Physics Form 4 Study Notes A.S.

Linear Scales
- This is when the increments are (equally)/ evenly

distributed for equal change of measurements.
e.g.: measuring cylinder, ruler, breaker)
Non-Linear Scales
- This is when the increments are not equally/ evenly
distributed for equal change in measurement.
e.g.: conical flask, measuring cup
Density or ρ(rho)= Mass (kg)÷ volume(m³)

= kg/m³
Mass- The mass of an object is a measure of the matter

in it and depends on the number of atoms it contains and
the size of those atoms.
Weight(w)= m×g
Types of Forces
Contact forces Non-contact forces
Frictional forces Gravitational attraction
between Earth and Moon
Tension in strings, ropes, Magnetic fields of magnets
wires, springs and electric currents (these
affect magnetic materials
and other current-carrying
conductors, and are how
electric motors and
generations work)
(normal) reaction forces
between objects in contact
with each other
Expansion force of
compressed spring
Expansion force heated
objects
Upthrust force on floating
object
Base units- They are from the international system of
units has 7 fundamental or base quantities from which all
other physical units can be derived.
Quantity Symbol Base unit Symbol
Mass M Kilogram kg
Length L Metre m
Time T Second s
Current I Ampere A
Temperature O, T Kelvin K
˚C- O
Kelvin- T
Derived units-
There are many more units in addition to the seven bas
units. These units can be derived directly from the seven,
based on mathematical relationships and definitions.
Derived units
Quantity Symbol Units Symbol
Area A Metre m²
squared
Volume V Metre cubed m³
Density ρ(rho) Kilograms Kg/m³
per metre
cubed
Energy/work E,W Joule J
Power P Watt W
Velocity v Metres per m/s
second
Acceleration a Metres per m/s²
second
squared
Force F Newton N
Moment T(torque) Newton Nm
metre
Momentum p Kilogram Kgm/s
metre per
second
pressure P pascal Pa
Stability is the ability of an object to maintain its

balance after being disturbed. The stability of an object is
extremely dependent upon its center of gravity.
The center of gravity of an object is the point at which

we can consider the weight of an object to be
concentrated.
a) Unstable Equilibrium: A system is in unstable
equilibrium if, when displaced slightly, it moves
further away from its original position.
-As soon as the cone has the slightest tilt its weight
has a moment about the point of the cone, which
makes it fall over.
- the line of action of the weight, W, passes outside
the very small area of contact with the table’s
surface.
b) Stable equilibrium: A system is in stable equilibrium

if, when displaced slightly, it returns to its original
position.
- Here the cone rests easily as the 2 equal forces W
and the contact force C act in opposite directions in
the same line.
- The line of action of the weight, W, passes inside the
base area of the cone
- The moment of the weight provides a turning effect,
which tries to lower the centre of gravity and makes
the cone fall back to its stable position
c) Neutral equilibrium: A system is in neutral
equilibrium if, when displaced slightly, it neither
returns to nor moves further away but remains in its
new position.
What is equilibrium?
When a system is in equilibrium (not accelerating or
rotating). These two conditions must be met:
1)The sum of the upward forces must be equal to the
sum of the downward forces.
2)The sum of the clockwise moments is equal to the
sum of the anticlockwise moments.
Moments- The moment of a force is the product of the

force and the perpendicular distance to the pivot.
M(Nm)= F(N)×d(m)
Types of errors-
- Random errors: It averages out over several
readings. All errors would be scattered around the
true value. Random errors can happen because the
quantity being measured may not be uniform. Also, it
can occur because human response factors are
involved.
- Systematic errors: All the readings will be displaced
from the true value. It may be difficult to spot and
may be dangerous. They could occur because an
instrument has an incorrect zero setting, an
instrument is incorrectly calibrated.
- Parallax error :a type of measurement error that
occurs when the position of an object or reading is
viewed from different angles, causing the reading to
appear differently.
Instruments to measure volume-
1)Ruler
2)Callipers
3)Micrometer
4)Displacement can
5)Measuring cylinder
6)Burette
7)Flask
Gravity
Gravity on earth= 10 N/kg
Gravity on moon= 17 N/kg or 1/6 of the earth’s
Pressure- is the force per unit area

