The Spiritual Self

“He who has a why to live can bear

with almost anyhow” – Viktor Frankl
Spirituality
is a broad term with room for many perspectives. Some
experts’ definition of spirituality includes:
The aspect of humanity that refers to the way individuals
seek and express meaning and purpose and the way they
experience their connectedness at the moment, to self, to
others, to nature, and to the significant or sacred (Christina
Puchalski, Director of George Washington Institute of
Spirituality and Health).
Any experience that is thought to bring the experiencer
into contact with the divine (Mario Beauregard and Denyse
O’Leary, researcher and authors of The Spiritual Brain,
2007).
Set of personal and private beliefs that transcend the
material aspects of life and give a deep sense of
wholeness, connectedness, and openness to the infinite
(Myers et al. 2000, p.265).
According to research by Mansukhani and Resurreccion
(2009), Filipino adolescents describe a spiritual person
as someone who has faith in God, a strong sense of
morality, positive personal qualities, a positive sense of
self, well-being, spiritual connectedness, transcendent
and relational sources of happiness, and an ability to
solve problems.

Three Main Themes of Spirituality as Viewed by

Filipinos (Yabut, 2016):
Connectedness with the sacred – the development and
maintenance of one’s connection to the sacred
Sense of meaning or purpose – generally associated
with the development of a focused sense of self,
individuality, and values
Expressions of spirituality – manifesting values in one’s
relationships and activities with family, friends, and other
people

The Soul
The soul or spirit of a person is called: Kaluluwa (Tagalog),
Gimokud (Bagobo), Makatu (Bukidnon), Dungan - alive and
Kalag - dead (Ilonggo and Bisaya), Ikararuwa (Ibanag),
Kadkadduwa - in the physical body and Kararuwa - departs
from the body (Ilokano).
Kaluluwa, ikararuwa, and inikaduwa all come from the root
word duwa, which means two. It is because the soul has
two existence: (a) Physical, where it is connected to the
human body and its life, and (b) Spiritual, where it exists
on its own.
In Western Philosophy, the soul is the life source of man.
They believe that the body cannot stay alive without the
soul. Hence, death is the separation of the soul from the
body. For Filipino groups, the soul is not considered as the
source of life. This could be seen through the beliefs of the
different ethnolinguistic groups of the Philippines:

The Souls and Gods According to the

Ethnolinguistic Groups of the
Philippines
1. Ibanag (Mekararuanan) - aware of the distinction
between body (baggi) and soul (ikararuwa) but not in
the Western way. The Ibanags believe in
mekararuanan, is a state in which, because of shock,
the soul leaves the body. The body is alive but it is
without sense. For the Ibanags, the role of the soul is
to give direction and wholeness to a person, while the
body can stay alive independently of the soul.
2. Ilonggo (Dungan) - Dungan is not normally seen by
the human eye. But sometimes, it comes out of the
body and takes on a visible form such as that of an
insect or a small animal. No one should also miss their
 dinner and go to bed hungry because dungan will
roam for food.
3. Bisaya (Dungan) - Bisayans believe that the dungan
may leave the body voluntarily as when the person is
asleep. Therefore, the sleeping person should not be
awakened abruptly. A slumbering person must be
softly called first and then gradually louder and louder
to give the soul a chance to return to the body. The
dungan’s travel outside the body must also be free
from accidents because whatever happens to the
dungan happens to the physical body as well. Only
when the soul has safely returned to the body would
the owner be able to wake up.
a soul can also be captured by bad spirits or engkantu. It
can be imprisoned in a spirit cave guarded by old Tan
Mulong. Sickness is the temporary loss of the soul,
permanent loss is death.
The Bosayans name calls their creator god Laon, which
denotes antiquity. The world was without human beings
and animals except for Manaul, a bird who was the pet of
The bird was allowed to wander freely but it must not soil
its feathers. However, Manaul was caught on a thorny stem
of a rattan tree and most of its colorful feathers were torn.
The god Laon was furious and made the Manaul’s life
miserable by creating other creatures that will molest and
frighten the bird. Hence, man and other creatures were
made by Manaul died in an agony of despair.
4. Bukidnon (Makatu) - the makatu already exists
before a child’s birth but that it is separate from its
body. In a pregnancy ritual, a miniature cradle is hung
over the place where the pregnant mother sleeps.
This is where the soul of the unborn baby is supposed
to sleep before it joins the infant at birth.
5. Tagbanwa (Kiyaraluwa) - the Tagbanwa of Palawan
believes that he has one true soul (kiyaraluwa), which
is given to each infant by the god Magindusa as the
nose of the child emerges from the vulva. There are
five secondary souls which are located in the
 extremities of both hands and feet and in the head
just below the hair whorl.
6. Mangyan (Karaduwa) - besides the karaduwa tawu
(the human soul), a person may have two to five
other souls: a karaduwa manok(chicken soul),
karaduwa baboy (pig soul), karaduwa kuti (cat soul),
and karaduwa hipon (shrimp soul). Any of these
animal souls can temporarily wander away from the
body.
7. Ilokano (Kararuwa, Karkarma, Aniwaas, and
Araria) - the kararuwa (the soul proper) is the vital
element of man. It can leave only after death.
the Karkarma (second soul) can leave the body when one
is frightened or it can be stolen from the body when the
person goes to isolated places. The owner becomes insane
if the soul fails to return. Karkarma stands for natural
vigor and mind or reason. It is the counterpart of psyche.
the aniwaas (third soul) can leave the body during sleep
and visit places which the person who owns it frequents
when awake. If he wakes up he may lose his aniwaas and
become insane.
the araria (fourth soul) is the liberated soul of the dead. It
is the soul that comes down to earth to visit its relatives
and friends, asking them to pray or perform a duty it failed
to do in life.
8. Cordillera – Kabuniyan, the creator god, is found in
all regions of the Cordillera except Apayao. From
Bontoc to the Baguio region, Kabuniyan is the
supreme teacher who taught man many things like
fire-making, rice cultivation, and marriage rituals.
“Kabuniyan” has many meanings in the Cordillera.
Aside from being the name of a sky god, it is applied
to all cultural heroes. It signifies ultimate power and
may also refer to the lowest level of the skyworld –
the sky that can be seen every day.
9. Ifugao (Two souls) – the Ifugaos believe that man
has two souls: (a) residing in the eyes and (b) residing
in the breath. Withdrawal of the soul in the eyes
 causes illness, while withdrawal of the soul residing in
the breath causes death.

