Solutions
Solutions
Solutions
Solution
A solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances, where one substance is
uniformly dispersed within another. The major components of a solution are the solute and the solvent.
Solutions can exist in all three states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. Common examples include
saltwater (a liquid solution), air (a gaseous solution), and brass (a solid solution).
Solvent
The solvent is the component of a solution that is present in the greatest quantity and acts as the
medium in which the solute dissolves. It determines the physical state of the solution. Solvents can
be polar or nonpolar, depending on their molecular structure. Polar solvents, such as water, have
partial charges that facilitate dissolving ionic and polar compounds, while nonpolar solvents, like
hexane, dissolve nonpolar substances. For example, in saltwater, water is the solvent as it dissolves
the sodium chloride (NaCl) crystals, dispersing them uniformly throughout the liquid.
Solute
The solute is the substance that is dissolved in the solvent. It is present in a smaller quantity relative
to the solvent. The nature of the solute determines the type of solution, such as ionic, molecular, or
colloidal. The solute interacts with the solvent molecules through various forces, such as ion-dipole
interactions in the case of ionic compounds or hydrogen bonding for polar molecules. For instance,
in a sugar solution, sugar acts as the solute, breaking into individual molecules that evenly distribute
within the water.
The interaction between solute and solvent is crucial for the formation of solutions and determines
properties like solubility, boiling point, and freezing point.
Formula
Example
If a saline solution contains 5 grams of sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolved in enough water to make
100 mL of solution, the mass/volume percent would be:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 5
% = ( ) × 100 = 5%
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 100
This means the solution has a concentration of 5 grams of NaCl per 100 mL of the solution.
i. Dilution
Dilution refers to the process of reducing the concentration of a solute in a solution by adding more
solvent. It does not change the total amount of solute present but increases the overall volume of the
solution, thereby decreasing the solute concentration. For example, adding water to a concentrated
sugar solution dilutes it, making it less sweet.
ii. Concentration
Concentration refers to the amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution. It
quantifies how "strong" or "weak" a solution is. Concentration can be expressed in various units, such
as molarity, molality, mass percent, or volume percent. For example, in a saltwater solution containing
10 grams of NaCl in 100 mL of water, the concentration can be expressed in terms of mass/volume
percent as 10%.
iii. Solubility
Solubility is the maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve in a specific quantity of solvent at a
given temperature and pressure to form a stable solution. It is usually expressed in units like grams of
solute per 100 grams of solvent. For example, at 25°C, the solubility of table salt (NaCl) in water is
approximately 36 grams per 100 mL. Solubility depends on factors such as temperature, pressure (for
gases), and the nature of the solute and solvent.
iv. Molarity
Molarity (M) is a measure of the concentration of a solution expressed as the number of moles of
solute per liter of solution. It is calculated using the formula:
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑚3 )
For example, if 0.5 moles of NaCl are dissolved in 1 liter of water, the molarity of the solution is 0.5
M. Molarity is temperature-dependent because it is based on the solution's volume, which can expand
or contract with temperature changes.
Q8. Polar and ionic solutes dissolve in polar solvent only. Why?
Polar and ionic solutes dissolve in polar solvents due to the principle of "like dissolves like," which
arises from the molecular interactions between solutes and solvents. At the molecular level, the ability
of a solute to dissolve depends on the interaction between the solute's particles and the solvent
molecules overcoming the solute-solute and solvent-solvent forces.
Ionic compounds, such as sodium chloride (NaCl), consist of positively charged cations (Na⁺) and
negatively charged anions (Cl⁻) held together by strong electrostatic forces. When such a solute is
introduced into a polar solvent like water, the solvent's polar molecules interact with the ions through
ion-dipole interactions.
Positive ions (cations) are attracted to the partial negative charge on the oxygen atom of water
molecules.
Negative ions (anions) are attracted to the partial positive charges on the hydrogen atoms of
water.
These interactions weaken the ionic bonds in the solute and pull the ions away from the crystal lattice.
