GREEK CIVILISATION

Keywords:
1. Mediterranean sea
● a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean
Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe
and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant in
Western Asia.
● Around 5.9 million years ago the Mediterranean was cut off from the
Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over a period of some 600,000
years during the Messinian salinity crisis before being refilled by the Zanclean
flood about 5.3 million years ago.
● The Mediterranean Sea encompasses a vast number of islands, some of
them of volcanic origin. The two largest islands, in both area and population, are
Sicily and Sardinia.
● The water temperatures are mild in winter and warm in summer and
give name to the Mediterranean climate type due to the majority of precipitation
falling in the cooler months.
● The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient
times, facilitating trade and cultural exchange between the peoples of the region.

2. Chattel slavery system

● refers to a form of human enslavement in which the slave is completely
owned by another person.
● Within chattel slavery, there are two types of positions human chattels
can occupy, which are laborers and servants.
● Chattel slavery has existed in some form for a very long time. Most
notably in ancient Egypt, soldiers were captured in war or became slaves after
committing serious crimes.
● The abolitionist movements of the 18th and 19th centuries, led by
activists and reformers, challenged and eventually helped to abolish chattel
slavery in many countries, including the British Empire, the United States, and
other parts of the Americas.
● Under the chattel slavery system, enslaved people were denied basic
human rights, subjected to brutal treatment, and often faced lifelong bondage and
intergenerational enslavement, with no legal recognition of their personhood or
autonomy.

3. Homer’s epic
● The authorship of the two epic poems attributed to Homer, the "Iliad"
and the "Odyssey," is debated among scholars.
● The "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" are both epic poems, belonging to the
genre of epic poetry. The "Iliad" focuses on the Trojan War, while the "Odyssey"
follows the adventures of the hero Odysseus on his journey home after the war.
● The "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" explore various universal themes,
including heroism, honor, fate, warfare, the role of the gods, and the
complexities of human nature.
● The "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" feature a vast array of memorable
characters, both mortal and immortal. Heroes like Achilles, Hector, and
Odysseus, as well as gods and goddesses like Zeus, Athena, and Poseidon, play
prominent roles in the narratives.
● The "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" are considered foundational works of
Western literature and continue to be cherished for their rich storytelling, vivid
imagery, and profound insights into the human condition.

4. Athena and Sparta

● Athena was the daughter of Zeus, the ancient Greek goddess of wisdom,
courage, inspiration, civilization, law and justice, strategic warfare, mathematics,
strength, strategy, the arts, crafts, and skill.
● Sparta was an ancient Greek city-state known for its military prowess
and disciplined society, located in the Peloponnese region of Greece and was
known for its powerful army and strict societal structure focused on producing
skilled warriors.
● Athena and Sparta were not directly associated with each other. Athena
was the patron goddess of Athens, while Sparta was dedicated to the worship of
the god Apollo.
● However, Athena was still widely revered throughout ancient Greece
and was considered a significant deity in Spartan mythology and religion as well.
● While Athens was known for its cultural achievements and democratic
governance, Sparta was known for its militaristic society and focus on physical
strength and endurance.
● The relationship between Athens and Sparta was complex and often
marked by conflict. They fought against each other in the Peloponnesian War
(431-404 BCE), which was a prolonged and devastating conflict that reshaped
the Greek world and weakened both Athens and Sparta.

5. Athenian Democracy
● The system of democratic government used in Athens, Greece from the
5th to 4th century BCE.
● The assembly met at least once a month, more likely two or three times,
on the Pnyx hill in a dedicated space which could accommodate around 6000
citizens. Any citizen could speak to the assembly and vote on decisions by
simply holding up their hands.
● The majority won the day and the decision was final.
● Nine presidents (proedroi), elected by lot and holding the office one
time only, organized the proceedings and assessed the voting.
● Specific issues discussed in the assembly included deciding military and
financial magistracies, organizing and maintaining food supplies, initiating
legislation and political trials, deciding to send envoys, deciding whether or not
to sign treaties, voting to raise or spend funds, and debating military matters.