10. Ibaloi – the Ibaloi afterlife is populated by

ancestral spirits and explains animal sacrifices. In that
spiritual world, when the soul arrives with physical
treasures, it receives a great welcome. An empty-
handed soul finds himself the object of scorn. He is
unwelcome and unaccepted in his new world and this
feeling of insecurity may cause the spirit to bring evil,
disease, and even death among his relatives. In the
light of all those believes; relatives of the dead bring
donations of cash or animals.
11. Kankana-ey (Ab-abiik or Kadkadwa) – Ab-
abiik is the spiritual self as opposed to the physical
self (Awak). The Ab-abiik can also apply to inanimate
objects such as mountains, trees, or rivers. It can also
mean inspiration in some contexts.
12. Tagalog (Kaluluwa and Kakambal) –
Kaluluwa is the Tagalog soul, which can leave the
body involuntarily. It refers more to the soul of the
deceased. Kakambal on the other hand is the soul of
the living, which may travel around at night and some
particularly bad encounters are the cause of
nightmares.
the Tagalog call their supreme god Bathala Maykapal or
Lumikha (The Creator). An enormous being, he could not
straighten up due to the lowerness of the sky and the sun
burned brightly near him. One day, Bathala got a bolo and
pierced one of the sun’s eyes so that it could generate just
enough heat to sustain life. And he was able to straighten
up with his hands pushed the cooler sky to its present
level.
13. Bagobo (Gimokud) – according to the Bagobos
of Davao, each individual is inhabited by two souls
called The right-hand gimokud is the good soul that
manifests itself as a shadow on the right-hand side of
the path. It is associated with health, activity, and joy.
The right-hand soul is also associated with the life
 itself and remains in the body throughout one’s life.
The left-hand gimokud is the bad soul that shows
itself as a shadow on the left side of the path. It is
harmful to the body it inhabits because it is the cause
of sluggishness, pain, and sickness. It also leaves the
body at night and wanders about risking various
dangers. The left-hand soul inevitably becomes a
busaw or demon ghost. The Bagobos also believe that
large animals like fowls, big birds, carabaos, cats, and
horses have two souls, while small animals like
insects have only one soul.
Rituals
A ritual is “a sequence of activities involving gestures,
words, and objects, performed in a sequestered place, and
performed according to set sequence” (Paarlberg & van de
Wiel, p.219). All peoples have rituals and these are actions
that follow a prescribed pattern and are believed to be
highly efficacious. It is often viewed as a sincere religious
series of actions that follow a certain order.
Many rituals intervene at the different stages of the life
cycle: birth, courtship, marriage, and death (Demetrio,
Cordero-Fernando, & Zialcita, p. 139). Some reasons for
doing rituals are:
1. Seeking help for a child;
2. Success for the suitor;
3. Fertility for the spouse;
4. Smooth journey to the next world;
5. Healing the sick and the dying;
6. Success in fishing and hunting;
7. For an abundant harvest; and
8. Victory over enemies

Related practices:
Life-cycle Rituals - these are often known as rites of
passage as they signify a status change from one vital life
stage to another. There are three stages: (a) Separation or
parting from the old state; (b) Transition, which is a form of
segregation; and (c) Reintegration, which is being
incorporated with the society. In these rituals, the
presence of a Supreme being is often invoked for guidance
and blessing
1. Pilgrimage - a trip to a place viewed sacred for the
purpose of devotion. A pilgrimage often has hardships
and is meant to achieve spiritual change.
2. Rituals of Reversal - these require that usual social
roles be momentarily reversed. Some believe that
these rituals allow for a social “blowing off of steam”
and allow individuals to go against certain social
norms
3. Sacrifice - the offering of something valuable to a
supernatural being. This is
often done to please or appease deities as a sign of
gratitude, humility, worship, and/or devotion.
Logotherapy: Finding Meanings
in Life
Human beings are motivated by a “will to meaning,” an
inner pull to find meaning in life. The meaning in life
according to Viktor Frankl lies in finding a purpose and
taking responsibility for oneself and others. Humans do not
have an obligation to define the meaning of life in general
terms. Each person will do it on his way, starting with
himself, with his own potential and experiences, and
discovering himself every day.
The following are the philosophical assumptions of
Logotherapy:
1. Human being is an entity consisting of body, mind,
and spirit. The body and the mind are what we
have and the spirit is what we are.
2. Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the
most miserable. As Viktor Frankl puts it: “You can
find meaning in suffering.”
3. People have a will to meaning. If a man finds
meaning, he is ready for any type of suffering.
4. People have volition under all situations to activate
the will to find meaning. We do not have
restrictions to look for what is sensible.
5. Existence has a mandate characteristic to which
individuals feel must acknowledge. The essence of
the circumstance is more applied in routine life
than ultimate meaning.
6. Each individual is unique. This deals with one’s
sense of meaning. This is heightened by the
understanding that we are irreplaceable.
 In his book Man’s Search for Meaning, Viktor Frankl
said that there are three ways of finding meaning
in life:
1. By creating a work or doing a deed;
2. By experiencing something or encountering
someone; and
3. By the attitude, we take toward unavoidable
suffering

The most important, however, is the third avenue. Even

the helpless victim of a hopeless situation, facing a fate
he cannot change, may rise above himself, may grow
beyond himself, and by so doing change himself. Frankl
also puts it as: “Everything can be taken from a man but
one thing: the last of human freedoms – to choose one’s
attitude in any given set of circumstances.

”The Political Self”

“Man is a political animal” -
Aristotle
Man is an animal intended to by nature to live in a
specific social form, wherein a number of citizens are
large enough to be self-sufficient.
Politics centers on actions among a number of people
involving influence. It is the process of who gets what,
when, and how (Lasswell, 1936). The concept of power,
elites, legitimacy, and authority are related to politics. It
is an important part of human development because it
promotes ideologies about democracy, citizenship,
human rights, freedom, family, health, and other issues.
The Political Self then organizes self-relevant
information about politics, including one’s beliefs,
attitudes, and affiliations. How people socialize and
 function as members of society also characterize the
political self. Views and beliefs about leadership, one’s
leadership style, and how one submits to leadership are
few examples of the political self.
Political Socialization describes the process by which
citizens crystallize political identities, values, and
behavior that remain relatively permanent throughout
later life (Neundorf & Smets, 2017). It refers to a
learning process by which political norms and behavior
are transmitted from one generation to another.

