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CMY2606/1/2020–2024
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CMY2606/1
CONTENTS
page
LESSON 1: Introduction to research 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 WHAT IS RESEARCH? 2
1.3 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCIENTIFIC AND NON-SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 3
1.4 CRITERIA FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 5
1.5 THE AIMS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 8
1.6 CONCEPTUALISING RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 8
1.7 THE RESEARCH PROCESS 10
1.8 List of references 12
LESSON 2: Research in criminology 13

2.1 INTRODUCTION 13
2.2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 14
2.3 RESEARCH IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT 14
2.4 RESEARCH IN CRIMINOLOGY 16
2.5 THE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH IN CRIMINOLOGY 18
2.6 MOTIVATIONS FOR CONDUCTING CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH 19
2.7 THE GOAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIMINOLOGY 20
LESSON 3: The role of criminological theory in research 24

3.1 INTRODUCTION 24
3.2 THEORY: WHAT IS IT ALL ABOUT? 24
3.3 THE VALUE OF THEORY 25
3.4 CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY 27
3.5 REQUIREMENTS OF A CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY 28
3.6 THE ROLE OF CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY IN RESEARCH 28
3.7 CONTEXTUALISING THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW IN RESEARCH 30
LESSON 4: Planning of research 33

4.1 INTRODUCTION 33
4.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF BACKGROUND READING 34
4.3 TYPICAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION 35
4.4 STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS 35
4.4.1 Identification of a research topic 35
4.4.1.1 Feasibility 36
4.4.1.2 Social importance 36
4.4.1.3 Scientific relevance 36
4.4.2 Formulate a research problem 36
4.4.3 Conceptualise a research design and methods 37
4.4.4 Conduct a literature review 38
4.4.4.1 Topic focused review 38
4.4.4.2 Method focused review 38
4.4.4.3 Results and connection focused review 39
4.4.5 Collect and analyse data 39
4.4.6 Presentation of findings 40
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4.5 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROPOSAL? 40
4.6 HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 41
4.6.1 Introduction 41
4.6.2 Rationale/significance of the study 41
4.6.3 Review of related literature 42
4.6.4 Statement of the problem, research questions or focus of the study 42
4.6.5 Research methodology 42
LESSON 5: Quantitative research 45

5.1 INTRODUCTION 45
5.2 BASIC APPROACHES TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS 46
5.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 46
5.4 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS 47
5.4.1 Experiments as a quantitative research design 48
5.4.1.1 The quasi-experimental design or field experiments 48
5.4.1.2 The classical experimental design 48
5.4.1.3 Laboratory experiments 49
5.4.1.4 Advantages of using experiments 49
5.4.1.5 Disadvantages of using experiments 50
5.4.2 Surveys as a quantitative research method 50
5.4.2.1 The survey design process 51
5.4.2.2 Types of surveys 51
5.4.2.3 Written surveys 51
5.4.2.4 Verbal surveys 51
5.4.2.5 Types of survey questions 52
5.4.2.5.1 Open-ended question 52
5.4.2.5.2 Closed-ended questions 52
5.4.2.6 Why are surveys useful? 52
5.4.2.6.1 Versatility 52
5.4.2.6.2 Efficiency 53
5.4.2.6.3 Generalisability 53
5.4.2.7 Advantages of using surveys 53
5.4.2.8 Disadvantages of using surveys 54
5.5 SAMPLING METHODS 54
5.5.1 Understanding sampling methods 54
5.5.1.1 Simple random sampling 55
5.5.1.2 Stratified sampling 55
5.5.1.3 Cluster sampling 55
5.5.1.4 Summary on sampling 55
5.6 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 56
5.6.2 Data preparation 56
5.6.3 Data entry 56
5.6.4 Process, analyse data and interpret results: univariate results 56
5.6.5 Types of data analysis methods 56
5.6.5.1 Descriptive method 56
5.6.5.2 Association method 57
5.6.5.3 Causation method 57
5.6.5.4 Inference method 57
5.7 Conclusion 57
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LESSON 6: Qualitative research 60

6.1 INTRODUCTION 60
6.2 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACH 61
6.2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 61
6.2.2 Advantages of qualitative research 62
6.3 TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS 63
6.3.1 Case study research 63
6.3.2 Ethnography research 63
6.3.3 Grounded theory research 64
6.4 METHODS OF COLLECTING QUALITATIVE DATA 64
6.4.1 Semi-structured interviews 65
6.4.2 Participant observations 66
6.4.3 Focus group interviews 66
6.5 POPULATION AND SAMPLING STRATEGIES 66
6.5.1 Non-probability sampling 67
6.6 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 68
6.6.1 Thematic analysis 69
6.6.2 Computer software analysis 69
6.7 CONCLUSION 69
6.8 List of References 71
LESSON 7: Mixed methods research 73

7.1 INTRODUCTION 73
7.2 MIXED METHODS RESEARCH APPROACH 73
7.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MIXED METHODS RESEARCH 74
7.4 ADVANTAGES OF MIXED METHODS RESEARCH 74
7.5 DISADVANTAGES OF MIXED METHODS RESEARCH 74
7.6 TYPES OF MIXED METHODS RESEARCH 75
7.6.1 Explanatory sequential mixed methods design 75
7.6.2 Exploratory sequential mixed methods design 76
7.6.3 Convergent parallel mixed methods design 76
7.7 SAMPLING METHODS FOR MIXED METHODS RESEARCH 77
7.8 CONCLUSION 77
LESSON 8: How to write a scientific report 80

8.1 INTRODUCTION 80
8.2 WHAT IS A RESEARCH REPORT? 81
8.3 APPROACH TO WRITING A SCIENTIFIC REPORT 81
8.4 THE READERS 81
8.5 GETTING STARTED 82
8.6 THE STRUCTURE OF A SCIENTIFIC REPORT 83
8.6.1 Title 83
8.6.2 Table of contents 84
8.6.3 Abstract 84
8.6.5 Definitions of key concepts 85
8.6.6 Presentation of the body 86
8.6.7 Methodology 86
8.6.8 Results 86
8.6.9 Discussion 86
8.6.10 Conclusion 87
8.6.11 Bibliography 87
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8.7 SOME OF THE PROBLEMS YOU MAY ENCOUNTER DURING SCIENTIFIC WRITING 89
8.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SCIENTIFIC REPORT 89
8.8.1 The readers 89
8.8.2 Style and tone 90
8.8.3 Logic and clarity 90
8.9 THE PROCESS OF WRITING SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH REPORTS 91
8.9.1 Prewriting 91
8.9.2 Composing 91
8.9.3 Rewriting 91
8.10 COMMON MISTAKES 92
8.11 PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION 92
LESSON 9: Research ethics in criminology 95

9.1 INTRODUCTION 95
9.2 RESEARCH ETHICS IN CRIMINOLOGY 95
9.3 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH ETHICS 96
9.4 PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH ETHICS 96
9.4.1 Respect for persons 96
9.4.1.1 Informed consent/voluntary participation 97
9.4.1.2 Confidentiality and anonymity 97
9.4.2 Beneficence (Do good!) and non-maleficence (Do no harm!) 98
9.4.3 Justice 99
9.5 ADDITIONAL ISSUES RELATED TO RESEARCH ETHICS: INTEGRITY 99
9.5.1 Acknowledging other researchers 100
9.6 CONCLUSION 102
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Lesson 1
Introduction to research
1 Revised by Prof M Schoeman
1Learning objectives
After you have studied this lesson, you should be able to:
•• understand the concept of research
•• differentiate between scientific and non-scientific research and analyse the criteria
for scientific research
•• explain the aims of scientific research
•• explain what research methodology is
•• describe the research process
1Assessment methods
After completing this lesson, you should be able to answer diverse multiple-choice and
paragraph-type questions in order to demonstrate your understanding, knowledge of, and
insight into the study material.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Humans are curious beings who want to learn about and understand themselves, other
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people, and the world they live in. In order to satisfy their curiosity they ask questions
and look for information to answer these questions. The process followed, and methods
used to find answers, are the building blocks of research.
The purpose of this lesson is to introduce you to research. Once you have completed
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this lesson with its various activities, you should be able to explain the importance of
scientific research and the need for doing thorough research. You should also realise that
research always requires dedication, discipline, and self-management – the very qualities
necessary to help you complete your research.
Use the learning objectives to determine whether you have achieved the outcomes (results
4
of your learning). You are encouraged to do the activities in this lesson. Their function is
to assist you in achieving the lesson outcomes.
1
1.2 WHAT IS RESEARCH?
What comes to mind when you hear the word research? Experience has shown that many
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students find the prospect of research overwhelming and view it as a confusing process
that they struggle to understand and master. In reality, research is an activity that the
majority of people perform on a daily basis. For example, when you decide what to wear
in the morning, your decision will be based on numerous factors such as the weather, the
activities you have to perform during the day, your mood, and even what is clean in your
cupboard. In essence, choosing what to wear can be a mini research project.
The aim of the “study” is to decide what clothes to wear for the day. In order to make this
6
decision, the research question you ask yourself will be: What are the most appropriate
clothes for the day? In order to answer this question you have to collect data, for example,
finding out what the weather is like on the day. You may also have to consult your diary
to see if there is an activity that will require a specific type of outfit, such as having an
important work meeting or going to the gym. Factors such as the weather and your
activities are the variables you analyse. The finding (answer to the research question)
from the study should give you options regarding what the most appropriate clothes
for the day would be and the conclusion or outcome of the study would be the outfit
you choose to wear.
According to Creswell (2014:3), research can be defined as “a process of steps used to