6. Roman Republic
● A form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman
civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people.
● Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom (traditionally
dated to 509 BC) and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman
Empire, Rome's control rapidly expanded during this period—from the city's
immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world.
● Its political organization developed, at around the same time as direct
democracy in Ancient Greece, with collective and annual magistracies, overseen
by a senate.
7. Roman Empire
● The post-Republican period of ancient Rome.
● As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the
Mediterranean Sea in Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, and was ruled by
emperors.
● The Republic was not a nation-state in the modern sense, but a network
of towns left to rule themselves (though with varying degrees of independence
from the Roman Senate) and provinces administered by military commanders.
● It was ruled, not by emperors, but by annually elected magistrates
(Roman consuls above all) in conjunction with the Senate.
● The predecessor state of the Roman Empire, the Roman Republic,
became severely destabilized in civil wars and political conflicts.

8. Founding of Christianity
● Christianity emerged as a monotheistic Abrahamic faith based on the
teachings of Jesus as recorded in the New Testament of the Christian Bible.
● According to Christian beliefs, Jesus is the Son of God and the promised
Messiah (Christ) prophesied in the Old Testament of the Hebrew Bible.
 ● The crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus are considered pivotal events
in the founding of Christianity. Christians believe that Jesus was crucified, died,
and was buried, but rose from the dead on the third day, which they celebrate as
Easter.
● The early followers of Jesus, known as disciples or apostles, played a
significant role in the spread of Christianity. They preached the teachings of
Jesus and established Christian communities in various regions, including
Jerusalem, Antioch, and Rome.
● The Roman Empire initially persecuted Christians, but eventually,
Christianity became the state religion under Emperor Constantine the Great in
the 4th century AD, leading to its widespread acceptance and influence in the
Western world.

DETAILS

I. Early development of Greek Society

- Humans inhabited the Balkan region and the Greek peninsula from an early but
in-determinate date.
- 3rd millennium B.C.E., they increasingly met and mingled with peoples from
different societies who traveled and traded in the Mediterranean basin.
- Early inhabitants of the Greek peninsula built their societies under the
influence of Mesopotamians, Egyptians, Phoenicians, and others active in the
region.
- Beginning 9th century B.C.E., the Greeks organized a series of city-states →
political context → development of classical Greek society.
1. Greek’s background
- Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the
shores of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea.
- The mainland of Greece is very rocky, with a deeply indented coastline, and
rugged mountain ranges with few substantial forests.

II. Historical overview:

1. Millennium III- XII BC (Archaic Period):

- The archaic period saw developments in Greek politics, economics,
international relations, warfare and culture.
- It was in the archaic period that the Greek alphabet developed, the earliest
surviving Greek literature was composed, monumental sculpture and red-figure
pottery began in Greece and the hoplite became the core of Greek armies.
2. XI – IX BC (Classical Period):
 - From a political aspect, this period is characterized by the growth of the city-
state called polis.
- The two most important city-states that began to develop
were Sparta and Athens. Sparta was the first city that organized itself with a
strict social structure and a government that included an assembly representing
all citizens.
3. VIII – IV BC (Polis Period):
-
4. IV – 146 BC (Hellenistic Period):
- The Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical
Greece.
- Greek cultural influence and power reached its peak in the Mediterranean and
beyond.