The Development of Political Self

1. Family- The family’s central role in developing
one’s political personality derives from its role as
the primary source of all the basic and innate
needs of a person. There is a high tendency that a
child identifies with his parents and then adopts
their outlook in politics. Easton and Hess
mentioned that politicizing process starts at the
age of three and is completed by the age of 13
(Davies, 1965). Furthermore, parents seldom talk
about politics with their young children directly, but
occasional remarks made around the dinner table
or while watching the news can have an impact.
2. School/Education - Education has been regarded
as the main agent for the political socialization of
the young into the national political culture. It also
helps children to be morally upright citizens and
emphasizes one’s respective roles in society. The
school expands and enhances career and life
choices and chances of individuals. Children are
also introduced to elections and voting when they
choose classroom officers. Political facts are
learned through various classroom discussions and
courses. Lastly, schools themselves are involved in
politics; such as issues in curriculum reform, tuition
fee increase, and government funding can spark a
 debate involving students, teachers, parents, and
society.
3. Church- The teachings, services, and activities of
the church can contribute to the ideals of politics.
4. Mass Media- Old researches argue that while the
media is often listed as socialization agents apace
with family, school, and peers, there has been an
insufficient indication for mass media as a casual
element in a child’s development of political
cognition and behavior (Chaffee, Ward, Tipton,
1970). Recent studies, however, argue that the
political influence extends far beyond newspaper
reports or television programs connected with
current affairs. In a much more subtle way, they
can change people’s thought patterns through
exhilarating stories, entertainment with popular
culture, and the like. Most of the political
information comes from the mass media. The
average time spent watching TV makes it the most
dominant information source (Nguyen, 2013). The
growth of the internet is also a significant source of
the development of the political self. People are
developing their political self online as they learn
about the distinctions between candidates and
political parties and gain knowledge about
concerns and political
5. Other people- The traits and values of the
individuals in society greatly affect the attitudes
and beliefs of an individual.

The Political Self and Being a

Filipino
The Philippines today has only appeared in the 1980s
after over three centuries of colonization. Foreign
culture beliefs, language, and religion have made an
enormous indentation on our own by setting the
groundwork for the contemporary Filipino identity and
 culture. The individual’s race, ethnicity, and physical
characteristics are not the sole factors that make one’s
national identity. The important values and traits can
also contribute to one’s national identity.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the

Filipino Character
An excerpt from “A Moral Recovery Program: Building a People--
Building a Nation” by Patricia Licuanan (2016)

Strengths of the Filipino Character

1. Pakikipagkapwa-Tao (Regard for Others)
- Pakikipagkapwa-tao is manifested in a basic
sense of justice and fairness, and in concern for
others
- Demonstrated in the Filipinos’ ability to
empathize with others, in helpfulness and
generosity in times of need (pakikiramay), in the
practice of mutual assistance (bayanihan), and
in the famous Filipino hospitality
- Filipinos also possess a sensitivity to people’s
feelings (pakikiramdam), trust (pagtitiwala), and
a sense of gratitude (utang-na-loob)
- Pakikipagkapwa-tao makes Filipinos very
sensitive to the quality of interpersonal
relationships and are very dependent on them
2. Family Orientation
- Filipinos possess a genuine and deep love for the
family, not only to parents but also to the
“extended family”
- One’s family is the source of personal identity, the
source of emotional and material supports, and the
person’s main commitment and responsibility
- Manifestations: the honor and respect given to
parents and elders; the care given to children; the
generosity towards kin in need; and in the great
sacrifices one endures for the welfare of the family
 - Results: the feeling of belonging or rootedness in a
basic sense of security
3. Joy and Humor
Filipinos have a cheerful and fun-loving approach to life
and its ups and downs
There is a pleasant disposition, a sense of humor, and a
propensity for happiness that contribute not only to the
Filipino charm but to the indomitability of the Filipino spirit
Manifestation: Filipino love for socials and celebrations,
in our capacity to laugh even in the most trying of times,
and in the appeal of political satire
Results: a certain emotional balance and optimism, a
healthy disrespect for power and office, and a capacity to
survive

4. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity

Filipinos have a great capacity to adjust and to adapt to
circumstances and to the surrounding environment, both
physical and social
Unplanned or unanticipated events are never overly
disturbing or disorienting as the flexible Filipino adjusts to
whatever happens
Filipinos possess a tolerance for ambiguity that enables us
to remain unfixed by uncertainty or lack of information
Manifestation: the ability to adapt to life in any part of
the world; in the ability to make new things out of scrap
and to keep old machines running; and in the creative
talent manifested in the cultural sphere
Results: productivity, innovation, entrepreneurship,
equanimity, and survival

5. Hard work and Industry

- Given proper conditions, Filipinos have the capacity
for hard work
- The desire to raise one’s standard of living and to
possess the essentials of a decent life for one’s family
combined with the right opportunities and incentives,
stimulate the Filipino to work very hard
 - Manifestation: willingness to take risks with jobs
abroad, and the work there at two or three jobs
- Results: productivity and entrepreneurship for some,
and survival despite poverty for others

6. Faith and Religiosity

Filipinos have a deep faith in God
Innate religiosity enables us to comprehend and genuinely
accept reality in the context of God’s will and plan
Filipinos live very intimately with religion
We ascribe human traits to a supernatural God whom we
alternately threaten and thank, call upon for mercy or
forgiveness, and appease by pledges

7. Ability to Survive
Filipinos’ ability to survive is manifested in our capacity for
endurance despite difficult times and in our ability to get
by on so little
This survival instinct is related to the Filipinos who bravely
carry on through the harshest economic and social
circumstances
Summing up all the other Filipino strengths results in the
ability to survive