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collect and analyse information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue”. As

such, the research process consists of three steps: to firstly pose a question; secondly, to
collect data to answer the question; and thirdly, to present an answer to the question.
Drew, Hardman and Hosp (2008:4) in turn view research as “a systematic way of asking
questions, a systematic method of inquiry”. According to these authors, the purpose of
research is to acquire knowledge and/or information that relates to the question asked.
Bless, Higson-Smith and Kagee (2006:1) agree with the previous authors that research is a
systematic process aimed at answering the research question. In addition, they argue that
research is undertaken by people in order to gain knowledge and understand themselves
and their environment. From the foregoing it can be concluded that research can be
defined as a systematic process frequently used by people to answer specific questions
in order to make decisions, gain knowledge, and understand themselves and their life
world. How the research process is used in scientific research is of importance in this
module and will be discussed in more detail.
Criminological research can be used in various organisations and settings, ranging

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from correctional centres to police practices, environmental crimes and the business
sector, to name a few. Which research field are you interested in?
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1.3 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCIENTIFIC AND NON-

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Kerlinger and Lee (cited in De Vos, Strydom, Fouché & Delport, 2011:42), define scientific
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research as the “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural

phenomena, guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among
such phenomena”. The characteristics of scientific research are that it is:
•• systematic – it follows a specific methodology and process associated with scientific

research
•• controlled – scientific research is rigorous
•• empirical – the research is based on evidence. In this instance evidence refers to data
collected during a study and findings drawn from the collected data
•• critical investigation – the investigation (research) is intended to provide an in-depth
exploration and analysis of the phenomenon studied
•• guided by theory and hypothesis – the study is grounded in, and guided by, pre-
existing knowledge about the phenomenon studied. This pre-existing knowledge
is included in a literature review, which forms part of the study
Scientific research, therefore, makes use of scientific methods and techniques to study a
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phenomenon in order to acquire new knowledge, or to improve on and/or incorporate

existing knowledge.
In contrast to scientific research, non-scientific research acquires knowledge by using

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techniques that do not follow scientific methods. Information is collected haphazardly,

and is often based on casual observations and unsupported statements, ideas and/or
beliefs. Non-scientific research findings are generally published in magazines, pamphlets
or non-scientific journals. According to Bachmann and Schutt (2015:4-6), the following
errors in reasoning are frequently noted in non-scientific research:
•• Overgeneralisation
Overgeneralisation occurs when conclusions are drawn from personal experiences, or

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when non-scientific reports are generalised, for example, assuming that all traffic officials
are corrupt and take bribes. Such an assumption can be due to one-sided views, that is,
publishing reports only about corrupt officials.
•• Selective and inaccurate observation
One-sided or biased collection of information can result in selective and inaccurate

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observations. For example, if you focus only on, and acknowledge information that
supports your opinion that all traffic officials are corrupt and take bribes, you could easily
ignore contradictory reports of drivers who were arrested for offering bribes to traffic
officers.
3
•• Illogical reasoning
Illogical reasoning is associated with prematurely jumping to conclusions. For example,

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concluding that all traffic officers are corrupt and take bribes after listening to the
unsubstantiated opinions of people on the topic.
From the discussion, it is clear that non-scientific research is an effective method of

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resolving everyday challenges. Nonetheless, it is important for you to understand that

all research related activities done for your studies must be scientific in nature.
‌Activity 1.1
Read the following internet articles and answer the questions below.
Article 1
More than half of violent crimes in Gauteng committed by illegal immigrants (Gous,
2017).
Gauteng Police Commissioner Lieutenant-General Deliwe de Lange said on Tuesday
that about 60% of the suspects arrested for violent crimes in the province were illegal
immigrants.
“I am not xenophobic.”
De Lange was speaking on the side lines after presenting the latest provincial crime
statistics to the Gauteng Community Safety Committee at the Provincial Legislature in
the Johannesburg central business district (CBD).
Murder increased by 6.7% from 3 842 in the period April 2015 to March 2016, to 4 101 in
the same period in 2016/17. This was an increase from 28.2 to 29.3 per 100 000 people.
Article 2
Do foreigners really commit SA’s most violent crimes? (Extracted from Newham, 2017.)
Blaming undocumented foreign nationals for crime in South Africa is nothing new, de-
spite the lack of evidence to back such perceptions. However, the South African Police
Service’s (SAPS) Gauteng Provincial Commissioner, Lieutenant-General Deliwe de Lange,
has reportedly claimed that about 60% of suspects arrested for violent crimes in the
province are illegal immigrants.
As an experienced police officer, De Lange – we can assume – would not have made the
statement without some basis. However, the statement on its own says very little and
may simply fuel xenophobic attitudes. What are we to make of this claim knowing that
the police don’t publicly release data on the nationalities of those they arrest?
Firstly, the commissioner refers to “violent crime”. The police do not have a category
called “violent crime”, but divide “violent crimes” into seven broad categories: murder,
attempted murder, sexual assault, aggravated robbery, common robbery, assault with
intent to commit grievous bodily harm (GBH) and common assault. Collectively the SAPS
refer to this broad group of crime categories as “contact crime” – as there is direct contact
between perpetrators and victims.
One could assume that the commissioner means that 60% of people arrested for con-
tact crimes are undocumented foreign nationals. Then we must ask for which specific
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categories of crime are these suspects being arrested? For the financial year 2016/17, a
total of 171 466 contact crimes were reported to Gauteng police. Nearly half of these
were assaults, which made up 48% (81 767 cases) of all violent crimes reported. Murders
made up the least at 2.4% (4 101 cases) of all violent crimes, and aggravated robberies
made up 31% of cases (53 793 cases).
The detection rate by the SAPS for all contact crimes in the 2016/17 financial year was
52.28%. The detection rate is determined by the proportion of cases opened where
the police identify a perpetrator, or where the case is closed as “unfounded” – when an
investigation finds that no crime occurred.
Justice and Correctional Services Minister Michael Masutha said in July 2017 that only
7.5% of people in South African prisons were foreign nationals. This suggests that most
people committing crimes across the country are South Africans and not foreign nationals.
While there are undoubtedly foreign nationals committing crimes, there is no evidence
that most of them commit crime, or that they are responsible for most crime.
While it may not be her intention, De Lange’s statements promote xenophobic attitudes
and may provoke violence against foreign nationals. The Provincial Commissioner should
make the data supporting her statements publicly available so her claims can be verified.
If indeed De Lange’s statement is based on data collected by the police, then we need to
understand why the SAPS’ focus on arresting undocumented migrants has not resulted
in a decrease in at least murder and robbery.
(1) Which one of the articles is based on scientific research, and which one non-scientific?
Motivate your answer.
(2) What are the potential risks associated with non-scientific research evident from the
articles?
2Feedback on Activity 1.1
Article 1 is an example of non-scientific research and article 2 of scientific research. The claim
in article 2 that more than 60% of offenders arrested for violent crimes are foreigners is a
selective and inaccurate observation. In contrast, article 2 systematically analysed the claim
and refuted it by presenting empirical evidence.
The inaccurate information mentioned in article 1 could result in readers of the article jumping
to incorrect conclusions and developing a one-sided and biased view. The dangers of such an
incorrect view, among others, are that it could trigger xenophobic violence and result in the
misdirection of crime prevention initiatives.
Compare your answers with other students on myUnisa and engage in discussions regarding
any differing answers/points of view.
1.4 CRITERIA FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

