Lecture 9

(Lecture 9) X-Rays
1. Discovery
• Electric discharge through low pressure gas tube →

discovery of electron : Thomson (1897)
discovery of isotopes : Thomson and Aston (1912 - 1922)
Roentgen's discovery of x-rays (1895)

induction discharge through a vacuum tube →
a nearby fluorescence screen illumination at each discharge in a dark room
vacuum tube 가 black card-board 에 싸여 있을 때에도 발생 →
발생체의 투과력 암시
2. Production of x-rays
• Production position of x-rays : the spot on the wall of the discharge tube (strong
fluorecent center) ← cathode ray(=electron) striking position
Modern x-ray tubes :

1) source of the cathode ray : hot filament
2) highly evacuated tube
3) solid target (struck by cathode rays) : metal of high m.p. and high Z,
hollow structure to allow coolant flow
4) high acceleration potential :
ac power driven in the beginning
later development to dc power (10 - 100 kV)
9-1
3. Mechanism of x-ray production
X-rays are produced by high energy electrons when they hit something.
• Collision mechanism of electrons with matter particles :

1) Mostly glancing collision with electrons in the matter
→ electron energy loss → energy (average kinetic energy) gain by the
material electrons → material temperature rise (heating effect)
2) Some violent collisions with the nucleus inside the atom
→ all or most of the energy loss at a single encounter
→ big deceleration of the incident charged particle (=electron)
→ electromagnetic radiation emission (an inverse photoelectric effect)
→ incoming electron energy(eV) produces x-ray photon of continuous energy
distribution with a certain max. energy
hc hc 12400
eV = E e ≅ (hν) max = → λ min = = (Å)
λ min eV V
→ continuous energy loss of electron upto the max. (eV)
→ continuous distribution of photon's wavelength from λmin.
→ continuous x-ray radiation = Bremsstrahlung = Breaking Radiation
9-2
3) Some collisions with the inner electrons inside the atom
→ atomic excitation or ionization
→ electron's ionization energy scale eV - keV
x-ray energy scale keV
→ happenings easier for closely matching energy scale
→ ionization of the innermost shell (K-shell) electrons
→ vacant K-shell is refilled by the electron in the higher shell
→ sharp energy x-ray quantum emission
→ characteristic x-ray = fingerprint of the emitting element
4. The Characteristic x-rays
K-electron removal → K-shell vacancy

removal energy EK ≈ 13.6 Z2 (eV)
with screening effect, EK ≈ 13.6 (Z-σ)2 (eV)
9-3
σ ≈ 1 for the K-shell
K-shell vacancy = a vacancy in the (1s) shell
L-shell vacancy = a vacancy in either
(2s) shell (= LI) or (2p, j=1/2) shell (= LII) or (2p, j=3/2) shell (= LIII)
Similar notation of levels for the higher shells
Thinking in terms of hole (= electron vacancy) states

→ K-state highest, LI, LII, LIII states the next highest etc.
→ transition from K to L-shell : Kα
... ... ... K to M-shell : Kβ etc.
There are transition rules given by the Quantum Mechanics :
Δl = ±1 , Δj = ±1 or 0
→ Kα : Kα1 = K – LIII,
Kα2 = K - LII
Kα3 = K – LI (missing due to the forbidden transition Δl = 0 )
♣ These are the labelling for the corresponding x-rays. Note that x-ray energies are
not equal to the required energies to excite(= ionize) the level.
e.g.) W (tungsten, wolfram)
K-excitation energy 69.55 keV
Kα1 x-ray energy 59.34 keV
Mo (molybdenum)
K-excitation energy 20.1 keV
Kα1 x-ray energy 17.5 keV
The characteristic Kα transition is followed by further transitions to fill the vacancy
in the L-shell from the higher shells (M, N, or O-shell etc.) →
Characteristic L radiation result (much lower energy than Kα radiation)
• Auger electron emission :
x-ray emission from transition to fill a lower shell (majorly K or L shell)
or electron emission from higher shell :
Auger electron
Fluorescence yield
no. of K x − ray emission
ωK =
no. of K vacancies
Auger emission yield : 1 − ωK
Auger emission is important for the lighter
elements.
9-4
5. X-ray Diffraction
“x-ray” named by Roentgen : initial failure to identify the nature of x-rays