Weaknesses of the Filipino

Character
1. Extreme Personalism
Filipinos view the world in terms of personal relationships
and the extent to which one is able personally to relate to
things and people determines our recognition of their
existence and the value
Oftentimes, there is no distinction between an objective
task and emotional involvement
Manifestation: the tendency to give personal
interpretations to actions and in the need to establish
personal relationships before any business or work
relationship can be successful
2. Extreme Family-Centeredness
While concern for the family is one of the greatest
strengths of the Filipinos, in the extreme, it becomes a
serious flaw
Excessive concern for the family creates an in-group to
which the Filipino is fiercely loyal, to the detriment of
concern for the larger community of the common good
Manifestations: use of one’s office and power as a mean
of promoting the interests of the family, patronage, and
political dynasties and in the protection of erring family
members
Results: lack of concern for the common good and acts as
a block to national consciousness
3. Lack of Discipline
Filipinos have a causal and relaxed attitude towards time
and space
We have an aversion to following strictly a set of
procedures
We are impatient and unable to delay gratification or
reward
We are guilty of ningas cogon, starting out projects with
full vigor and interest which abruptly die down, leaving
things unfinished
Manifestations: lack of self precision and impulsiveness;
poor time management; and procrastination
Results: lack of standardization and quality control; use of
shortcuts; palusot syndrome; foolhardiness; inefficient and
wasteful work systems; the violation of rules leading to
more serious transgressions; and a casual work ethic
leading to carelessness and lack of follow-through
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative
Filipinos tend to wait to be told what has to be done and
there is a strong reliance on others
Filipinos also have a need for a strong authority figure and
feel safer and more secure in the presence of such an
authority
There is a rare sense of urgency about any problem
There is also a high tolerance for inefficiency, poor service,
and even violations of one’s basic rights
In many ways, Filipinos are too patient and long-suffering
(matiisin)
5. Colonial Mentality
Two dimensions of a Filipino colonial mentality are the lack
of patriotism (active awareness, appreciation, and love for
the country) and an actual preference for foreign things
Filipino culture is characterized by an openness to the
outside -- adapting and incorporating the foreign elements
into our image of ourselves
Manifestations: alienation of the elite from their roots
and from the masses; and a basic feeling of national
inferiority that makes it difficult for Filipinos to relate as
equals to Westerners
Results: cultural vagueness or weakness that makes
Filipinos extraordinarily susceptible to the wholesome
acceptance of modern mass culture
6. Kanya-Kanya Syndrome
Filipinos have a selfish, self-serving attitude that generates
a feeling of envy and competitiveness towards others who
seem to have gained some status or prestige
Manifestations: crab mentality using the leveling
instruments of tsismis, intriga, and unconstructive criticism
to bring others down; personal ambition and drive for
power and status that is completely insensitive to the
common good; and lack of a sense of service among
people in the government bureaucracy
7. Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection
There is a tendency in the Filipino to be superficial and
even somewhat war freak
There is no felt need to validate our hypotheses or
explanations of things
We are satisfied with superficial explanations for, and
superficial solutions to, problems
Manifestations: emphasis on form (maporma) rather
than substance; and satisfaction with rhetoric

The Digital Self

“Whether you realize it or not – or even wish
to admit it – you already have an online
reputation to protect”
– Brian Solis
Digital Self is a mask that an individual puts on to
engage in the technological world (Tamara, 2010). It is
the aspect of oneself that is shared with others through
the use of social media and computerized technology.

Digital Identity is the set of characteristics that

identify a person within the internet (Mazo, 2014). So,
our digital identity is:
1. Our personal information online (texts, videos,
photos, name, address, and the sites that we visit);
2. What we post; and
3. What other people post about us

A theory by Donald Winnicott points that there is a “true

self” that is the instinctive core of one’s personality. It
must be nurtured and realized. On the other hand, there
is also a “false self” that is established to defend the
“true self” from insult and danger. Everyone has a “true
self” that is complex and fragile, but basically, is the
basis of oneself. Since people are social animals, they
tend to share the self with the world, but it is the decoy
self that is engaged to manage the day-to-day anxieties
and challenges that come (Hicks, 2010).

The Development of Digital Self

The impact of communication media on the formation of
identity in today’s societies is focused on internet
communication and virtual realities. The idea of digital
self-developed from the original phenomenon of the
extended self. Russell Belk (2017) believed that
possessions are a major contributor to and reflection of
individual identities. Generally, material possessions are
considered extensions of the self. In the current
generation, however, digital belongings like videos,
online messages, and social media statuses are viewed
as factors in molding the identity. Therefore, millennials
are also called “Digital Natives.”
Why Do We Have a Digital Self?
An excerpt from “The Digital Self: Why Do We Express
Ourselves on Social Media Like We Do?”
The idea of the Digital Self is an interesting and
relatively new topic discussed in consumer behavior
research. Researchers, such as Stone (1996) and
Hemetsburger (2005) claim that the digital web allows
us to try out different personas that differ from our real-
life identities. But why would we want to even do this?
We were especially interested in looking at why we
express ourselves online the way we do and we wanted
to share the most common reasons:

1. We want to meet the expectations of others.

Research shows that over 50 percent of women would
edit their social media photos to look better and meet
the expectations that the media and magazines have
set.
2. We want to boost our self-esteem. People upload
photos and statuses online that they feel will receive
“likes” and positive feedback in which ultimately
helps their egos.
3. To feel a sense of belonging. Some of us want to
fit in with the crowd and upload things that are “down
with the trend.”
 4. A bigger sense of freedom. Unlike in real life,
digital platforms allow us to express ourselves in any
way we want to without anyone there to physically
judge us.
5. Striving to be our ideal selves. Digital applications
like Snapchat allow us to improve our appearances on
photos. These applications help consumers express
themselves as their “ideal” self-online and inevitably
feel better about themselves.
Therefore, the digital world has provided us with greater
opportunities to express our identity in any form we
want to. What we all need to remember is: how will we
feel if we go so far to express ourselves differently inline
that we forget what reality is, or worse, we end up
resenting it?

The Elements of the Digital Self

Elements of the Digital Self
Online identity is like an investment. People often start
out with a small amount of capital, and the way it is
used over time determines how much people end up
with later on.
The following elements include a person’s digital self:

Your online behavior

· People tend to assume that your online actions are
representative of the way you are in person

Your online voice

 · When you post online, what do you say? Are you
controversial, contentious, or otherwise inappropriate?

Your online presentation

· From your blogs, website to your Facebook account, the
images, and other style elements can say a lot too

Selective Self Presentation and

Impression Management
The Internet and digital technologies present an ample
opportunity for individuals to manage the impressions
they make on others. The wide range and nature of the
Internet mean that for most, presenting the self to
others via the Internet is a common and usual daily
activity. As human beings, we strive to find social
relationships and fit in. We present ourselves every day
to the world and to others, the issue that arises,
however, is the tactics we use. Self-presentation and
Impression management may seem to be similar, yet
different at the same time.

Self-presentation is a process that individuals use to

control the impressions of others through social
interaction. It is our efforts to shape others’ impressions
in specific ways in order to gain influence, power,
sympathy, or approval (Kassin, 2008. p.90). Strategic
self-presentation is intended to only be used at the
beginning such as an interview for a career. The
following are the types of self-presentation
(Flemming, 2015):
1. Authentic – the goal is to create an image in line
with the way we view ourselves
2. Ideal –the goal is to create an image consistent with
what we want to be
3. Tactical self-presentation – the goal is to create a
public image in line with what other people want or
what they expect us to be

Impression management is a process by which

individuals attempt to influence the reactions and
images people have of them and their ideas. The intent
of control and deception is present in impression
management, but the difference between this control of
power is that is used to justify actions and is used more
consciously and more often than self-presentation.
Erving Goffman defines Impression management as
“about successfully staging a character and putting on a
performance” (Aspling, 2011). The performance,
however, is not an individual act. Instead, individuals
cooperate in the staging of a single performance. That is
why a “team” is important in Goffman’s impression
management.