III. Athens and Sparta

1. Athens
- Population: ~250,000 people
- Classes: Slaves - Metics - Freemen
- In Athens as in Sparta, population growth and economic development caused
political and social strain, but the Athenians relieved tensions by establishing a
government based on democratic principles.
- Athens sought to negotiate order by considering the interests of the polis’s
various constituencies.
- Citizenship was by no means open to all residents: only free adult males from
Athens played a role in public affairs, leaving foreigners, slaves, and women
with no direct voice in government → opened government offices to all
citizens and broadened the base of political participation in classical Greece.
- During the seventh century B.C.E., an increasing volume of maritime trade
brought prosperity to Attica, the region around Athens. The principal
beneficiaries of that prosperity were aristocratic landowners, who also
controlled the Athenian government
- As their wealth grew, the aristocrats increased their landholdings and cultivated
them with greater efficiency. Owners of small plots could not compete and fell
heavily into debt.
- Competitive pressures often forced them to sell their holdings to aristocrats,
and debt burdens sometimes overwhelmed them and pushed them into slavery.
- By the early sixth century B.C.E., Attica had a large and growing class of
people extremely unhappy with the structure of their society and poised to
engage in war against their wealthy neighbors.
- Many poleis that experienced similar economic conditions suffered decades of
brutal civil war between aristocrats and less privileged classes. In
- Athens, however, an aristocrat named Solon served as a mediator between
classes, and he devised a solution to class conflict in Attica.
2. Spartan
- 20,000–35,000 citizens plus numerous Helots and Perioikoi. The likely total of
40,000–50,000
- Sparta was situated in a fertile region of the Peloponnesus. As their population
and economy expanded during the eighth and seventh centuries B.C.E., the
Spartans progressively extended their control over the Peloponnesus.
- Classes: Helots - Perioikoi - Spartiates
- By the sixth century B.C.E., the helots probably outnumbered the Spartan
citizens by more than ten to one. With their large subject population, the
Spartans were able to cultivate the Peloponnesus efficiently, but they also faced
the constant threat of rebellion.
- As a result, the Spartans devoted most of their resources to maintaining a
powerful and disciplined military machine.
- To discourage the development of economic and social distinctions, Spartans
observed an extraordinarily austere lifestyle as a matter of policy. They did not
wear jewelry or elaborate clothes, nor did they pamper themselves with
luxuries or accumulate private wealth on a large scale.
- They generally did not even circulate coins made of precious metals but,
instead, used iron bars for money.
- Distinction among the ancient Spartans came not by wealth or social status, but
by prowess, discipline, and military talent, which the Spartan educational
system cultivated from an early age. All boys from families of Spartan citizens
left their homes at age seven and went to live in military barracks, where they
underwent a rigorous regime of physical training. At age twenty they began
active military service, which they continued until retirement.
- When they reached age eighteen to twenty, young women married and had
occasional sexual relations, but did not live with their husbands. Only at about
age thirty did men leave the barracks and set up households with their wives
and children.
- Spartan society stood basically on the foundation of military discipline, and its
institutions both reflected and reinforced the larger society’s commitment to
military values. In effect, Sparta sought to maintain public order—and
discourage rebellion by the helots—by creating a military state that could crush
any threat
How did the geography of Greece affect Greek history?

Greek civilization developed into independent city-states because Greece’s mountains,

islands, and peninsulas separated the Greek people from each other and made
communication difficult. The steep mountains of the Greek geography also affected
the crops and animals that farmers raised in the region.

Who was Homer, and why was his work used as the basis for Greek education?

1. About Homer

- Scholars are uncertain whether Homer existed. If real, he is believed to have

lived about the 9th or 8th century BCE and was a native of Ionia. A poet in the oral
tradition, his works were likely transcribed by others. He is traditionally portrayed as
blind, and some claim he was illiterate.

- Historians place his birth sometime around 750 BC and conjecture that he was
born and resided in or near Chios. However, seven cities claimed to have been his
birthplace. Due to the lack of information about Homer the person, many scholars
hold the poems themselves as the best windows into his life. For instance, it is from
the description of the blind bard in The Odyssey that many historians have guessed
that Homer was blind. The Odyssey’s depiction of the bard as a minstrel in the service
of local kings also gives some insight into the life of the poet practicing his craft.
What is undeniable is that the works of Homer proved to be the most influential not
merely for the poets of ancient times but also for the later epic poets of Western
literature.

2. There are several reasons why the works of Homer (Iliad and Odyssey)
were used in education

- First, to study Homer is to learn to read and write Greek. Some of the most
beautiful Greek was penned under the name of Homer. So, if we look at many of the
fragments that were found in the sands of Egypt, the majority of them were of Homer.
More specifically, children were learning to read and write.