Once free, the ions become surrounded by a shell of water molecules in a process called hydration,
stabilizing them in solution.
Polar solutes, such as sugar or ethanol, contain molecules with permanent dipoles due to uneven
distribution of electrons. These dipoles interact with the dipoles of polar solvent molecules through
dipole-dipole interactions or hydrogen bonding (if the solvent is capable of hydrogen bonding, like
water).
For example:
In a sugar solution, the hydroxyl (-OH) groups on sugar molecules form hydrogen bonds with
the water molecules.
These interactions overcome the intermolecular forces within the sugar crystal, allowing it to
dissolve and disperse in the water.
Salt dissolves in water due to the strong interactions between the water molecules and the ions in the
salt. Salt, like sodium chloride (NaCl), is made up of positively charged sodium ions (Na⁺) and
negatively charged chloride ions (Cl⁻), which are held together by strong ionic bonds. Water is a polar
solvent, meaning it has a partial positive charge on the hydrogen atoms and a partial negative charge
on the oxygen atom. When salt is added to water, the water molecules surround the Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions.
The partially negative oxygen atoms of water are attracted to the positive Na⁺ ions, while the partially
positive hydrogen atoms are attracted to the negative Cl⁻ ions. These interactions, called ion-dipole
interactions, overcome the electrostatic forces between the Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions, causing the salt to
dissociate into its individual ions and dissolve in the water. This process of hydration stabilizes the
ions in solution and results in a homogeneous saltwater solution.
Q12. Air is a solution containing oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and other gases. Which one of
the gas is called solvent and why?
In the air, nitrogen is considered the solvent because it is the most abundant gas, making up about
78% of the Earth's atmosphere. As the solvent in this gaseous mixture, nitrogen dissolves smaller
amounts of other gases, such as oxygen (21%) and carbon dioxide (0.04%), as well as trace gases.
The role of a solvent is to be present in the largest quantity and to surround and disperse the solute
molecules. Nitrogen, being the predominant component, provides the medium in which other gases
are dissolved, much like a solvent in a liquid solution. The interactions between nitrogen molecules
and the other gases are relatively weak compared to the strong intermolecular forces in liquid
solutions, but nitrogen still acts as the solvent due to its higher concentration.
Q13. Why gasoline does not dissolve in water?
Gasoline does not dissolve in water due to the fundamental differences in their molecular structures
and the types of intermolecular forces they exhibit. Water is a highly polar solvent, with molecules
that have a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom and partial positive charges on the hydrogen
atoms, allowing them to form hydrogen bonds. These strong interactions are effective at dissolving
polar substances and ionic compounds. In contrast, gasoline is composed of nonpolar hydrocarbons,
which have evenly distributed electrons and do not possess significant partial charges. The weak
London dispersion forces between the nonpolar gasoline molecules are not strong enough to interact
with the polar water molecules. As a result, water molecules prefer to hydrogen bond with each other,
while gasoline molecules remain aggregated, and no meaningful interaction occurs between the two.
This lack of attraction between the polar water molecules and nonpolar gasoline molecules leads to
the two substances remaining separate, forming an immiscible mixture. Thus, gasoline does not
dissolve in water because of the mismatch in intermolecular forces: the strong hydrogen bonds in
water cannot effectively interact with the weak forces in gasoline.
Definition of Solubility
Solubility is the maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve in a given quantity of solvent at a
specific temperature and pressure to form a stable, homogeneous solution. It is commonly expressed
in units like grams of solute per 100 grams of solvent or moles per liter (molarity). Solubility varies
for different solute-solvent combinations and depends on several factors, including the nature of the
solute and solvent.
1. Polarity:
o Like Dissolves Like: Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents (e.g., salt in water) due
to strong ion-dipole or dipole-dipole interactions, while nonpolar solutes dissolve in
nonpolar solvents (e.g., oil in hexane) due to dispersion forces.
o Mismatched polarity (e.g., oil in water) leads to poor dissolution because there are no
significant interactions to overcome solute-solute or solvent-solvent forces.