Goffman defines a team as “a set of individuals whose

intimate cooperation is required if a given projected
definition of the situation is to be maintained” (Ibid,
p.108). The following are the techniques of
impression management:
1. Dramaturgical loyalty – used by members of a
team in order to be loyal to the team and behave in
accordance to the team’s performance and never
exploit the presence in their front region in order to
stage their own show.
2. Dramaturgical Discipline –in order to successfully
stage a character and a team performance, each
 performer must have a presence of mind and self-
control so that he remembers his parts and does not
commit any unintended gestures while performing
and is able to save the show if that would be the case.
3. Dramaturgical circumspection – carefully selecting
the right team members and making sure that they
are dramaturgically loyal and disciplines. It is also
about selecting the audience that will give a minimum
of troubles in terms of the show the performer wants
to put on as well as the show he does not want to put
on.

Impact of Online Interaction

Positive Impacts:
1. Enhancement of social contact, independence, and
communication
2. Increased social connectedness, well-being, and
friendship quality
3. Develops companionship, well-being, and a mature
emotional state
Negative Impacts:
1. Meanness and bullying
2. Misunderstanding
3. Unwanted contact
4. Unintentional disclosure
5. Facebook depression – increased depressive
symptoms when the internet is used for other
purposes
6. Jealousy and self-mutilation
Presentation of Self: Online
Blended Identity – when an individual creates an
online identity different from the identity offline but in
cases where they meet in person the people they speak
to online, the online persona is kept
- There are many layers and sides to people’s identities
and many choose which side to present depending on
the audience
- The development of computer-mediated
communication has allowed people to create new
personalities that are extremely different from the
offline personalities
- The online world also allows individuals to be who
they want to be and escape reality by creating a
virtual personality
- However, it is rare for people to adopt a whole new
persona and the digital self is believed to be just
another side of a wider identity and this part of the
wider identity is generally the best side or what
people believe as the best side
- People become so dominated by the online world that
it becomes the main stage while real-life becomes the
backstage, and actually blurring the lines between
what is real and what is virtual

Identity tourism – characterize instances where

individuals use the possibility of anonymity on online
platforms to shift significant parts of their identity like
gender, age, or race
- Identity tourism is rare but it is done to look more
appealing.
 Stress
Stress, in everyday terms, is a feeling that people have
when they are overloaded and struggling to cope with
demands (Nordqvist, 2018). Stress is a common topic
talked about during discussions with friends and family
members. Entering a new chapter in your life and having a
new role in the family, the community, or the society
initiates more situations that are deemed to be stressful.
According to McEwen & Sapolsky (2006), the stress in
people can be physical (e.g., disease), emotional (e.g.,
grief), or psychological (e.g., fear). They further explained
that allostasis is the process of how the body responds to
stress, whether it is acute (short-term) or chronic (long-
term).

Meaning of Stress
Stress is a response to events that are threatening to one’s
wellbeing. It is a common experience that can be
occasional or prolonged. It is the result of an interaction
between a person and the environment, in which the
person believes the situation to be overwhelming and
dangerous to his or her well-being (Matlin, 1992). The
unpleasant situation that produces the stress is called the
stressor. Hans Selye (1956) was one of the first people to
study and popularize the concept of stress. He called his
stress model the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). The
GAS includes three stages:
1. Alarm phase– the organism prepares for action. The
sympathetic division of the nervous system becomes
activated in response to stress.
2. Resistance phase– the organism tries to cope with the
stressor by releasing stress hormones. In addition, blood
pressure, heart rate, respiration, and body temperature all
increase. Toward the end of the resistance phase, the
activity of the sympathetic system declines, whereas the
activity of the parasympathetic system increases. These
activities help the individual adjust and cope with the
stress.
3. Exhaustion phase- this occurs if the stressor persists.
The activity of the sympathetic system declines further
and now the parasympathetic is dominant. When the
organism uses up all the available resources, physical
illness or problems are likely to develop.

Sources of Stress
Stress can be brought about by many factors. Although
they are not entirely independent, the four major sources
of stress are (1) frustration, (2) conflict, (3) change, and
(4) pressure (Weiten, 1992).

1. Frustration
The term frustration is derived from the Latin word,
“frustra” which means “in vain.” Frustration is a negative
emotion that stems from the blocking of goal-directed
behavior. Failures and losses are often highly stressful to
people. A person’s inability to achieve his goals or satisfy
his needs can be brought about by many factors.
Personal Factors. These factors include personal
limitations and weaknesses that may deter the individual
to achieve his goals. Physical unattractiveness,
poor health, and personality traits are only some of the
personal factors that may hinder the attainment of one’s
goals.
Environmental Factors. These factors refer to
physical conditions of the environment that may keep the
person from satisfying his needs or achieving his goals.
Calamities, power failures, time, and distance are only
some examples of these factors.
Socio-cultural Factors. These refer to social and
cultural factors that hinder goal attainment. These include
social norms and traditions, economic conditions,
superstitions, and laws are some of these factors that may
hinder an individual to achieve his goals.
2. Conflict
The term conflict is derived from the Latin word,
“conflictus” which means “to strike together”. Stress arises
when a person cannot readily make a choice or a decision
when confronted with two or more mutually exclusive
situations that may be beneficial, detrimental, or both
beneficial and detrimental to him or her. The types of
conflict are the following:
Approach-approach conflict. This is also called
conflicting attraction. This occurs when the person is
attracted to two positive goals that are mutually exclusive,
that is, they cannot be satisfied or fulfilled at the same
time. This type of conflict can be resolved by delaying the
satisfaction of one goal, if possible, or by choosing one of
the goals and giving up the other.
Approach-avoidance Conflict. This occurs when the
person is attracted to one goal but this goal has both
positive and negative characteristics. In this case, the
person may be attracted to the goals but repelled at the
same time. This makes this type of conflict often the most
difficult to resolve.
Avoidance-avoidance Conflict. A person is
confronted with this type of conflict if he is confronted with
two situations that are both repulsive to him. In this case,
the person may vacillate or attempt to leave the conflict
situation.
 Double –approach Avoidance Conflict. This occurs
when the person has two goals or is confronted with two
situations with both having positive and negative
characteristics.
3. Change
It is believed that any change in one’s lifestyle or
circumstances can bring about stress to people. Life
changes are any noticeable alterations in one’s living
circumstances that require readjustment. According to the
findings of researches, both negative and positive changes
in one’s life can produce stress. Changes in personal
relationships, work, finances, and so forth can be stressful
even when the changes are welcomed.
4. Pressure
If one is expected to perform or conform to certain
standards that he or she has difficulty meeting or coping
with, then he or she is said to be “under pressure”.
Pressure involves expectations or demands that one
behaves in a certain way. You are under pressure when
you are expected to perform and execute tasks and
responsibilities quickly, efficiently, and successfully.