- Second, Homer's work forms the basis of many of the values of Greek
civilization. Hence, to educate children on things like bravery, the importance of
military prowess and the seeking of glory, Homer's works are a great place to start.
Moreover, there is a collective bonding that takes place.
- Third, Homer can be allegorized to make important points on ethics. We see
more of this in the Hellenistic period. In other words, Homer has many exempla,
which can teach children about how to live and what it means to live well.

IV. Conflicts

- Athens have quarreled for decades prior to the war itself, however, it was not
the main reason that led to the war. Athenian was in control of the Delian
League, the vast naval alliance that allowed Athens to dominate the
Mediterranean Sea. Moreover, One of Sparta’s allies, Corinth, had directly
engaged the Athenian army. As a Spartan ally, Corinth resumed hostilities
toward Athens when Athens threatened Corinth’s interests in the region
surrounding Corcyra.
- And that was where Spartan stepped in. Spartan began by raiding lands within
an Athenian allied territory, particularly a region near Athens called Attica.
However, The Athenians had built protecting walls stretching from their
seaport to the city of Athens.
- The leader of Athens at the time, Pericles, urged Athens not to engage in direct
land battles with the Spartans. Instead, the Athenians used their navy to deliver
troops into the Spartan territory to conduct raids on settlements. After years of
open warfare, Sparta offered peace and Athens accepted. The agreement was
made official with the signing of the Peace of Nicias. The treaty stated that
Athens and Sparta would defend each other for the next 50 years. However, the
treaty only lasted six.
- The Athenians, wanting more power, launched an assault at Sicily. And for
obvious reasons, we decided to retaliate. Learning from our past experiences
with the Athenian navy, Sparta established a fleet of warships. It would be
another decade of warfare before Sparta’s general, Lysander, defeated the
Athenian fleet at Aegospotami. This defeat led to Athenian surrender and
therefore concluded the Peloponnesian War.

V. Military Strength

- As the obvious better city of the two, Spartans despite never having more than
8,000 Spartiates-strong at its peak, the army had the reputation of being the
strongest and most powerful ancient army. And given the fact that Spartan
didn’t lose a single battle for several centuries, Athens should not be self-
satisfied when it comes to military strength.
- Athenean were excellent at using the peltasts (a type of light infantryman) and
its naval strength was far superior than Spartan’s. When the Peloponnesian War
broke out, Spartans were supreme on land, but Athenians excelled at sea.
Although Sparta did have naval dominance over Athens, it was short lived.
 - Spartans relied a lot on their allies, primarily the Corinthians, for naval power.
During the Greco-Persian Wars, the city of Spartan developed a large, powerful
navy in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The Athenian Navy consisted of 80,000
crewing and 400 ships. The backbone of the navy's manpower was a core of
professional rowers drawn from the lower classes of Athenian society. This
gave the Athenian fleets an advantage in training over the less professional
fleets of its rivals. The main warships of the fleet were the triremes. With its
fleet, Athens obtained hegemony over the rest of the Greek city-states forming
the First Athenian Empire.

VI. Lifestyles and Values

1. Athens
- The Athenian society put a big emphasis on democratic values. They believed
that it was the citizen's duty to participate in the governmental processes.
Living in a democratic society meant that they supported an individual's right
to speech, and through teaching literature, art, philosophy, etc, it helped
Athenean citizens expand their outlooks on social and political issues, develop
skills of decision-making, critical thinking.
- Athenians valued mental and emotional growth through knowledge. They
contributed not only to their own period but also to the “modern society” of the
future. Moreover, Athens was the birthplace of the world's most known
philosophers, architecture, and culture. After all, Greek culture is remembered
and appreciated owing to Athenians.
2. Spartan
- The Spartans put the military at the center of their lifestyle. Everyone, more or
less, had to contribute to the army: male were obliged to participate in the
military, and females had to contribute in terms of raising a strong and healthy
male in order to send to the military. By dedicating their life to building the
fiercest army there was, Spartans were extremely strong and disciplined.
- Spartanshave long rejected the idea of living a luxurious life owning gold and
silver made objects, they didn’t even have currencies. They were determined
that in order to form the most-feared army, they had to keep the society united
and equal.
- The Spartans acted on mutual power rather than individual interests. Moreover,
they valued morality and manners over most things. For that very reason,
Spartan successfully created a strong and harmonious community.

