MODULE 10.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Nervous System

A. Structure (Neuron: nerve cell)

 1. Body: main section with the nucleus
2. Dendrites: branches that connect with other nerves
3. Axon: main branch that carries nervous signal
4. Synapse: connection point between two nerves
a. Types
1. Excitory: depolarizes the post-synaptic membrane transmitting the signal
2. Inhibitory: stabilizes the post-synaptic membrane stopping the signal
b. Neurotransmitters: chemicals that pass on the nervous signals to the next nerve
c. Key neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine (excitory)
2. Norepinephrine (excitory)
3. Epinephrine (excitory)
4. Serotonin (inhibitory)
5. Dopamine (inhibitory)
d. Drugs act as neurotransmitters and fool nerves
1. Send the wrong message
2. Block pain receptors
3. Modify receptors
e. Neuromodulators: chemicals that modify the message sent by the neurotransmitter
1. Enkephalin & endorphin
2. Used to block pain receptors (natural morphine)
5. Glial cells: support cells providing basic metabolic needs
6. Schwann cells: special supporting cells which produce myelin
a. Myelin sheath surrounds the axon
b. Functions as an insulator around the axon
c. Node of Ranvier
1. Gaps in the myelin between Schwann cells
2. Used in conducting the nervous impulse
7. Basic types
a. Non-myelinated (grey matter) [Integration]
1. Highly branched dendritic tree
2. Dendrites branch off of the cell body
3. Makes thousands to millions of connections with other brain neurons
b. Myelinated (white matter) [Transmission]
1. Motor neuron
a. Branched dendrites connect with other nerves
b. Dendrites branch off of the cell body
c. Nerve ends in the motor end plate
d. Fewer connections to other neurons
2. Sensory neuron
a. Dendrites end in receptor cells
b. Cell body is in the middle of the axon
c. Connect to just a few neurons
c. Interneurons: neurons that connect two other neurons
B. Resting state of the neurons
1. Excitable membranes: one that is capable of transmitting an electrical signal
2. Produced by ion channels which are differentially permeable to the various ions creating an electrochemical gradient
3. Resting potential: the electrochemical gradient
a. Ion channels involved
1. Passive: allow movement with the concentration gradient
2. Active: produce movement against the concentration gradient
b. Ion channels may be open or closed
1. Open channels allow for movement of the ions
2. Closed channels prohibit movement of the ions
c. Movement of ions (Na-K pumps)
1. Sodium (Na+) ions are actively pumped out of the cell
2. Potassium (K+) ions are actively pumped into the cell
3. Passive Na+ channel is closed
4. K+ flows passively out of the cell
5. This flow of ions results in a net negative charge inside the membrane and a net positive charge outside the membrane
C. Nervous impulses
1. Some stimulus stimulates a portion of the excitable membrane to depolarize
a. Passive Na channels open allowing for a flood of Na+ ions into the cell
 1. Attracted by the chemical gradient
2. Attracted by the negative charge of the inside
b. Great influx of Na+ ions accompanied by K+ ions creates a net positive charge inside
2. Net positive charge stimulates the nerve to begin a recovery period
a. Passive Na channels close
b. Na+ ions are actively pumped out of the cell
c. K+ ions are actively pumped into the cell
d. Resting potential is re-established
3. Time frame
a. Depolarization: 1/2 millisecond
b. Recovery: 5 milliseconds
4. Conduction of the nervous impulse
a. The depolarization creates a localized electrical current
b. This local current causes voltage-sensitive channels in the adjacent area to open
c. This results in the depolarization of the adjacent membrane and the impulse is carried down the axon
5. Saltatory conduction
a. Only occurs on myelinated axons
b. Depolarization is only possible at the Nodes of Ranvier
c. Therefore the depolarization wave jumps from node to node
d. Results in a much faster conduction of the impulse
D. Divisions of the nervous system
1. Central (CNS): brain and spinal cord
a. Structures within the brain
 The human brain is the command center for the human nervous system. It receives signals from the body's sensory organs and outputs
information to the muscles. The human brain has the same basic structure as other mammal brains but is larger in relation to body size than any
other brains.
Facts about the human brain
 The human brain is the largest brain of all vertebrates relative to body size.
 It weighs about 3.3 lbs. (1.5 kilograms).
 The average male has a brain volume of 1,274 cubic centimeters (cm 3).
 The average female brain has a volume of 1,131 cm 3.
 The brain makes up about 2 percent of a human's body weight.
 The cerebrum makes up 85 percent of the brain's weight.
 It contains about 86 billion nerve cells (neurons) — the "gray matter."
 It contains billions of nerve fibers (axons and dendrites) — the "white matter."
 These neurons are connected by trillions of connections, or

1. Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
a. Pons: reflex center, regulates respiration
b. Medulla oblongata: controls circulation and respiration
2. Mesencephalon (middle brain) [Cerebellum: coordinates muscle activity, balance]
3. Prosencephalon (forebrain)
a. Diencephalon (between)
1. Thalamus
a. Recognizes pain, temperature, and touch
b. Relays sensory information to the cerebrum (integration)
c. Responsible for emotional responses
d. Contains the reticular system (arousal - seratonin)
2. Hypothalamus
 a. Links the nervous and endocrine systems
b. Regulates and coordinates autonomic activity
c. Regulates appetite and thirst
d. Controls hormone production (pituitary)
e. Controls homeostasis
f. Limbic system: links the psyche with the physical
b. Telencephelon (end)
1. Cerebral cortex
a. Divided into two hemispheres
b. Connected by the corpus callosum
2. Major lobes of the cerebrum
a. Frontal lobe: primary motor area, insight and personality
b. Parietal lobe: general memory, taste, touch, pressure, temperature
c. Temporal lobe: hearing, vision, auditory memory
d. Occipital lobe: smell, visual memory

3. Peripheral (PNS): nerves branching off of the CNS

a. Somatic: voluntary muscle control
b. Autonomic: involuntary muscle control
1. Sympathetic: responds to emergencies (fight or flight)
2. Parasympathetic: functions in normal life
C. Sense organs
1. Receptors: masses of dendrites that sense the world
2. Types of receptors
a. Mechanical forces: pressure, gravity, sound, touch, vibration
b. Chemicals: taste, smell, humidity
c. Electromagnetic energy: light, heat, electricity, magnetism
3. Types of simple receptors
a. Noicoceptors: pain
b. Stretch receptors: in muscles
c. Baroreceptors: blood pressure
d. Pacinian corpuscles: vibration
e. Meissner's corpuscles: rapid pressure changes (fine touch)
f. Merkel cells: prolonged pressure
g. Proprioceptors: in the joints (sense body's position in space)
4. Types of sense organs
a. Eye
1. Retina: light-sensitive tissue in the back
a. Rods: sensitive to black and white light
b. Cones: sensitive to colored light
c. Fovea: place on the retina where light is focused
b. Tongue: senses sweet, sour, bitter, salty
c. Nasal cavity: senses odors (helps in taste)
d. Ear
1. Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
2. Ossicles (middle ear bones)
3. Cochlea: detect vibrations (sound)
4. Semicircular canals: detect angular momentum changes (balance)

Prepared By: Dr. Elma R. Thiam