As mentioned previously, the purpose of scientific research is to generate accurate
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information in order to answer a research question. A researcher will be able to create

accurate information only by following a rigorous approach in the choosing of the
5
research method and design, as well as collecting data in a scientific manner. An important
question the researcher should ask, therefore, is “how do I know that the findings from
the study are accurate and a true representation of the phenomenon studied?” Similarly,
the readers of the study have a right to ask how we know the findings from a study can
be trusted to be truthful. It is therefore, important to have criteria to evaluate the scientific
nature of a research study. The purpose of these criteria is to assess the quality of the
research to determine if a study has been done in such a manner that it can be classified
as a scientific study.
Two different research approaches, namely qualitative and quantitative research, are
18
generally followed in scientific research. The difference between these approaches is

discussed in detail in chapter 5. For the current exploration of the criteria of scientific
research, it should be noted that the criteria used in quantitative and qualitative studies
to ensure the scientific nature of a study are different. This is because of the difference
in data collection and analysis techniques used in quantitative and qualitative research.
In quantitative research, validity and reliability are used as criteria to ensure trustworthy
19
scientific research. These criteria predominantly focus on determining if the measuring

instruments used in a study are scientific. According to Leedy and Omrod (De Vos et al.,
2011:173), validity determines whether measuring instruments, such as questionnaires
or surveys, measure what they are supposed to measure. In other words, whether they
measure the concept that is being studied, and whether they do it accurately. Four
types of validity that are used to determine whether a measuring instrument is valid
will, henceforth, be briefly discussed. According to Maree (2017:240), these validities are:
•• Content validity is concerned with the topics and questions that are included in a
measuring instrument. It aims to ensure that the topics and questions are repre-
sentative of (relevant to) the phenomenon being studied and if they are sufficiently
adequate to explore the phenomenon.
•• Face validity is concerned with the appearance, or face value, of a measuring procedure.
In other words, it will determine if the measuring instrument is collecting data about
the phenomenon it is said to be studying.
•• Criterion validity makes use of multiple measurements and aims to establish the va-
lidity by comparing scores on an instrument with an external criterion that is known
or believed to measure the same phenomenon studied. Comparing the findings
from the study with other studies done on a similar topic is one way to determine
criterion validity.
•• Construct validity is concerned with the meaning of an instrument and focuses on
what the instrument is measuring and how and why it operates the way is does. Con-
struct validity, therefore, not only determines if the research instrument is valid, but
also compares it with the theory underlying the phenomenon that is being studied.
Reliability in turn aims to determine the stability and consistency of the measurement and
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measuring instrument (questionnaire or survey). It aims to determine whether a measuring

instrument will have the same outcome if it is used to research the same phenomenon
more than once (Maree, 2017:238).
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Four criteria are used to assess the trustworthiness of research in qualitative studies,
21
namely credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability.
•• Credibility is compared with the internal validity used in quantitative studies and
similarly aims to determine if the subject studied has been accurately identified and
described (Maree, 2017:123).
•• Transferability aims to establish if the findings from the study “can be transferred from
a specific situation or case to another” (De Vos et al., 2011:420). It, therefore, aims to
determine if the findings from the study can be generalised and applied to a larger
population than the study’s sample. Transferability is often difficult to establish since
qualitative studies tend to use small samples and focus on specific and unique topics.
•• Dependability is concerned with whether the research process is logical, well-doc-
umented and audited (De Vos et al., 2011:420). According to Maree (2017:124), it is
important for researchers to keep detailed reports on their studies in order to en-
able future researchers to repeat a study or use a similar methodology for another
study. Dependability also serves as a validation of the scientific nature of the research
methodology and techniques followed.
•• Confirmability is concerned with whether the finding from the study can be confirmed
by other research. It focuses on the data and how it represents the participants’
opinions (Maree, 2017:125). It, furthermore, acknowledges the impact of researcher
bias during the analysis and interpretation of data. Researchers tend to prefer a spe-
cific methodology, and the danger exists that personal prejudice might influence
the research process. The writing of detailed reports is one of the strategies used to
ensure confirmability in a study as it will explain the rationale (reason) behind the
choice of a specific methodology (Maree, 2017:125).
‌Activity 1.2
Briefly discuss the factors that should be taken into consideration to meet the criteria
for scientific research.
The methodology (research method and design) and findings from a study are used to evaluate
whether a study is scientific. Research can be classified as scientific only if a rigorous approach
was followed in the choosing of the research method and design. The truthfulness of findings
is determined by evaluating whether the findings from a study are valid and reliable in qualita-
tive research. In other words, if the measuring instrument used to collect data accurately mea-
sured the phenomenon being studied. In qualitative research the trustworthiness of research
is determined by evaluating its credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability.
7
1.5 THE AIMS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Research is always undertaken with a specific objective in mind. Students conducting
22
research generally do so to obtain a qualification, while research conducted in an

organisation might focus on finding an answer to a problem they experience, on developing
a new intervention or strategy, or evaluating the effectiveness of the services they deliver.
23 The reasons for conducting research might be, inter alia,
•• to collect information about under-researched topics

•• to make facts-based informed decisions
•• to assist with the planning of strategies, or improve on existing strategies, for
goal-realisation
•• to evaluate the appropriateness of particular theories to specific situations
•• to ensure the optimum use of resources
•• to identify areas where challenges are experienced and to develop strategies to ad-
dress the identified challenges (Brynard, Hanekom & Brynard, 2014:2).
Each of these reasons for research aims to achieve a different objective and, therefore,
24
requires a different strategy to satisfactorily achieve the intended aim of the scientific
research.
1.6 CONCEPTUALISING RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

As mentioned previously, the purpose of scientific research is to acquire and advance
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knowledge. De Vos et al. (2011:61) are of the opinion that irrespective of what the nature
and aim of a study is, a systematic process is involved during knowledge generation.
This systematic process of scientific enquiry comprises a set of steps that follows a
standard sequence during research. The process followed during a study is known as
the methodology of the study. The research methodology also includes the design and
techniques used to conduct scientific research.
Babbie and Mouton (2001:72) developed the ProDEC framework to highlight the four
26
elements that are standards in the methodology of all forms of scientific research. The
framework can be depicted as follows:
27
Source: Adapted from Babbie & Mouton (2001:72).
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The research problem represents the research question that the researcher is curious
28
about, while the design is the methodology (research design, techniques, and process)
that will be followed in the study. After the study had been conducted, the empirical
evidence represents the findings from the study. Conclusions are drawn from the findings
in order to answer the research question.
Brynard et al. (2014:2) expanded on Babbie and Mouton’s framework. According to them,
29
the research problem develops from curiosity regarding the unknown. The design is used
to search for data to explain the unknown and to satisfy the researcher’s curiosity about
the unknown. The empirical evidence is used to determine the truth (seek answers) about
the topic that the researcher is curious about. The conclusion indicates how the answers
can be used in a practical setting.
Leedy and Omrod (2005:6) are of the opinion that research is rarely concluded, because
30
there is a good chance that, while exploring one area, you may come across something
else you are curious about or another problem worthy of research. Research is, therefore,
seldom a one-time act, but rather a dynamic process where research begets more research.
The research process, methods, and techniques associated with the methodology of a
study are discussed in more detail in this module.
9
1.7 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Research is a systematic process consisting of distinct activities that follow each other in
31
a logical manner. The process can be depicted as follows:
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Interesting reading
The following article is a good example of the practicalities involved in the setting up
and conducting of research:
•• Van Ginneken, EFJC. 2014. Interviewing in Prison: Understanding the impact of
Imprisonment. Available at: http://methods.sagepub.com/base/download/Case/
interviewing-in-prison-understanding-the-impact-of-imprisonment
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2Self-assessment exercises for Lesson 1
The following section contains self-assessment questions comprising multiple-choice ques-

tions and paragraph-type questions. Although your answers should not be submitted to your
lecturer for formal assessment, these questions allow you to self-assess whether you have
achieved the outcomes of the lesson, so please do not skip the section.
Self-assessment multiple-choice questions
(1) A researcher will only generate accurate information by following a … approach.
(1) research
(2) literature
(3) rigorous
(4) truthful
(2) What can credibility be compared with?
(1) Transferability
(2) Internal validity
(3) Face validity
(4) Confirmability
(3) Which statement is correct in relation to face validity?
(1) It is the face value of the measuring instrument.
(2) It is the meaning of the measuring instrument.
(3) It is the topics and questions in the measuring instrument.
(4) It is the theory underlying the measuring instrument.
(4) Which element does the letter D represent in the ProDEC framework?
(1) Research evidence
(2) Research process
(3) Research problem
(4) Research design
(5) The research problem describes the … of a study.
(1) topic
(2) technique
(3) design
(4) findings
Feedback on self-assessment multiple-choice questions