=Force ÷ Area
Pressure in liquids
P= h× ρ×g
h(height)=m
ρ= kg/ m³
Pressure and depth: the higher the tank, the greater

the pressure
Relative density is defined as the ratio of the density of

a substance (ρ substance) to the density of water (ρ
water ).
Relative Density= ρ substance÷ ρ water
Speed-time or Distance-time or
velocity-time displacement-
graphs time graphs
Gradient Acceleration, Velocity, v=s÷t
a=v÷t
Area under graph Distance oved
Horizontal Constant or Object stationary
straight line uniform speed
Straight line with Constant or Constant or
positive gradient uniform uniform speed
acceleration
Momentum
Momentum is a fundamental property in physics and is defined as
the product of the object’s mass and velocity. It is a vector
quantity having both magnitude and direction.
Newton’s Laws of Motion(3laws)

Newton's First Law of Motion
Newton's First Law of Motion states that an object in
motion tends to stay in motion unless an external force
acts upon it. Similarly, if the object is at rest, it will
remain unless an unbalanced force acts upon it. Newton's
First Law of Motion is also known as the Law of Inertia.
What Newton's First Law is saying is that objects behave

predictably. If a ball is sitting on your table, it isn't going
to start rolling or fall off the table unless a force acts upon
it to cause it to do so. Moving objects don't change their
direction unless a force causes them to move from their
path.
Newton's Second Law of Motion
Newton's Second Law of Motion states that when a force
acts on an object, it will cause the object to accelerate.
The larger the object's mass, the greater the force will
need to be to cause it to accelerate. This Law may be
written as force = mass x acceleration or:
F=m*a
Another way to state the Second Law is to say it takes
more force to move a heavy object than it does to move a
light object. Simple, right? The law also explains
deceleration or slowing down. You can think of
deceleration as acceleration with a negative sign on it.
For example, a ball rolling down a hill moves faster or
accelerates as gravity acts on it in the same direction as
the motion (acceleration is positive). If a ball is rolled up a
hill, the force of gravity acts on it in the opposite direction
of the motion (acceleration is negative or the ball
decelerates).
Newton's Third Law of Motion

Newton's Third Law of Motion states that for every action,
there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means that
pushing on an object causes that object to push back
against you, the same amount but in the opposite
direction. For example, when you are standing on the
ground, you are pushing down on the Earth with the same
magnitude of force it is pushing back up at you.
Motion of a Circle
In physics, circular motion is movement of an object

along the circumference of a circle or rotation along a
circular arc. It can be uniform, with a constant rate of
rotation and constant tangential speed, or non-uniform
with a changing rate of rotation.
Scalar and Vector quantities
The Pendulum-
It is a body suspended from a fixed point so that it can swing back
and forth under the influence of gravity. Pendulums are used to
regulate the movement of clocks, because the interval of time for

each complete oscillation, called the period, is constant.
What factors affect the period of the pendulum?
1)The length of the pendulum from the point of
suspension to the centre of the bob.
2)The mass of the pendulum bob (length kept
constant)
3)The amplitude (or angle0 of the swing of the
pendulum.

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Linear Scales

- This is when the increments are (equally)/ evenly

Density or ρ(rho)= Mass (kg)÷ volume(m³)

Mass- The mass of an object is a measure of the matter

Stability is the ability of an object to maintain its

The center of gravity of an object is the point at which

b) Stable equilibrium: A system is in stable equilibrium

Moments- The moment of a force is the product of the

Pressure- is the force per unit area

Pressure and depth: the higher the tank, the greater

Relative density is defined as the ratio of the density of

Relative Density= ρ substance÷ ρ water

Newton’s Laws of Motion(3laws)

What Newton's First Law is saying is that objects behave

Newton's Third Law of Motion

In physics, circular motion is movement of an object

regulate the movement of clocks, because the interval of time for

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