VII. Education and Roles of Women

1. Education
a. Athens
 - Both men and women had a right to get an education in Athens. Girls would
learn how to run and care for a household, manage servants and slaves (this
applied to wealthy households only), weave, sew clothes, and cook and raise
children. This education meant Athenian women’s lives revolved around
household duties. Men at the age of 16 were considered to complete the basic
part of education; however, depending on one’s willingness, we could continue
our education till 18. The primary education contained math, writing, reading,
music, and physical training, such as running and jumping. Having completed
primary education, we were taught philosophy. At the age of 18, military
training is obligatory since Athenian parents wanted to have sons having both
educational and military skills. Because of our balanced education, Athens
produced some of the most sophisticated philosophers and scholars of Greece
at that time, while Spartans were only known as deadly war machines.
b. Spartan
- As a war-centered city, the education system of Spartans was based almost
entirely on military services as men were educated in war. Children as soon as
7 years old were taken from their parent’s house to start their military
education at “agoge”. The army was extremely harsh because not only men
were doing painful practices as in real combat, they were offered low-quality
foods. Spartan soldiers would then have to find food for themselves as we
believed that every Spartan warrior had to be the best at survival skills.
However, in case they were caught stealing food, they would be severely
punished. After receiving hard training for 12 years, the men were sent to the
test where they were beaten till their bodies bled, and in case of tolerating such
pain, they were declared as a winner and sent to military service. Otherwise,
they were not given any political rights. Spartans were trained as the best and
went to battles as the best, their army was never large in number but every
soldier they put out was elite at his job: fighting for the glory of Sparta.

2. Roles of women

a. Athens

The main purpose in life in Athens was the rearing of children. Other females of the
family taught basic and domestically-oriented skills. This meant their lives revolved
around the household with little time for other activities. Married women were under
the complete authority of their husbands as we were incapable of making important
decisions for themselves. As the result, most Athenian women believe that a family
with healthy children, particularly boys, was the only hope for a comfortable old age.
They think that leading this life is more peaceful and comfortable compared to
Spartians women who run around all day and didn’t settle down with children.
 b. Spartan

Spartan women have greater independence than women in any other Greek city-state.
Not only boys but also girls in Spartan city state received military-based education. A
healthy physical appearance was important because they believed that only a healthy
woman could produce healthy babies. Since men were at home only for very short
periods of time, women had to handle everything alone. Moreover, women did not
have to take care of the traditional domestic affairs of women because Helots
completed those tasks. Marriage was very important to every woman in Sparta
because the city state needed a constant supply of young men for their military. Due to
this, women’s role in the family was to produce male heirs. As a result, for women
dying during childbirth was one of the greatest honors and duties, so they will have a
gravestone with their name on it. Unlike Athenians women whose sole purpose was
rearing children, female Spartans only need to give birth and raise their children till
the age of 7 so they gain independence.

XI. Focus questions

What were the chief features of the polis, or city-state, and how did the city-states
of Athens and Sparta differ?

- A city-state, or polis, was the community structure of ancient Greece. Each

city-state was organized with an urban center and the surrounding countryside.
Characteristics of the city in a polis were outer walls for protection, as well as a public
space that included temples and government buildings. The temples and government
buildings were often built on the top of a hill, or acropolis. A surviving example of a
structure central to an ancient acropolis is the famous Parthenon of Athens. The
Parthenon was a temple built to honor the goddess Athena. The majority of a polis’s
population lived in the city, as it was the center of trade, commerce, culture, and
political activity.

- Each city-state ruled itself. They differed greatly from each other in governing
philosophies and interests. For example, Sparta was ruled by two kings and a council
of elders. It emphasized maintaining a strong military, while Athens valued education
and art. In Athens every male citizen had the right to vote, so they were ruled by a
democracy. Rather than have a strong army, Athens maintained their navy.