→ suggestion of test by Max von Laue (1912) :
x-ray = light of very short wavelength ?
→ Diffraction study
• Diffraction by grating : grating equation nλ = d sin θ
n : order of diffraction , λ : wavelength
d : grating spacing, θ : angle of diffraction
ruled grating의 d 한계 d ≥ 10-4 cm
x-ray wavelength λ 100 – 0.1 Å (10-6 – 10-9 cm)
high order (n ≥ 100) diffractions are very weak to observe
→ Use single crystal as a grating of very fine spacing d
NaCl or KCl
Laue diffraction
→ Symmetrical but complicated spectrum

cf. The central large circle is the lead mask for direct passing beam blockage.
cf. Simple parallel diffraction lines are obtained by ruled (1-dimensional)
grating
• Laue method (= stationary crystal, transmission method)
9-5
• Bragg method (= rotating crystal, scattering method)
9-6
1) Constructive interference between neighboring atoms on the same crystal plane
d ′ (cos α − cos θ) = mλ (1)
α, θ : angle between the incident or leaving rays and the crystal plane
d′ : interatomic spacing in the crystal plane
2) Constructive interference between neighboring atoms on the succesive crystal
plane :
d (sin θ + sin α ) = nλ (2)
d : interplanar spacing
3) Considerable enhancement of constructive interference if both the (1) and (2) are
met → reflective condition α = θ
(1) → zero, (2) → 2d sin θ = nλ : Bragg equation
By using crystal of known d, and by measuring θ, the wavelength λ can be determined.
6. Absorption of x-rays
Low energy photons (IR, visible light, UV etc.) : absorbed by

electronic excitation and ionization
rotational and vibrational excitation
x-ray photons : energy much higher than the scale of electronic, rotational,
vibrational energy levels
→ interaction mostly likely with K-, L-shell electron (tightly bound
electrons)
→ i) photoelectric effect
ii) Compton scattering
iii) Rayleigh scattering (Coherent)
iv) pair production ( Ex ≥ 1.02 MeV)
• Measurement of x-rays
Roentgen’s method :
fluorescence detection (quantitative intensity measurement)
photographic plate (intensity measurement by densitometer)
ionization chamber (intensity measurement by microammeter)
9-7
Measurement of x-ray attenuation
experimental arrangement
monochromatic x-ray from Bragg diffraction

intensity reduction varying on the thickness of absorber :
dI = − μI ( x ) dx
→ I ( x ) = I 0 e − μx
I(x) : intensity of the transmitted beam

I0 : intensity of the incident beam
x : thickness of absorber
μ : linear attenuation coefficient (cm-1)
μ = μ(Ex , absorber Z)
9-8
For thin foils, x is difficult to measure rather than areal mass density).
μ
→ xm ≡ ρx, then μx = ( )(ρx) = μ m x m
ρ
μ
where μm ≡ = mass attenuation coefficient (cm2/g)
ρ
Variation of μm on a wider x-ray (or γ-ray) energy range
9-9
Bibliography :
(Basic)
1. H.A. Enge, M.R. Wehr, and J.A. Richards, Introduction to Atomic Physics,
Reading, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1972
2. F. Yang and J.H. Hamilton, Modern Atomic and Nuclear Physics, New York, The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1996
3. K.S. Krane, Modern Physics, New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1996 (Korean
Translation : 이공학도를 위한 현대물리학, 이철의, 강원, 여인환, 주진수
공역, 서울, 범한서적주식회사, 1998)
(Intermediate)
4. F.K. Richtmyer, E.H. Kennard and J.N. Cooper, Introduction to Modern Physics,
New York, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1969
5. R. Eisberg and R. Resnick, Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids,
Nuclei and Particles, 2nd Ed., New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1974, 1985
6. B.D. Cullity, Elements of X-ray Diffraction, Reading, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, Inc., 1956, 1967

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(Lecture 9) X-Rays

• Electric discharge through low pressure gas tube →

Roentgen's discovery of x-rays (1895)

Modern x-ray tubes :

• Collision mechanism of electrons with matter particles :

4. The Characteristic x-rays

K-electron removal → K-shell vacancy

Thinking in terms of hole (= electron vacancy) states

“x-ray” named by Roentgen : initial failure to identify the nature of x-rays

→ Symmetrical but complicated spectrum

By using crystal of known d, and by measuring θ, the wavelength λ can be determined.

Low energy photons (IR, visible light, UV etc.) : absorbed by

monochromatic x-ray from Bragg diffraction

I(x) : intensity of the transmitted beam

Variation of μm on a wider x-ray (or γ-ray) energy range

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