(1) 3
(2) 2
(3) 1
(4) 4
(5) 1
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Self-assessment paragraph-type questions
(1) Discuss the difference between scientific and non-scientific research. (10 marks)
(2) Discuss the research process used in scientific studies. (15 marks)
Feedback on self-assessment paragraph-type questions

(1) Refer to section 1.3 for the answer.
1.8 LIST OF REFERENCES

Babbie, E & Mouton, J. 2001. The practice of social research. Southern Africa. Oxford
University Press.
Bachman, R & Schutt, RK. 2015. Fundamentals of research in Criminology and Criminal
Justice. California SAGE.
Bless, C, Higson-Smith, C & Kagee, A. 2006. (4th ed) Fundamentals of social research methods.
An African perspective. Juta: Cape Town.
Brynard, DJ, Hanekom, SX & Brynard, PA. 2014. (3rd ed) Introduction to research. Van Schaik:
Pretoria.
Creswell, JW. 2014. Educational Research: Planning, Conducting and Evaluating Qualitative
and Qualitative Research 4th Edition. Boston: Pearson
De Vos, AS, Strydom, H, Fouché, CB & Delport, CSL. 2011. Research at grass roots: for the
social sciences and human service professions. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Drew, CJ, Hardman, ML & Hosp, JL. 2008. Designing and Conducting Research in Education.
Sage, Thousand Oaks California.
Gous, N. 2017. More than half of violent crimes in Gauteng committed by illegal immigrants.
Sowental live. Available at: https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/south-africa/2017-11-
14-more-than-half-of-violent-crimes-in-gauteng-committed-by-illegal-immigrants/
(accessed 15 February 2018).
Leedy, PD & Omrod, JE. 2005. Practical Research: Planning and Design. Columbus: Merrill
Prentice Hall.
Maree, JG. 2017 (Ed). First steps in research. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
Newham, G. 2017. ISS: Do foreigners really commit SA’s most violent crimes? Defence
Web. Available at: http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_cont
ent&view=article&id=50046:iss-do-foreigners-really-commit-sas-most-violent-
crimes&catid=3:Civil%20Security&Itemid=113 (accessed on: 15 February 2018).
Van Ginneken, EFJC. 2014. Interviewing in Prison: Understanding the impact of Imprisonment.
Available at: http://methods.sagepub.com/base/download/Case/interviewing-in-
prison-understanding-the-impact-of-imprisonment (accessed on: 15 February 2018).
12
Lesson 2
Research in criminology
Revised by Prof M Schoeman

33
4Learning objectives
•• explain the relationship between research and practice
•• describe research in the South African context
•• discuss the purpose of research in criminology
•• explain the motives for criminological research
•• describe the goal of research in criminology
3Assessment methods
paragraph-type questions in order to demonstrate your understanding, knowledge of and
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Criminology is a scientific research-driven discipline. South African criminologists are
34
making a substantial contribution towards developing knowledge for application in a

number of fields. These fields include, among others, courts, correction services, policing,
restorative justice, child justice, the business sector and the health sector (Hesselink,
2013:142).
The main reasons for research in criminology, and the aims of, and motives for doing
35
research in criminology will also be discussed. Use the learning objectives to determine
whether you have achieved the outcomes (results of your learning). The activities will
assist you to assess whether you have mastered these outcomes.
13
2.2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
Professional research can be defined as “the utilisation of research methods and
36
methodologies to systematically produce scientifically based knowledge that could

contribute to resolving real life problems in professional practice” (De Vos et al., 2011:46).
The outcomes of professional research are, therefore, knowledge development and/
or problem-solving for practical application. Criminological theories form the basis of
criminological studies.
Criminological theories were developed from research that has been tested and retested
37
over long periods of time (Hesselink, 2013:140). These theories are used in practice, among
others, to identify causative and risk factors associated with criminal behaviour. Examples
of the practical application of criminological theories are pre-sentencing or parole board
reports in which criminologists assess offenders to make recommendations to courts
or parole boards. Criminological reports do not focus only on the causation of criminal
behaviour, but are also used for risk prediction (to explain the effect of risk factors on
an offender’s behaviour), and to propose individualised rehabilitation strategies. The
knowledge gained from research is, therefore, applied in practice. Criminologists, therefore,
do not speculate when they write reports, but are multifaceted behavioural specialists
who analyse and explain the behaviour and background of the offender the triggers
to the criminal action as well as the causes and motives of the crime form a scientific
knowledge base (Herbig, 2014:5).
‌Activity 2.1
Source and read the following article and discuss how the relationship between research
and practice enables criminologists to become specialist practitioners.
• Hesselink, AE. 2013. A review of the practical potential of South African criminology.
Acta Criminologica, 26(2):136–146.
Criminology is recognised for its diverse application in various fields, such as in courts, cor-
rection services, police practice, the banking sector and government, to name a few. In all of
these instances, criminologists’ activities are informed by scientific knowledge that originated
from research. Research projects are used to inform practice and develop interventions to
address problems in practice.
2.3 RESEARCH IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

A researcher’s worldview plays an important role in research because researchers will
38
conceptualise and conduct research differently according to their interest, power relations
and cultural background (Keane, Khupe & Muza, 2016:165). Carter, Lapum, Lavee and
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Martin (Keane et al., 2016:165) explain that “a researcher needs to begin with their own
story as they seek to understand the stories of others”. The researcher is central to the
research process because a study’s methodology and approach are influenced by the
researcher’s worldview and cultural context. The same is also true of the participants in
a study because the way participants interpret their life world will also be influenced by
their worldview. Knowledge, according to Keane et al., (2016:165), is, therefore, not viewed
as an “absolute truth, but making meaning in a particular setting and set of relationships”.
Hence, researchers need to be aware that knowledge and the methodology of a study
cannot be separated from the participants’ historical and cultural context during the
planning of a study (Owusu-Ansah & Miji, 2013:1).
The predominant research designs currently used are influenced by Western methodologies.
39
Numerous African scholars have questioned the appropriateness of these methods and
proposed that alternative methods of enquiry should be used more specifically in research
pertaining to indigenous knowledge systems. In this regard Asante (Owusu-Ansah &
Miji, 2013:1) states that it is inappropriate to view one method of research as universal,
since Western research methodologies are inadequate to study “truth based on specific
cultural experiences”.
African indigenous knowledge is experiential knowledge that has been passed from
40
generation to generation over long periods of time (Keane et al., 2016:164). African society
is relational and humanistic with wholeness, community and harmony being important
cultural values. Hence, the acquisition of knowledge is collective and community centred,
and rooted in collective values and ethics (Owusu-Ansah & Miji, 2013:2). In this regard,
Senghor (1993) argues that African people have always presented a worldview, which
diametrically opposes a traditional individualised Western philosophy.
An Afrocentric qualitative approach in research is viewed as an appropriate method to