Incorporating stress in daily life -

Nordqvist (2018) identified some
causes of stress:
1. Job issues or retirement
2. Lack of time or money
3. Bereavement
4. Family problems
5. Illness
6. Moving home
7. Relationships, marriage, and divorce

8. Abortion or miscarriage
 9. Driving in heavy traffic
10. Fear of an accident
11. Fear of crime
12. Problems with neighbors
13. Pregnancy and becoming a parent
14. Excessive noise, overcrowding, and pollution
15. Uncertainty or waiting for an important outcome

Responses to Stress
People react differently to stress. Some may react
negatively while others may devise mechanisms in order
for them to adjust to the impact of their frustrating
experiences.
1. Anxiety. Some people may develop a general feeling
of apprehension or uneasiness when they are under
stress. This feeling of anxiety may cause intense
suffering, panic, and irrational fear in the person.
2. Aggression. According to the frustration-aggression
hypothesis by John Dollard, frustrated people may
become hostile and behave violently when frustrated.
Stress produces feelings of anger ranging in intensity
from mild annoyance to uncontrollable rage.
3. Apathy. When the stress becomes unbearable, some
people may become indifferent and apathetic. These
people believe that the situation is hopeless and they
just accept it since they think that they cannot do
anything to alleviate or improve their conditions. This
is evident in the behaviors of prisoners of war (POW)
who accept and do not do anything about the
brutality inflicted on them by the enemy because they
think and feel that there is no more hope for escape.
4. Dejection and Grief. Sometimes stress-especially
frustration-simply brings you down. Losing in a
contest and poor grades, often produce feelings of
dejection. More profound setbacks such as death and
financial reversals can leave one grief-stricken.
Effects of Stress
Mild stress can improve behavior in some cases but
severe stress can disrupt behaviors, cognitive processes,
emotions, and physiological activities. A person may be
paralyzed after experiencing severe stress. A person is
likely to become immobile after an immobile accident.
Stress can also impair cognitive abilities. A person may
choke under pressure during a competition or
performance. Stress also disrupts emotions. Stressful life
events like death can lead to depression. Physiological
responses like an adrenaline rush, increased heart rate,
and dilation of the pupil, heavy perspiration may occur in
times of stressful situation.
Prolonged stress can also suppress the immune system.
The immune system protects the body from viruses,
bacteria, cancer cells, and other dangers. Researches have
shown that stressors can decrease the number of
lymphocytes, which are the white blood cells that attack
the invading bacteria and other harmful agents.
In relation to academic stress, a study by Dy, Espiritu-
Santo, Ferido, & Sanchez (2017) discovered that the top
five overall stressors of the Filipino college students were
the academic difficulty of subject matter, workload due to
subjects, time management because of subjects,
responsibilities due to being on one's own, and time
management because of both subjects and organizations.
Moreover, they also mentioned that students reacted to
stress with affective stress responses. In another research,
there was a strong association between symptoms of
mental distress, academic self-efficacy, and study
progress (Grøtan, Sund, & Bjerkeset, 2019).
Knowing the causes of stress leads this discussion to the
effects of stress. Below are some health problems you may
encounter when you experience chronic stress (McEwen &
Sapolsky, 2006):
1. Stomach ache
2. Diarrhea
3. Obesity
4. Weakening of immune system
5. Anxiety
6. Depression
7. Loss of sleep
8. Lack of interest in physical activity
9. Increase in blood pressure, heart rate, and blood fats
10. Increase in blood sugar levels

Aside from the previously mentioned effects of chronic

stress in the body, a literature review of Yaribeygi, Panahi,
Sahraei, Johnston, & Sahebkar (2017), highlighted some
effects of stress on body functions:
1. Declarative memory disorders
2. Reduction in spatial memory
3. Weakening in verbal memory
4. Behavioral, cognitive, and mood disorders
5. Decrease in reaction time

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder

(PTSD)
This is a disorder characterized by a delayed reaction to
stressful situations or experiences. The major symptom of
this disorder is the re-experiencing of traumatic events like
war, torture, rape, and other forms of abuse, floods,
earthquakes, accidents, and the like. The re-experiencing
may take the form of recurrent painful memories of the
event, recurrent dreams or nightmares of the event, or in
some cases, the individual relives the event and behaves
as though experiencing the event at that moment. Another
symptom is the numbing of responsiveness or reduced
involvement with the external world. This is apparent in
diminished interest in usual activities, feelings of
detachment from others, and blunted emotional responses
when the individual is not re-experiencing the traumatic
event (Holmes, 1991).

Factors Moderating the Impact of

Stress
Some people can withstand the effect of stress better than
others. This can be due to a number of factors that can
lessen the impact of stress on physical and mental health.
1. Social Support
Social support can be an effective moderator of stress.
Social support refers to various types of aid provided by
one’s social networks. House (1981) has proposed that
social support serves four important functions.
Emotional support involves expressions of affection,
interest, and concern that tell people they’re appreciated.
It includes behaviors such as listening sympathetically to
one’s problems. It presumably bolsters self-esteem.
Appraisal support involves helping people to
evaluate and make sense of their troubles and problems. It
includes an effort to clarify the nature of the problem and
provide feedback about its significance.
Informational support involves providing advice
about how to handle problems. This kind of support
includes discussing possible solutions and the relative
merits of alternative coping strategies.
Instrumental support involves providing material aid
and services. Instrumental support includes providing
shelter, lending money, going along to a social service
agency, or helping to assume work or family
responsibilities.
2. Personality
Behavioral Pattern - Researches have shown that
people with Type A personality patterns are more prone to
stress than Type B people. Type A people are ambitious,
aggressive, competitive, and impatient. Type B people are
calmer and experience life in a more laid-back, less intense
way.
Hardiness- is a personality style characterized by a
sense of commitment rather than alienation, control rather
than powerlessness, and a perception of problems as
challenges rather than threats. (Santrock, 1988)
Optimism - is a general tendency to expect good
outcomes. Researchers found out that optimists cope with
stress differently than pessimists do. Optimists are likely to
engage in action-oriented, problem-focused coping. They
are more willing to seek social support. On the other hand,
pessimists are likely to deal with stress by giving up or
engaging in denial.
3. Psychological Control
People who have a sense of control, who have more
control of their lives are less prone to illness and stress
than those who are under the control of other people or
institutions (Matlin, 1992).