What did the Greeks mean by democracy, and in what ways was the Athenian
political system a democracy? What effect did the two great conflicts of the fifth
century---the Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War---have on Greek
civilization?

1. Democracy in Ancient Greece

- Democracy in Ancient Greece was very direct. What this means is that all the
citizens voted on all the laws. Rather than vote for representatives, like we do, each
citizen was expected to vote for every law.

- They did have officials to run the government, however. Most of these officials
were chosen by a lottery. So every citizen had a chance, regardless of their popularity
or wealth, to become an official. A few key positions were voted on, such as the
treasurer and the 10 generals who ran the army (also called the strategoi).

2. Democracy in Athens

- The ancient Greeks were the first to create a democracy. The word
“democracy” comes from two Greek words that mean people (demos) and rule
(kratos). A key part of democracy is that the people have a voice.

- The first known democracy in the world was in Athens. Athenian democracy
developed around the fifth century B.C.E. The Greek idea of democracy was different
from present-day democracy because, in Athens, all adult citizens were required to
take an active part in the government. If they did not fulfill their duty they would be
fined and sometimes marked with red paint. The Athenian definition of “citizens” was
also different from modern-day citizens: only free men were considered citizens in
Athens. Women, children, and slaves were not considered citizens and therefore could
not vote.

- Each year 500 names were chosen from all the citizens of ancient Athens.
Those 500 citizens had to actively serve in the government for one year. During that
year, they were responsible for making new laws and controlled all parts of the
political process. When a new law was proposed, all the citizens of Athens had the
opportunity to vote on it. To vote, citizens had to attend the assembly on the day the
vote took place. This form of government is called direct democracy.

3. Effects of the Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War on Greek

civilization

- The Persian Wars lead to the growth of an Athenian Empire in the Age of
Pericles
- The Peloponnesian War weakened the major Greek states and destroyed any
possibility of cooperation among the states.

- Focused on their petty wars, the Greek states remained oblivious to the
growing power of Macedonia to their north.

How was Alexander the Great able to amass his empire, and what was his
legacy?

- Alexander the Great began to amass his empire when he was elected king after
his father's assassination. He was a brilliant military strategist and gained land
and power by conquering other empires which made him a famous ruler over
many empires. For example, he became the king of Persia. After his death,
Alexander ushered in the Hellenistic age which was a time where people
imitated ancient Greeks which inspired the Romans.
- Alexander the Great's legacy is both far reaching and profound. First, his father
was able to unite the Greek city-states, and Alexander destroyed the Persian
Empire forever. More importantly, Alexander's conquests spread Greek culture,
also known as Hellenism, across his empire.

How did the political, economic, and social institutions of the Hellenistic world
differ from those of Classical Greece?

The political, economic, and social institutions of the Hellenistic world differed
significantly from those of Classical Greece. Here are some examples:

- Political institutions: In Classical Greece, the city-state or polis was the

dominant political institution, and most citizens participated in the democratic
government. In contrast, the Hellenistic world saw the rise of powerful
kingdoms and empires, such as the Macedonian Empire founded by Alexander
the Great, which were often characterized by authoritarian rule and a
centralized bureaucracy.
- Economic institutions: In Classical Greece, the economy was primarily based
on agriculture, and trade was limited to local markets. In the Hellenistic world,
however, trade and commerce flourished, thanks to the expansion of the Greek
world into Asia and the Mediterranean. The growth of long-distance trade and
the development of a monetary economy led to the emergence of wealthy
merchant classes and increased economic inequality.
- Social institutions: The social institutions of the Hellenistic world were
characterized by greater diversity and cultural exchange than those of Classical
Greece. The Hellenistic world encompassed a wide range of cultures, from
Greek and Macedonian to Persian, Egyptian, and Indian. This diversity was
 reflected in art, literature, and philosophy, which drew on a wider range of
cultural influences than in Classical Greece.
- Military institutions: The Hellenistic period saw significant changes in military
organization and tactics. The Macedonian phalanx, developed by Philip II of
Macedon and perfected by Alexander the Great, became the dominant military
formation of the Hellenistic world. The use of cavalry and the development of
siege warfare also played an important role in Hellenistic military tactics.
- Religion: The Hellenistic world saw significant changes in religious institutions
and beliefs. The blending of Greek and non-Greek religious traditions, as well
as the emergence of new mystery cults such as the cult of Isis, led to a greater
diversity of religious practices. The focus of religion also shifted from the gods
to individual salvation and personal piety, as seen in the rise of philosophic
schools such as Epicureanism and Stoicism.