41
use in studies where African knowledge systems are researched. The methodology is
participatory in nature. According to Owusu-Ansah and Miji (2013:2), this implies that
“(C)onsidering that culture is the ‘lens’ through which a person perceives, interprets
and make sense of his or her reality, if we speak of the inclusion of African indigenous
knowledge in any investigation, we would be speaking about the examination of African
reality from the perspective of the African and not with the African on the periphery”.
An Afrocentric approach in research, therefore, requires a research topic to be explored
from the perspective of African people. Central to such studies should be a recognition,
and understanding of the spiritual, social, political and economic facets of African culture.
Afrocentricity, thus, encourages “cultural and social immersion as opposed to scientific
distance in research” (Owusu-Ansah & Miji, 2013:2).
Interesting reading
The following article is a good example of the difference between the prevailing
Westernised and Afrocentric research practices:
•• Dube, L, Ndwandwe, S & Ngulube, P. 2013. Rowing upstream: Contextualising in-
digenous research processes and methodologies through the utilization of ethics
principles. INDILINGA – African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems, 12(1):13–25.
15
Afrocentric methods of research include knowledge that is archival, narrative and
42
observational. Archival research collects data from participants’ artefacts, which can
include letters, newspaper articles, photographs, tools and personal objects, such as art.
Narrative research focuses on participants’ own stories and uses, among other methods,
oral histories, stories, songs and poems to collect data about a research topic. Participant
observation is a research method whereby the researcher participates in activities with the
people they observe in order to better understand their life world (Keane et al., 2016:166).
‌Activity 2.2
Read the following article and describe why it is important for researchers to follow an
Afrocentric methodology when they research indigenous knowledge systems.
• Keane, M, Khupe, C & Muza, B. 2016. It matters who you are: Indigenous knowledge
research and researchers. Education as Change, 20:163–183.
Conducting research that involves indigenous knowledge requires the researcher to be sensitive
to the cultural lifeworld of the participants. As aptly stated in this article, “knowledge is closely
connected to the knower” (Keane et al., 2016:179). Making the voices of participants heard is
central to Afrocentric research. Afrocentric research focuses on collecting data about people’s
lived experiences from their perspective. In this article, story-telling is used as a data collection
method to illustrate the interconnectedness between the researcher and participants in a study.
The rich findings documented in the article might not have emerged if more “traditional” data
collection techniques, such as interviews or questionnaires, were used.
2.4 RESEARCH IN CRIMINOLOGY

Criminology is the scientific study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal
43
behaviour. Criminologists are, therefore, researchers who use scientific methods to research
the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behaviour (Siegel, 2016:4).
Sutherland and Cressey (Siegel, 2016:4) identify the following areas of interest for
44
criminological studies:
45
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46
•• Crime as a social phenomenon
Central to criminology is its focus on crime. One field of interest is the causes and motivation
47
for criminal behaviour. The influence that social factors, such as social interactions and
relationships, have on the causation and motivation of criminal behaviour are of specific
interest to criminologists. Criminological research, therefore, not only focuses on individual
traits and characteristics of offenders, but also on how their criminal behaviour is influenced
by the environment they live in and the people they interact with.
•• The process of law-making
Criminologists recognise the relationship between crime and criminal law, and are
48
interested in researching how and why laws are created. In addition, they conduct studies
to determine the effectiveness of laws in the prevention and management of criminal
behaviour.
•• Breaking of laws and the reaction towards breaking of laws
Central to criminology is research aimed at understanding the onset of crime and the
49
most effective manner of dealing with offenders, as well as how to control crime. The
relationship between the causation of criminal behaviour and the management thereof is
important because crime control is not possible without understanding the cause thereof.
•• Developing a body of general and verified principles
This area of interest specifically focuses on how scientific research contributes to knowledge
50
development in criminological sciences. It also recognises the importance of validity and

reliability (Scientific criteria for research – lesson 1) in research in order for criminological
research to be accepted as truthful and of value in the academic community.
Activity 2.3
(1) Write down the area that you would be interested in researching.
(2) Identify three topics in this area that you would like to research.
17
There is no right or wrong answer in this activity, since the area of research you are interested in
is a personal preference. It is, nonetheless, important to make sure that the topics you choose
are in the study field of criminology, and that they can contribute to the understanding of the
nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behaviour.
2.5 THE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH IN CRIMINOLOGY

The purpose of research in criminology is the development of knowledge, which could
51
contribute to the construction of theories, models and/or strategies to address the problem
of crime. The purpose of criminological research can be either basic or applied.
The purpose of basic research is to develop theories, hence it in not used to resolve a
52
practical problem but rather to develop knowledge in a specific research area (Brynand,
Hanekom & Brynard, 2014:7). An example of basic research could be to explore whether
the watching of violent movies will cause violent behaviour in children.
Applied research, in turn, is undertaken to address a specific real life problem. A clear
53
research problem is formulated in an applied study, which the researcher, using empirical
research, aims to find answers for. Applied research, therefore, has a practical application
and is not only aimed at the generation of knowledge (Brynard et al., 2014:8). An example
of applied research is a study that develops a programme to prevent bullying behaviour
in schools.
Interesting reading
Watch the following YouTube video for more information about the differences between
basic and applied research:
•• Basic Research and Applied Research Definitions and Differences. Available at: https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=3vyheXBPSsg
‌Activity 2.4
(1) Explain the difference between basic and applied research.
Basic research is aimed at knowledge development, and does not have an immediate practical
application. It can, therefore, assist criminologists to better understand criminal behaviour.
Applied research is done to resolve a real life problem and can assist with the development of
strategies to address the crime problem.
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2.6 MOTIVATIONS FOR CONDUCTING CRIMINOLOGICAL

RESEARCH
Research is undertaken with a specific goal in mind. Bachman and Schutt (2017:7) identify
54
the following motives for scientific research:
•• Policy motivations
Criminal justice organisations have policy documents that guide their operations (i.e.
55
assist with logistical planning of activities for the effective delivery of services and
interventions). These criminal justice organisations use scientific research to assist them with
the development of organisational policies. For example, they might undertake research
to learn more about their clients and their needs. Such a study will not only enable them
to deliver effective services, but also to align the policy documents with the needs of their
clients. An example of such a study might be if the Department of Correctional Services
undertakes research to determine if the policy directives regarding the development of
a care plan for sentenced offenders are effective in addressing offenders’ rehabilitation
and developmental needs.
•• Academic motivations
Students tend to do research to achieve a qualification. This research is of great value for
56
the development of knowledge, since postgraduate research, specifically at a doctoral

level, is expected to make a unique contribution to criminological theory or practice.
•• Personal motivations
Personal motivation for conducting research might stem from a criminologist’s curiosity
57
about a topic he or she came across in their work environment or personal life. In cases
where research is motivated by personal curiosity, the first step should be to do a literature
search to make sure that research has not yet been done on the topic. An example of a
study originating from personal motives might be a criminologist who is employed at
Correctional Services being curious about why some offenders who are close to being
released on parole commit another offence while incarcerated.
Activity 2.5
Briefly explain the three motivations for doing research in criminology, and give an ex-
ample for each.
The three motivations for doing research are, firstly, policy motivation, for example, if the
Western Cape Government does research on gangsterism and drugs in order to develop anti-
gang and drug prevention policies. Secondly, an academic motivation could be a master’s
degree student conducting a study to determine how poverty and unemployment contribute
to youth crime. Lastly, the personal motivation for doing research could be because a crimi-
19
nologist employed at the SAPS might have a personal interest in researching crime prevention
strategies for car hijackings because of his or her work environment.
2.7 THE GOAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIMINOLOGY

The goal of scientific research relates to what a researcher aims to achieve with the study.
58
Bachman and Schutt (2017:7–11) identify four goals of research, which are also relevant
to research in criminological sciences:
•• Descriptive research
The goal of descriptive research is to define and describe a phenomenon. In a study

59
researching house robberies, some of the central questions used in descriptive studies
might be: “How many people are victims of house robberies?”; “How many victims of
house robberies are members of security companies?”; “What is the predominant modus
operandi of house robbers?”; and “How many house robbers are arrested and convicted
yearly?” Descriptive research is, therefore, not interested in explaining a phenomenon,
but only in describing the nature and extent thereof.
•• Exploratory research
Exploratory research seeks to find out information about the research topic. Exploratory
60
studies are often done where there is limited information about a specific topic. The
goal, therefore, is to answer the question, “what is going on here?” This question is not
asked to obtain an explanation, but rather to collect information about the topic under
research. Resultantly, large quantities of relatively unstructured information are collected
during an exploratory study. For example, researchers investigating cyberbullying may
encounter a phenomenon with which they have had no direct experience because of
it being a relatively new phenomenon. Thus, an initial goal will be to find out what the
impact of cyberbullying is on victims and what motivates young people to become
perpetrators of cyberbullying.
•• Explanatory research
The goal of explanatory research is to identify causes and/or effects of the phenomenon
61
being studied. Examples of questions asked in a study researching shoplifting are, “Why do
people become shoplifters?” and “Does the unemployment rate influence the frequency
of shoplifting incidents?” The goal of explanatory research is, therefore, to understand
the relationship between two or more variables (things).
•• Evaluation research
Evaluation research seeks to determine the effectiveness of interventions and programmes.