Coping Strategies
When difficulties arise, we devise ways on how to cope
with the stress generated by our problems. Coping refers
to the thoughts and behaviors we use to handle stress or
anticipated stress. Researchers identified three major
categories of coping strategies employed by people under
stress (Burger,1997).
 1. Active-cognitive Strategies
People using these strategies actively think about the
situation in an effort to make things better. For example, a
girl who has just broken up with her boyfriend may have
coped with this by convincing herself that she will be
better off in the long run because she can use her
experience as a lesson on how to establish a happier and
more lasting relationship the next time that she gets
romantically involved with another man.
2. Active –behavioral Strategies
When faced with a problem, some people take some action
to improve the situation. The person does something to
solve the problem. For example, a student who is
problematic because he is failing in his college algebra
may cope with his difficulties by hiring a tutor or attending
remedial classes in the subject.
3. Avoidance Strategies
These are strategies employed by people who keep the
stress-provoking situation out of their awareness. For
example, if a loved one is suffering from a serious health
problem, one may be able to cope with the situation by not
thinking about the person or by trying to convince himself
that the illness is not really that serious.
Coping with stress may be difficult when you are not aware
of your stressors. Lazarus, et al., (1986, as cited by
Baqutayan, 2015) explained two ways of coping
mechanisms: Problem-focused Coping and Emotion-
focused Coping. The table below highlights the differene of
the said mechanisms:
Ways of Coping Mechanisms used
by (Lazarus, et.al 1986)
Problem-focused coping Emotion-focused coping
· Self-control
· Seeking social support
· Confrontative Coping
· Distancing
· Seeking Social Support
· Positive Appraisal
· Plan Full Problem-Solving
· Accepting Responsibility
· Escape/Avoidance

Baqutayan (2015) also emphasized the coping

mechanisms proposed by Carver and Weintraub, as seen in
the table below:

Ways of Coping Used by (Carver, et al.,

1989)
Problem-focused Emotion-focused Dysfunctional
coping coping Coping
· Active-coping · Seeking social
· focus on and
· Planning support for
venting of
· Suppression of emotional reasons
emotions
competing · Positive
· behavioral
activities reinforcement and
disengagement
· Restraint coping growth
· mental
· Seeking social · Acceptance
disengagement
support for · Turning to
· alcohol-drug use
instrumental religion
· denial
reasons · humor
With a better understanding of stress and coping
mechanisms, it is highly important that we address how to
efficiently cope with stressful situations. Cohen (n.d.)
shared practical ways to help you cope with stress:
1. Get plenty of sleep.
2. Think positive.
3. Have a stress “outlet.”
4. Engage in relaxation techniques.

5. Talk to someone.
6. Avail of the free counseling services in your school.
7. Manage your eating habits.
8. Approach the people who can help you with your
concern (e.g. teachers, financial advisors, student
affairs office etc.)
9. Get all the information you can.
10. Enlist help.
11. Have a good cry.
12. Make plans.
13. Find a spiritual advisor.

Although there are different lists of ways on how to deal

with stress, let us now view stress from a cultural
perspective. The following article discusses the social and
cultural dimensions of stress among Filipinos.
This is based (direct quote/paraphrased) on Dr. Tan’s
article, “Stress and the Filipino”. It was posted in
Health/Psychology by kwenivarga (2009).

*Utilize community health workers for mental

health.
Given some training, they can learn to help their barangay
residents with stress. That includes essentials about
counseling, for example, not resorting to that notorious
“sulsol”.
*Cognitive restructuring.
Help patients to take on new lenses as they revisit their
problems. Instead of wallowing in self-pity as a victim,
cognitive restructuring helps people regain some sense of
control.
*Taking control of one’s own body and the failing
spirit.
We have that in our folk therapies — note how, in
bangungot (can be very loosely translated to sleep or
better yet, a nightmare that results in death), we’re
supposed to try to move a finger, a toe, any part of the
body. It’s not a symbolic act; it actually means taking
control. It’s a powerful metaphor that can be used to
explain other stress-related ailments and syndromes.

*Aromatheraphy.
Dr. Tan describes Filipinos as “a very olfactory
people”.Since most imported aromatic oils are expensive,
it’s best to use local plants. Some of the most expensive
aromatic oils are extracted from local plants we take for
granted, like ylang-ylang.
*Hilot (traditional/village masseur-healer).
Many traditional therapies can be channeled toward stress
management. The manghihilot can be “reinvented” so his
or her skills with therapeutic massage can be applied not
just for sprains, but also for broken hearts and weary
spirits.
*Community action.
Communities should be urged to create their own safe
spaces where people can seek refuge. Filipino-style, such
spaces need not be totally quiet, but they do need to give
some sense of safety, of sanity in a mad world. Filipino-
style, too, we need to think of how these therapeutic
spaces might work out as places where people can engage
in social activities, without becoming more agitated.
Alternatives could be offered: gardening, cross-stitching,
bingo…anything that calms the mind. You don’t need to be
in the lotus position to meditate.

Defense Mechanism
Just like how your body has defenses against physical
wounds and injuries, it has its defenses against emotional
shocks and wounds; they're called "Ego Defense
Mechanisms" or "Unconscious Defense Mechanisms".
Another means of dealing with stress that occurs on the
unconscious level is the use of defense mechanisms.
Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies that
maintain a person’s sense of control and self-worth by
distorting or denying the actual nature of the situation.
The defense mechanisms are:
Displacement is transferring or discharging your
emotions on a less threatening object. For example,
shouting at your children or having a fight with your
neighbor right after your boss shouts at you means that
you are angry at your boss but taking it out on your kids
Rationalization is a defense mechanism in which the
person gives logical or plausible but false reasons in order
to cover up the real cause of his failure or frustration.
Intellectualization is the use of a cognitive approach (like
theories and researches) to suppress emotions and
attempt to gain mastery over the perceived disorderly and
potentially overwhelming impulses. An example might be
an individual who when told of a life-threatening disease
focuses exclusively on the statistical percentages of
recovery and is unable to cope with their fear and sadness.
Compensation is a mechanism wherein a person
attempts to disguise the presence of weakness or
undesirable traits by emphasizing a desirable
characteristic to reduce a feeling of inferiority.
Sublimation is an adjustment mechanism by which
unacceptable desires and characteristics are directed into
social activities that have strong social approval.
Projection is a situation wherein the individual attributes
his unacceptable thoughts or desires to others.
Reaction Formation happens when an individual does the
direct opposite of what he feels. At times, the actions or
responses developed are exaggerated and intolerable.
Suppression is the process of completely excluding from
consciousness thoughts, feelings, and experiences that are
traumatic and psychologically disturbing because they
arouse a sense of shame, guilt, or anxiety.
Regression happens when a person unconsciously returns
to an earlier and less mature level of development to flee
from painful realities and present responsibilities.
Nomadism is a situation wherein the individual wanders
from one situation or place to another to escape from
frustration.
Denial is a situation wherein the individual ignores or
refuses to accept the presence of a threatening situation or
frustrating experience.
Identification is identifying with something or someone
else you can increase your sense of ego and self-worth.
Saying that a famous singer is a friend of yours might
make you admired and so cause you to feel better about
your other problems. The person enhances his feeling of
importance by imitating or acquiring the traits of a person
whom he admires.
Fantasy occurs when an individual escapes to a world of
dreams to avoid real-life difficulties and provide relief from
the impact of the frustrating experience.