2. Intermolecular Forces:
The strength and type of intermolecular forces (hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole, ion-dipole,
or London dispersion forces) determine the extent of dissolution. For example, ethanol
dissolves in water due to hydrogen bonding between their hydroxyl groups.
3. Molecular Size:
Smaller molecules or ions dissolve more readily because they interact more effectively with
solvent molecules. Larger or bulkier solute molecules may face steric hindrance, reducing
solubility.
4. Ionic vs. Molecular Solutes:
Ionic compounds dissolve in polar solvents like water if the ion-dipole interactions are strong
enough to overcome the ionic lattice energy. Nonpolar molecular solutes dissolve in nonpolar
solvents through dispersion forces.
5. Solvent Properties:
Solvents with higher dielectric constants (a measure of polarity) better stabilize charged
solutes or ions. For example, water (highly polar) can dissolve salts effectively, while hexane
(nonpolar) cannot.
Example:
Sodium chloride dissolves in water because the polar water molecules stabilize the Na⁺ and
Cl⁻ ions through ion-dipole interactions.
However, sodium chloride does not dissolve in oil because the nonpolar solvent lacks the
necessary interactions to break the ionic bonds of NaCl.
Thus, the nature of the solute and solvent plays a crucial role in determining the extent of
dissolution by dictating the strength and compatibility of their interactions.
Q2. Why the solubility of a salt increases with the increase in temperature?
The solubility of most salts increases with an increase in temperature due to the effect of
temperature on the energy dynamics of dissolution. When a salt dissolves in water, it undergoes two
key processes:
1. Breaking Ionic Bonds in the Salt Crystal: Energy is required to separate the ions in the
salt's lattice.
2. Hydration of Ions: Energy is released when water molecules surround and stabilize the ions.
In many cases, dissolving a salt is an endothermic process, meaning it absorbs more energy to
break the ionic bonds than it releases during hydration. As temperature increases, the added thermal
energy helps overcome the lattice energy of the salt, allowing more ions to break free and dissolve.
Additionally, the increased kinetic energy of water molecules at higher temperatures enhances their
ability to interact with and stabilize the ions.
Molecular Explanation
At higher temperatures:
The ions in the salt crystal vibrate more due to increased energy, making it easier for water
molecules to separate them.
Water molecules move faster and collide more effectively with the salt particles, increasing
the dissolution rate.
The equilibrium of the dissolution reaction shifts toward the dissolved state (according to Le
Chatelier's principle), resulting in greater solubility.
Q3. Explain the attraction of Na+ and Cl- ions for water molecule.
The attraction of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions to water molecules arises from the ion-dipole interactions
between the charged ions and the polar water molecules. Water has a polar structure, with a partial
negative charge (δ−) on the oxygen atom and partial positive charges (δ+) on the hydrogen atoms
due to the unequal sharing of electrons in the O-H bonds.
The positively charged sodium ion (Na⁺) is attracted to the partially negative oxygen atom of water
molecules. This is because:
The negatively charged chloride ion (Cl⁻) is attracted to the partially positive hydrogen atoms of
water molecules. This is because:
Overall Process
These ion-dipole attractions are strong enough to overcome the ionic bonds in the NaCl crystal
lattice. As a result:
1. The Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions separate and disperse into the water.
2. The water molecules surround and stabilize these ions, preventing them from re-associating.
This interaction explains why sodium chloride dissolves readily in water, forming a stable,
homogeneous solution.
Q4. Explain the solubility with reference to “like dissolve like” principle.
The principle of "like dissolves like" explains solubility by emphasizing the compatibility of
intermolecular forces between the solute and solvent. It states that a solute will dissolve in a solvent
if their molecular structures and the forces between their particles are similar. This compatibility
allows the solvent to overcome the cohesive forces holding the solute particles together and
effectively disperse them into the solution.
Explanation