62
Similar to explanatory research, it also deals with determining cause and effect. However,
evaluation research differs from explanatory research in that it specifically focuses on the
influence and effectiveness of interventions and programmes. An example might be the
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evaluation of the effectiveness of diversion services to prevent children who come into
conflict with the law from re-offending.
‌Activity 2.6
After reading through the different research goals, identify the type of research required
in each of the questions posed below and explain why you chose that research type:
(1) How does violent crime influence the security industry?
(2) How prevalent is youth violence in South Africa?
(3) Do violence prevention programmes work in South African schools?
(4) What motivates young people to shoplift?
10 Feedback on Activity 2.6
(1) Explanatory research. This type of research requires an explanation of a social phenom-
enon in order to make certain predictions.
(2) Descriptive research. This type of research wants to know more; the “how many”, “what”,
etc.
(3) Evaluation research. This type of research wants to know the effect an intervention has
(cause and effect).
(4) Exploratory research. The main goal here is to find out what is going on.

(1) A researcher’s … plays an important role in the planning of the research design.
(1) experience
(2) worldview
(3) culture
(4) qualification
(2) Afrocentric … research is viewed as an appropriate method to use in studies where African
knowledge systems are researched.
(1) empirical
(2) academic
(3) qualitative
(4) quantitative
21
(3) Exploratory studies aim to explore a relatively … field.
(1) known
(2) experimental
(3) broad
(4) unknown
(4) Explanatory research seeks to identify the … and the effects of social phenomena.
(1) consequences
(2) causes
(3) motives
(4) origins
(5) The aim of basic research is … .
(1) policy development
(2) knowledge development
(3) intervention development
(4) theory testing

(1) 2
(2) 3
(3) 4
(4) 2
(5) 2

(1) Discuss the motivation as to why criminologists should do research. (10 marks)
(2) Explain the four research goals and give examples of each. (15 marks)


Bachman, R & Schutt, RK. 2017 (4th ed). Fundamentals of research in Criminology and
Criminal Justice. California SAGE.
Brynard, DJ, Hanekom, SX & Brynard, PA. 2014. Introduction to research. Pretoria: van Schaik
Publishers.
De Vos, AS, Strydom, H, Fouché, CB & Delport, CSL. 2011. Research at grass roots: for the
social sciences and human service professions. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Dube, L, Ndwandwe, S & Ngulube, P. 2013. Rowing upstream: Contextualising indigenous
research processes and methodologies through the utilization of ethics principles.
INDILINGA – African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems. 12(1):13–25.
Herbig, J. (ed.). 2014. Contemporary Criminology Practice in South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford
University Press.
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Hesselink, A. 2013. A review of the practical potential of South African criminology. Acta
Criminologica, 26(2):136–146.
Keane, M, Khupe, C & Muza, B. 2016. It matters who you are: Indigenous knowledge
research and researchers. Education as change, 20(2):163–183.
Owusu-Ansah, FE & Mji, G. 2013. African indigenous knowledge and research. African
Journal of Disability 2(1):1–5. Available at: http://www.ajod.org/index.php/ajod/article/
view/30/56 (accessed on: 28 July 2017).
Siegel, L. 2016. Criminology theories, patterns and typologies. Boston: Cengage Learning.
23
Lesson 3
The role of criminological theory in research
63 Revised by Ms NP Magagula
11 Learning objectives
•• understand the role of theory in the criminological context
•• explain the value of criminological theory in research
•• contextualise theory in research
3Assessment methods
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this lesson is to introduce you to the important role that criminological
64
theory plays in research. Once you have completed this lesson with its various activities
you should be able to understand the role and value of criminological theory in research.
Use the learning objectives to determine whether you have achieved the outcomes (end
65
results) of your learning. You are strongly encouraged to complete the activities in this
lesson as they will assist you in achieving its outcomes.
3.2 THEORY: WHAT IS IT ALL ABOUT?

A theory is a set of interconnected statements that are logically organised to explain how
66
two or more events or factors relate to each other in reality (Bachman & Schutt, 2014:31).
People, in general, use theories daily based on either assumptions, common sense or
generalisations about the world around us (Burke, 2014:8).
The term “theory” should, therefore, not startle you, as it is a mere explanation in an
67
attempt to understand the world in which we live. The difference between criminologists
and ordinary citizens is that criminologists do not guess or adopt simplified explanations
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to multifaceted matters such as crime. They conduct scientific research in order to develop
well-informed theories, which will broadly address the causes and explanations of crime.
It can therefore be deduced from the definition of theory above, that criminological
68
theories are scientifically tested explanations that account for criminal or offending
behaviour (Brown, Esbensen & Geis, 2013; Burke, 2014:8).
69
Interesting reading
Kindly follow the link below to read further on Hisrchi’s social bond theory.
•• http://pgil.pk/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/KEY-IDEAHIRSCHI%E2%80%99S-SOCIAL.
pdf
Activity 3.1
Define the term “theory” in your own words.
In addition to the information in this lesson, kindly refer to other online platforms and come
up with your own definition that will cover all the key elements in defining the term “theory”.
3.3 THE VALUE OF THEORY

Most criminological research is guided by an element of theory, even if the theory is
70
partially developed in a particular study, or not recognised by the researcher. When

researchers are involved in conducting a research project or engaged in writing a research
report, they may easily lose sight of the larger picture. It is easy to focus on accumulating
or clarifying particular findings rather than considering how the study’s findings fit into
a more general understanding of the social world. Furthermore, just as theory guides
25
research, research findings also influence the development of theory. Figure 3.1 below
illustrates the relation of theory, research and the social world to one another.
71
Figure 3.1: Connecting theory, research and the social world (Rule & John, 2011:93)
A good example to illustrate the value of a theory is the study of an individual who
72
responds to stigmatisation and negative labelling.
•• The labelling theory, according to Becker (1963), argues that an individual is more
likely to engage in offending behaviour when society formally or informally attaches
a negative stigma and deviant labels to the particular individual (Burke, 2014:194–197).
•• As a criminologist researcher, the labelling theory may guide the research in strategi-
cally selecting the appropriate sample.
•• Society may be more vigilant towards individuals who have a negative stigma and
a deviant label attached to them.
Interesting reading
An example of this is if a theory says individuals who wear the UZZI brand are associated
with offending behaviour. Follow these links for the stigmatisation and deviant labelling
of individuals who own UZZI branded clothing:
•• https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/2015-04-22-when-you-buy-uzzi-you-get-a-
criminal-record/
•• http://www.2oceansvibe.com/2015/04/30/first-choice-for-criminals-uzzi-clothing-
seems-to-be-coming-up-a-lot-in-our-courtrooms/
The researcher may then be guided by this to strategically select those individuals who
own an item of clothing by the UZZI brand. Individuals who own the clothing brand may
then be pushed by the informal labelling attached to them into offending behaviour,
thus confirming the theory.
The exposition above reflects on the value of theory by making a connection to research
and the social world. It is therefore important to recognise these relationships as a first
step in becoming a theoretically guided researcher in criminology (Bachman & Schutt,
2014:31–32).
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Activity 3.2
Discuss the value of theory by using the example below.
The anomie theory according to Merton (1938) debates that there are five reactions
adopted by individuals depending on their ability to attain internalised social goals. The
retreatist gives up on both the goals and means, and withdraws from society, for example
the social dropout, drug addict and/or alcoholic (Burke, 2014:140–141).
Kindly follow the link below to read more on the anomie theory.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287601261_An_overview_of_Durkheim_and_
Merton’s_social_anomie
Feedback on Activity 3.2