Critical thinking:

In what ways did the culture of the Hellenistic period differ from that of the
Classical period, and what do those differences suggest about society in the two
periods?

The Hellenistic states were ruled absolutely by kings. (By contrast, the classical Greek
city-states, or polei, had been governed democratically by their citizens.) These kings
had a cosmopolitan view of the world, and were particularly interested in amassing as
many of its riches as they could.

The culture of the Hellenistic period differed from that of the Classical period in
several ways:

Artistic styles: Hellenistic art was characterized by greater realism, dramatic

expression, and emotional intensity compared to the idealized forms and emphasis on
balance and proportion in Classical art. Hellenistic sculptors sought to convey
movement and emotion, and they experimented with new materials and techniques,
such as bronze casting and chiaroscuro.

Philosophy: Hellenistic philosophy was more diverse and eclectic, drawing on a wider
range of cultural and intellectual traditions. Skepticism and cynicism emerged as
influential philosophical schools, challenging the dogmatism and idealism of Classical
philosophy. Hellenistic philosophers were also more concerned with practical ethics
and the pursuit of happiness than with abstract metaphysical questions.

Literature: Hellenistic literature was characterized by a greater diversity of genres and

themes, including the emergence of the novel and the expansion of epic poetry beyond
the Greek world. Hellenistic writers also experimented with new forms of expression
and language, such as the use of colloquialisms and slang in poetry.

Science: Hellenistic science saw significant advances in fields such as mathematics,

astronomy, and medicine. Scholars such as Euclid, Archimedes, and Hipparchus made
important contributions to these fields, laying the foundations for later scientific
developments in the Western world.

Politics: The Hellenistic period was marked by the rise of powerful kingdoms and
empires, such as the Macedonian Empire founded by Alexander the Great. These
political entities were often characterized by authoritarian rule and a centralized
bureaucracy, in contrast to the city-states and democratic governments of the Classical
period.

Religion: Hellenistic religion was marked by the blending of Greek and non-Greek
religious traditions, as well as the emergence of new mystery cults such as the cult of
Isis. The focus of religion also shifted from the gods to individual salvation and
personal piety, as seen in the rise of philosophic schools such as Epicureanism and
Stoicism.

The cultural differences between the Hellenistic period and Classical period suggest
significant changes in society, politics, and art.

The Classical period of Ancient Greece (5th to 4th century BCE) is known for its
emphasis on idealized forms and rationalism. The Greeks placed great importance on
balance, harmony, and proportion in art and architecture, and their philosophy
emphasized the importance of reason, logic, and ethics. This period also saw the
emergence of democracy in Athens, which became a model for later forms of
government.

In contrast, the Hellenistic period (4th to 1st century BCE) saw the rise of the
Macedonian Empire under Alexander the Great, which had a significant impact on
Greek culture and society. Hellenistic art and architecture were characterized by a
greater emphasis on emotion and individualism, with artists seeking to create more
dramatic and expressive works. Hellenistic philosophy was also more eclectic,
drawing on a wider range of influences and emphasizing skepticism and personal
freedom.

The Hellenistic period was also marked by the spread of Greek culture and influence
throughout the Mediterranean world, leading to increased cultural exchange and the
blending of different traditions. This period also saw the rise of new political systems,
such as the Hellenistic kingdoms, which were often characterized by authoritarianism
and the concentration of power in the hands of a few individuals.

Overall, the cultural differences between the Hellenistic period and Classical period
reflect broader changes in Greek society and the wider Mediterranean world,
including the rise of new political systems, increased cultural exchange, and a greater
emphasis on individualism and emotion in art and philosophy.