple
and inscriptions indicate Yeha‟s glory.
ii) The State of Hawulti Melazo
 is situated to southeast of Aksum

 is a site where stone tablets that are inscribed

in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall
decorated with paintings representing herds of
cattle have been excavated.
iii) The State of Addi-Seglemen
 is located to southwest of Aksum,

 Is a site where a stone slab is found and the

oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is
discovered.
 The exact time when Aksum emerged as a center of
state is not certain because of the lack of sources.
 But based on the document known as the Periplus of
Eritrean Sea, scholars assume the origin of this state
in the middle of the 2nd C BC.(b/n 200-100 B.C.)
 Originally, it was small and it was expanded and
enlarged gradually in all directions
 What do you think is the Periplus of Eritrean Sea ?
 It was a document written around 50 AD.
 Is a manual or handbook used by merchants who
frequently come to the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and
Indian Ocean.
 Written by anonymous writer (Its author is not known.
 It gives a detailed account of the Aksumite state and
the ports on the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden coasts.
 According to this document Adulis was the port of
the city of Aksum and the king of Aksum was called
Zoscales, who could communicate with Greek.
 Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and
Laodicea (Asia Minor).
 In its heydays Aksum's territorial extent came to
include the whole region between the Red Sea coast
in the east, the highland region overlooking the Blue
Nile (Abbay) river in the west, the northern tip of
Eritrea in the north, and northern Shawa in the south.
 Even some sources indicate that the Aksumite
influences extended beyond these areas.
 The Adulis inscription which eventually was
published in Cosmas Indicopleustes‟ book, the
Christian Topography, describes commercial
activities of the Red Sea areas.
 It also mentions the internal long distance trade
between Aksum and a distant region called Sasu,
most probably in Beni Shangul and the adjoining
lands beyond the Blue Nile.
 Furthermore, it describes the existence of “silent
trade”
 Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside
world notably with the South Arabian region which led to
exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture.
 Occasionally, the contact involved conflict. E.g. Around
200A.D, the army of Aksumite king Gadarat attacked and
posed threats on peoples in Southern Arabian Peninsula,
in the present day Yemen.
 From the 3rd to 7th centuries, Aksumite kings like
Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. minted
and issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and
bronze for both overseas and local transactions.
 Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i.
e. Roman Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at the time.
 Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum
beyond Himyar and Saba.
 It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed
Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgical songs and hymns.
Decline of the Aksumite State
 The Aksumite state declined since the late seventh
century because of internal and external challenges.
 With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the
Arabs around 702 AD
 Rise and expansion Muslims Arab which isolated the
Aksum state from its old commercial and diplomatic
partners.
 Environmental degradation,

 decline in agricultural productivity

 plague infestation started to weaken it.

 local rebellions challenged its hegemony.