13
Although responses from students may differ, the following key issues should be included in
responses:
(a) The research population will be guided towards all those individuals who are considered
to be social dropouts.
(b) The community or social world has also rejected these individuals as upstanding mem-
bers of society.
(c) An example of this theory may be nyaope drug users whose behavioural changes indicate
that they are aliens in society.
(d) Follow the link below to read more on nyaope users. https://ridgetimes.co.za/88203/
signs-symptoms-use-nyaope/
3.4 CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY

Theories usually contain what is called a theoretical construct. A theoretical construct is
73
not always observable; however, it is either approved or disproved by empirical findings

(Burke, 2014:8). In criminology, these theoretical constructs describe what important
aspects to focus on in order to understand, explain, predict and act on crime (Bachman
& Schutt, 2014:31).
For example, an important theoretical construct in Hirschi’s (1969) Social Bond theory
74
is the notion of how weak or strong an individual’s societal bonds are. Theories then
logically link one or more theoretical constructs to others in what are called relationship
statements. In the Social Bond theory, Hirschi links the theoretical construct of strong
bonds or weak bonds to the theoretical construct of offending behaviour, arguing that:
Individuals who resort to offending behaviour are those who have weak social bonds, while
75
those individuals who have strong societal bonds are less likely to engage in offending
behaviour (Schmalleger, 2014:107).
These are relationship statements that logically connect two theoretical constructs;
76
firstly stating that the more an individual’s social bonds weaken, the more likely they are
27
to resort to offending behaviour and, inversely, the more an individual’s social bonds
are strengthened, the less likely they are to resort to offending behaviour (Bachman &
Schutt, 2014:31).
3.5 REQUIREMENTS OF A CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY

In order to confirm the accuracy of a particular theory, a hypothesis testing should be
77
conducted. A hypothesis is a tentative statement about empirical reality involving the

relationship between two or more variables (Bachman & Schutt, 2014:462). A hypothesis
is more of a specific implication deduced from the theory as it proposes a relationship
between two or more theoretical constructs (Bachman & Schutt, 2014:34).
When a hypothesis is tested in order to determine whether the theory is sound, the
78
following requirements are highlighted (Joubert & Bezuidenhout, 2013:105):
•• Plausibility: a theory needs to be a credible explanation based on the relationship

between two or more related facts.
•• Real life evidence: the more a theory enjoys real life support on the basis of empirical
research findings, the more credible it becomes.
•• Falsifiability: theories should be accurate enough to allow for testing in an effort to
challenge or verify their accuracy.
•• Predictability: the most valuable theories are those that have predictive power. A
theory should not only provide a convincing explanation of the past and present, it
should also provide widespread predictions for the future.
If a body of thought cannot be empirically tested, it is more likely to be philosophy than

79
theory (Bachman & Schutt, 2014:32).
80 Other requirements of a theory include (Rule & John, 2011:93):
•• Simple: a good theory is one that explains the most in the simplest way.
•• Fertile: the theory should generate research and further theorising.
•• Coherent: the theory must flow logically and make sense.
•• Explain: the theory must be able to explain the subject in question.
3.6 THE ROLE OF CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY IN RESEARCH

Theories help us to make sense of our lives by providing a framework to interpret the
81
meanings of observed events or factors, and also help us determine whether these events
or factors are meaningful (Burke, 2014:8). Criminologists turn to theories to understand
certain behaviours. For example:
•• why some people abuse drugs

•• why some men abuse their partners physically, emotionally or sexually
•• the reasons behind the xenophobic attacks (hate of foreigners) in South Africa
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83 Furthermore, Bachman and Schutt (2014:31) explain that theories help to:
•• explain and understand things such as why some individuals commit more crimes
than others
•• understand why some people quit crime and others continue with crime
•• understand the expected effect that crime , harsh punishment or other factors might
have on families
•• make predictions about the criminological world (e.g. What would the expected
effect on the murder statistics be if capital punishment was effected instead of life
imprisonment? or, What would be the effect on the rate of property crimes if unem-
ployment were to substantially increase?)
•• organise and make sense of empirical findings in a discipline
•• guide research and public policy (e.g. What should we do to reduce the level of
domestic violence?)
Criminologists use empirical, well-researched and verified findings to explain offending

84
behaviour. The various explanations of crime, deviance and criminal behaviour should
not be viewed in isolation because a combination of some of the criminological theories
often results in a better understanding of various actions. According to Burke (2104:505),
different elements from individual theories may be combined in an attempt to provide a
stronger explanation than that offered by a single theory. This ensures a comprehensive
explanation because criminal behaviour will be looked at in a multidimensional way.
In your third-year studies, you will be exposed to the various criminological theories in
85
more detail.
Activity 3.3
(The purpose of this activity is to determine whether you are able to formulate your own
statement that links two theoretical constructs.)
Formulate your own statement that links two theoretical constructs.
Do you think it is possible to explain and interpret criminal behaviour without using a
theory? Answer critically by giving an appropriate example.
Consult additional sources for a theory and come up with a logical statement that connects
two theoretical constructs.
An example of linking two theoretical constructs could be:
yy As a child is exposed to more family violence, alcohol/drug abuse and criminal behaviour
at home, the risk of becoming involved in offending or anti-social behaviour later on in
life also increases.
yy An individual who has dedicated their life to conforming to the general norms and values
of society is less likely to be involved in offending or anti-social behaviour.
29
Consult additional sources in order to support your response to the possibility of explaining
and interpreting criminal behaviour without a theory. There is no model/one correct answer
for this activity. Each student submits his/her own interpretation of the information from ad-
ditional sources they have consulted.
3.7 CONTEXTUALISING THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW IN

RESEARCH
Criminology is a science where theory and methodology are essential
86
interconnected components in the scientific study of crime (Brown et al., 2013:9). Theory
forms the basis of the practice of criminology as it serves as a framework from within
which the discipline is practised. Methodology, on the other hand, refers to the procedures
researchers follow when investigating a topic. It is therefore important for criminologists
to use both theory and methodology when conducting research.
Once the focus of the research study has been determined and clearly specified, the
87
decision that many researchers struggle with is to establish to what extent theory and
literature reviews (sources used) must be used to guide their studies. Maree (2016:28)
defines a literature review as a critical analysis of the relevant current and past research
with regard to their methodological and contextual weaknesses. This is to provide
a comparison of the studies in order to build bridges and make connections by pointing
out central issues (Creswell, 2014:28). This will then place the current study in perspective
regarding what other researchers have done and will also provide an opportunity for
improvement (Kumar, 2014:374).
It is important for a researcher to learn how other researchers used theories to address
88
a similar topic. This puts the researcher at an advantage so that they may have an
understanding of the kind of methods to use and to what effect in order to address the
research problem. In other words, a literature review is done in order to familiarise the
researcher with the current state of knowledge regarding the research problem and to
learn how others have delineated similar problems. This process makes sure that the
researcher does not duplicate a study on the chosen topic. This also means that gaps and
errors made in previous research will be addressed in the current research.
According to Kumar (2014:51), a literature review should be organised in a way that will
89
address the main themes of the research problem and use the relevant theories put
forward as a theoretical background to the study.
From the above it can be seen how important it is for a researcher to read extensively
90
on the research topic.
This will enable the researcher to plan the research as to how answers to the research
91
question will be found and the various tasks that will be undertaken to fulfil the research
objectives (Kumar, 2014:381).
92 The next lesson (4) provides a thorough explanation of the planning of research.
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(1) Which term refers to statements that are logically organised to explain how two or more
factors relate to each other in reality?
(1) Predictions
(2) Theory
(3) Propositions
(4) Hypotheses
(2) How is criminal or offending behaviour accounted for in criminological theories?
(1) Scientifically tested questions
(2) Well-informed predictions
(3) Scientifically tested explanations
(4) Well-supported assumptions
(3) What is important to look at in order to understand, explain, predict and do something
about crime?
(1) Research design
(2) Official crime statistics
(3) Theoretical construct
(4) Literature review
(4) Identify the incorrect statement regarding the value of a theory:
(1) Accumulating and clarifying research findings is more difficult than considering how
the findings fit into a more general understanding of the social world.
(2) Most criminological research is guided by theory, but only when the researcher
recognises the theory.
(3) Despite the fact that theory guides research, research findings also influence the
development of a theory.
(4) Criminological research may not be guided by a partially developed theory in a
particular study.
(5) Which of the statements below is true regarding the requirements of a theory?
(1) Theories need to be accurate enough to allow for testing as an effort to challenge or
verify their accuracy
(2) A credible theory enjoys more real life support on the bases of empirical findings.
(3) A valuable theory does not need to provide predictions; it should provide only a
convincing explanation of the past and present.
(4) A theory needs to be a credible explanation based on the relationship between two
or more related facts.
Choose the correct combination
(1) (a), (b) and (c)
(2) (a), (b) and (d)
(3) (a), (c) and (d)
(4) (b), (c), and (d)
31
(1) 2
(2) 3
(3) 4
(4) 3
(5) 2

(1) Explain the value of theory and the role of criminological theory in research. (10 marks)
(2) Define the term “theory”, and discuss the requirements of a theory in research. (15 marks)

(1) Refer to sections 3.3 and 3.6 for the answer.
(2) Refer to sections 3.2 and 3.4 for the answer.