Anxiety
The World Health Organization statistics show that half of
the people with mental disorders — anxiety, depression,
mood, and thought problems develop at age 14 (Rufino,
2018). The National Statistics Office reported that mental
illness is the third most common form of disability in the
country (De Guzman, 2018).
The concept of mental health or psychological health is still
dominantly considered taboo in the Philippines.
Expressions such as, “Nasa utak mo lang yan.” (It’s all in
your head.), “Mas mabigat pa problema ko sa’yo.” (My
problem is heavier than yours.), “Stop overreacting.” and
“Stop exaggerating.” are often given as comments to
people who attempt to talk about their feelings. These
types of comments, although often unintentionally spoken,
stop people who have mental health concerns to discuss
themselves. Eventually, without proper avenues and
opportunities for them to speak up, some individuals reach
the decision to end the pain they are feeling or to stop the
problems they are experiencing by using a permanent
solution – suicide.
Last June 20, 2018, the Republic Act No. 11036, otherwise
known as the Mental Health Act, was signed into law. The
law aims to establish a national mental health policy
directed towards improving the health of the population in
schools, workplaces, and communities, underscoring the
basic right of all Filipinos to mental health. It also
highlights the balanced delivery of mental health services
(community-based and hospital-based) with more focus on
persons with psychiatric, neurologic, and psychosocial
health needs, and overcoming society’s attitudinal
challenges that they may live free from stigma and
discrimination (IRR for Mental Health Act Signed, n.d.).
Although the law is now enacted to address mental health
concerns, we still have a long way to go in terms of mental
health awareness.
Early this year, De Santos (2019) wrote an article
highlighting the statement of the Department of Health
(DOH) as a response to the apparent suicide of Razorback
drummer Brian Velasco:
"In the Philippines, 3.3 million Filipinos suffer from
depressive disorders, with suicide rates in 2.5 males and
1.7 males per 100,000." We need to start talking about
depression to end the stigma surrounding mental health
because, when left unattended, it can lead to suicide.”

What is Anxiety?
“Maybe you have to know the darkness before you
can appreciate the light.” – Madeline L’Engle
According to the American Psychological Association (n.d.),
anxiety is an emotion characterized by feelings of tension,
worried thoughts, and physical changes like increased
blood pressure. Swift, Cyhlarova, Golie, & O'Sullivan (2014)
explained that anxiety connotes lingering apprehension, a
chronic sense of worry, tension, or dread, the sources of
which may be unclear. It can be a vague, unpleasant
emotion experienced in anticipation of some ill-defined
misfortune.
According to Mayo Clinic, here are some of the
common signs of anxiety:
1. Feeling nervous, restless, or tense
2. Having a sense of impending danger, panic, or doom
3. Having an increased heart rate
4. Breathing rapidly (hyperventilation)
5. Sweating
 6. Trembling
7. Feeling weak or tired
8. Trouble concentrating or thinking about anything
other than the present worry
9. Having trouble sleeping
10. Experiencing gastrointestinal (GI) problems
11. Having difficulty controlling worry
12. Having the urge to avoid things that trigger
anxiety

Depression
“Depression is being color blind, and constantly
told how colorful the world is.” - Atticus
According to the American Psychological Association,
depression is more than just sadness. Further, people with
depression may experience a lack of interest and pleasure
in daily activities, significant weight loss or gain, insomnia
or excessive sleeping, lack of energy, inability to
concentrate, feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt,
and recurrent thoughts of death or suicide.
The Philippines has the highest number of depressed
people in Southeast Asia, and that records show a high
number of cases among the youth (De Guzman, 2018). A
study by Lee, Sta. Maria, Estanislao, & Rodriguez (2013)
identified frequency of smoking, frequency of drinking, not
living with biological parents, dissatisfaction with one's
financial condition, level of closeness with parents, and
level of closeness with peers as factors that increase
depressive tendencies among
university students.
Depression has no exact face or form. Though researchers
are still working on identifying the exact causes of
depression, individuals have different experiences of
depression. Borchard (2019) identified the symptoms of
depression based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-V). In addition, you
should seek help if some or all the symptoms have been
present for a period of two weeks or longer:
1. Hopelessness
2. Inability to concentrate
3. Unexplained aches and pains
4. Lack of interest and pleasure in things you liked to do
5. Alcohol or drug abuse
6. Changes in sleep habits
7. Changes in appetite and eating
8. Irritability, agitation, and moodiness
9. Feelings of worthlessness and guilt
10. Thoughts of death, suicide, or self-harm

Self- Compassion
“Having compassion starts and ends with having
compassion for all those unwanted parts of
ourselves.” – Pema Chodron

The leading researcher about the concept of self-

compassion, Dr. Kristin Neff, defines self-compassion as
acting the same way towards yourself when you are having
a difficult time, fail, or notice something you don’t like
about yourself. Neff (2003) further explained that self-
compassion entails three main components: (a) self-
kindness—being kind and understanding toward oneself in
instances of pain or failure rather than being harshly self-
critical, (b) common humanity—perceiving one's
experiences as part of the larger human experience rather
than seeing them as separating and isolating, and (c)
mindfulness—holding painful thoughts and feelings in
balanced awareness rather than over-identifying with
them.

Along with the development of the Self-Compassion

Scale, Neff also provides tips on how to practice
self-compassion:
1. Learn formal meditation practices such as
Affectionate Breathing.
2. Allow yourself to be a slow learner in practicing self-
compassion.
3. Mindfully accept that the moment is painful.
4. Embrace yourself with kindness and care.
5. If you are overwhelmed by difficult emotions, you
may pull back temporarily.
6. Engage in ordinary acts such as having a cup of tea.
7. Give yourself what you need at the moment.

In relation to depression, Tartakovsky (2018)

provides tips for practicing self-compassion.
1. Start small. Actions such as breathing slowly or simple
acts of self-care are small steps in practicing self-
compassion.
2. Bring awareness to your experience without
judgment.
3. Get curious. You may start by journaling.
4. Interrupt rumination by refocusing.
5. Explore exceptions. Avoid using extreme terms such
as “always” or “never”.
6. Focus on self-compassionate statements.
7. Write a letter.
8. Remember that you are not alone.
9. Practice loving-kindness meditation.