 For eg. rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen

Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse
of the Aksumite state.
Its major achievements:
 Surviving indigenous script and calendar as well
as EOC hymns and chants,
 paintings; diversified ceramic tools, ivory
curving,
 urbanization and sophisticated building
traditions (palaces, stele, churches).
 It developed complex administrative and
governance system,
 It also developed agricultural system including
irrigation.
Background
 Agaw elites took part in Aksumite state
structure serving as soldiers and
functionaries for at least four centuries.
 After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling
class, they successfully took over the state
administration.
 Accordingly, the Agaw prince Merra
Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, the
daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od.
 Later, he overthrew his father-in-law and took
control of power.
 Its political center: was in Bugna District within Wag
and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
 Its territory: extended from most of the highland
provinces of the ancient Aksumite kingdom in the
north down to northern Shewa in the south, the Lake
Tana region and the northern part of what is today
Gojjam in the west.
 Trade: The Agaw kings maintained the Aksumite
traditions. They renewed cultural and trade contact
with eastern Mediterranean region.
 Exports: Slaves, ivory and rare spices
 Imports: Cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels,
drags and coins.
 Achievements:
 paintings and the translation of some religious
works from Arabic into Ge'ez, construction of caves,
rock-hewn-monolithic churches of Lalibela.
 For eg. among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete
Medhanelem is the largest of all and Bete Giyorgis is
said to be the most finely built in the shape of the
cross.
 Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem,
and even avoid difficulties, which Ethiopian
Christians encountered in their journey to the Holy
Lands.
 This was done by constructing churches based on
the model of Holy Lands in Israel.
 Its Collapse: was due to internal problems of
royal succession and oppositions from groups
claiming descent from the ancient rulers of
Aksum who referred the Zagwe as “illegitimate
rulers.”
 Then, Yekuno-Amlak (r.1270-1285) members of
the power claimants or the Solomonic Dynasty
fought and killed the last king of Zagwe,
Yetbarek and took power and „restored‟ the
Solomonic Dynasty which later stayed in power
for many centuries
 Bizamo (establishment-in 8th century and it
was located opposite to the present area of
Gojjam and around the current Wambara area);
 Damot, located in south of Abay, had
renowned king in the 13th century known as
Motalami;
 Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in
southwestern Ethiopia and its royal clan was
called Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso);
 Gafat, unclear whether Gafat was a state or
not but it is claimed that its mountains were
rich in gold.
 Shewa where Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D
(283 A.H.) was established;
 Fatagar was founded around Minjar, Shenkora
and Ada‟a in the eleventh century and known for
cultivation of wheat and barley, fruits as wells as
herding of cattle, sheep and goats;
 Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper
waters of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle extending to
Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast
and it had a currency called hakuna;

34
 Bali was an extensive kingdom occupying
high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle
and Rift valley Lakes;
 Ifat was a state located in the adjacent to
Shewan Sultanate.
 It was the strongest of all sultanates. Its
territory ran from northeast-southwesterly
in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash. It
was established by Umar Walasma who
came to Ifat b/n1271 and 1285.
External contact of Ethiopia and the Horn:
1)With Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C. It was a form of earliest
contacts with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman
World.
2) With South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before
1,000 B.C.
3) With the East Roman or Byzantine Empire, a contact came
following the introduction of Christianity to Aksum, and Aksum
and the Byzantine Empire had also commercial contacts which
declined in the 7th C due to the expansion of Islam in the region.
4.With India and Persia-commercial relation was established
Such contacts around the middle of the 12th century had made
Europeans to regard Ethiopian Highland Christian Kingdom as
the land of Prester John. 36
Economy:
1. Agriculture
2. Agriculture was basic economic activity in
highland parts and it consisted of use of local
irrigation technology and soil fertility techniques.
 Land tenure system (for its holding, sharing and
using)
 Common land tenure system of ancient time
comprised communal right to land which was a
group right of the family, clan and lineage.
 Peasants in the north had rist rights in their
respective areas.
 Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land. 37
 The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
 But they paid tributes to the state which was
collected by state functionaries or officials who were
given gult right over the areas and populations they
administered on behalf of the state.
 Gult is a right to levy/impose tribute on rist owners‟
produce.
 The tribute collected by bale-gults, partly allotted for
their own up keep and the rest were sent to the
imperial center.
 Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-
Gult.
2. Handicraft
 Indigenous handcraft technology such as artisans
had existed since the ancient period.
 Artisans were in engaged in metal work, pottery,
tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewelry,
basketry and others.
 E.g. Metal workers produced swords, javelins,
shields, knives, axes, sickles, hoes an others.
Tanners produced leather tools.
 However, the artisans were mostly despised and
marginalized. The ruling classes mostly spent
their accumulated wealth on imported luxurious
items rather than the domestic technology. 39

3. Trade (already discussed)

A) Architecture: Steles/obelisks building were practiced in Axum(
the longest was 33 meters in height. The other two had heights of
24 and 21 meters.
Zagwe period‟s rock hewn churches were part of UNESCO‟s
world heritage, registered in 1978.
B) Writing System: Scripts developed in Sabean and Ge‟ez
languages.
C) Calendar: There was invention of Ethiopic solar calendar.
 There was also Muslim (Islamic) calendar which is a lunar
calendar The Oromo and the Sidama and others had a
calendar based on star known among the Oromo as Urjii.
D) Numerals
 Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning
40
of fourth century AD. E.g. In Geʽez language there has been
the use of numeral system.