Bachman, R & Schutt, RK. 2014. The practice of research in criminology and criminal justice.
5th edn. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Brown, SE, Esbensen, F & Geis, G. 2013. Criminology: explaining crime and its context. 8th
edn. Waltham, MA: Anderson.
Burke, RH. 2014. An introduction to criminological theory. 4th edn. Cullompton: Willan.
Creswell, JW. 2014. Research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches.
4th edn. Los Angeles: Sage.
Joubert, SJ & Bezuidenhout, C. 2013. Traditional theoretical explanations for youth
misbehaviour (Pp 105 – 124). In C Bezuidenhout (Ed). Child and youth misbehaviour
in South Africa: A holistic approach. 3rd edn. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Kumar, R. 2014. Research methodology: a step-by-step guide for beginners. 4th edn. Los
Angeles: Sage.
Maree, K. 2016. Planning a research proposal (pp 25–47). In K Maree (Ed). First steps in
research. 2nd edn. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Rule, P & John, V. 2011. Your guide to case study research. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Schmalleger, F. 2014 Criminology. 2nd edn. Boston: Pearson.
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Lesson 4
Planning of research
Revised by Mr DF Monyepao, Ms NP Magagula and Mrs M Zitha

93
After working through this lesson, you should be able to:

•• understand the importance of planning in research
•• explain the steps in a typical research process
•• describe the elements of a research proposal
3Assessment methods
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this unit is to take you through the different phases in the research process,
94
starting with the planning of the research. Once you have completed this unit and its
activities, you should be able to follow the various steps in a typical research process.
You should also know how to write a research proposal.
Use the learning objectives to determine whether you have achieved the outcomes (end
95
results of your learning). You are encouraged to complete the activities in this lesson; their
function is to assist you in achieving the unit outcomes.
Lesson 1 introduced you to scientific research, and the aims, skills, practical problems
96
and main research concepts. Lesson 2 familiarised you with the two main processes in
research: the aims and motives for doing research in criminology. Lesson 3 explained the
important role of criminological theory in research. This lesson takes you through the
planning and the various steps in the research process.
97
33
4.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF BACKGROUND READING
At this early stage of the research process, planning involves doing a significant amount
98
of reading and making well-informed decisions based on the background information.

In this unit we look at the reasons for doing background reading and the appropriate
types of literature that have to be accessed. This preparatory reading plays a critical role
in developing the specific focus of your study.
•• Background information allows you to convey to the eventual readers of your research
the importance of your project and your knowledge of the study field. For example,
you do a research project on police violence. By quoting statistics on police violence,
you communicate the extent and importance of the study to the reader.
•• Furthermore, your work will not be convincing if you cannot demonstrate that you
have knowledge about the topic you are researching. By reviewing international
studies and the local situation in South Africa, you demonstrate your knowledge of
the study field you researched.
•• Thorough background reading will assist you in effectively describing the context of
your research. It provides the background to your study by describing the present
situation in South Africa with regard to crime, legislation and policing, among others.
•• A thorough background study will prevent you from formulating a research question
that has already been investigated.
99 Based on the above, please take note of the following:
•• Thorough background reading places you in a better position to make recommen-

dations relating to the field of research that you are involved in.
•• Without background reading, the researcher may be oblivious to practical problems/
obstacles that other researchers have encountered. For example, problems like de-
lays in getting ethical clearance, the time-consuming nature of file perusals, and the
decision not to use participant observation as a data gathering technique, will alert
you to the kinds of problems to expect in research.
Activity 4.1
(1) Discuss the possible problems that may arise if you embark on a research project
without doing the necessary background reading.
In addition to the information in section 4.2 in this lesson, consult additional sources and
discuss the importance of doing background reading before starting on a research project.
Although discussions presented by students may differ, the following key issues, among others,
should be included in the discussion:
yy Not being able to convey the importance of your project and your knowledge of the study
field to the readers of your research.
yy Experiencing difficulty in describing the context of your research effectively.
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yy You might also find that other researchers have done the same research project previously
and you may not be aware of the practical problems that other researchers encountered.
yy You may also find it difficult to make appropriate recommendations relating to your field
of research.
There is no model/one correct answer for this activity. Each student presents his/her own
interpretation of the information gathered from additional sources.
4.3 TYPICAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION

You should adhere to the scientific requirements when presenting your written work. You
100
therefore have to consult various scientific sources that will help you present academically
sound content that supports the contents of your research projects. The following are
typical sources of information used in criminological research (Dantzker & Hunter, 2012:36):
•• Text and journal abstracts

•• Scholarly journals
•• Textbooks
•• Social sciences indexes
•• Internet searches (not Wikipedia)
•• Reviewing the literature, and
•• Newspaper articles etc.
4.4 STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process consists of a series of six systematically organised steps. It is important
101
to have a good understanding of all the steps before starting with the study so that a
sense of coherence is maintained throughout the study.
102 The six steps in the research process are as follows:
4.4.1 Identification of a research topic

The onset of any research project must be centred on what is to be studied; however,
103
choosing a topic is not an easy task and can be aided through curiosity, personal
observations and current literature in criminal justice and criminology (Dantzker & Hunter,
2012:36). A research topic is a statement that clearly defines the research idea, the scope
and the limitation of the research (Godwill, 2015:35). The topic needs to be interesting
enough to keep the researcher stimulated and limited enough in order to channel the
researcher’s focus on a specific research area. Selecting a research topic that may possibly
have policy implications can be very beneficial (Dantzker & Hunter, 2012:33). The researcher
should evaluate the topic against the following criteria to ensure the significance of the
study (Bachman & Schutt, 2014:24):
35
4.4.1.1 Feasibility
The researcher should assess whether it will be possible to conduct the study within the
104
allocated time frame, available resources, and with the kind of expertise the researcher has.
4.4.1.2 Social importance

The research topic should make an important contribution to society and the relevant
105
field of study. This may also serve as motivation for the researcher, as he/she will be doing
something positive for the community.
4.4.1.3 Scientific relevance

The topic should contribute to the knowledge development of a discipline. It should also
106
be informed by the relevant principles undertaken in criminology.
Interesting reading
Kindly consult the following articles for further information regarding the identification
of a research topic:
•• https://irb.nasa.gov/crResearchTopics.aspx
•• https://ebeit.mandela.ac.za/ebeit/media/Store/documents/ResearchGuidelines
4.4.2 Formulate a research problem

A research problem refers to any issue that forms the basis of an enquiry in a study;
107
it is basically what the researcher wants to investigate (Kumar, 2014:381). Formulating

a research problem is often an enormously personal process in addition to being a
scientifically professional one. Most research problems in the social sciences revolve
around the four Ps: people, problems, programmes and phenomena (Kumar, 2014:65).
For example, a researcher may study offenders in correctional centres when studying
people, issues faced by a group of people when studying problems, evaluate services
provided when studying programmes, and exploring a new topical trend when studying
phenomena. The best way to formulate a research problem is to ask a precise question
about the relationship between one or more variables that interest you (Godwill, 2015:36).
In the quest of formulating a research problem, researchers may find themselves asking
questions such as:
•• What are the factors that influence offending behaviour among youth in South Africa?
•• To what extent does the use of nyaope influence offending behaviour?
•• How can “Ke moja” contribute towards the reduction of drug use in South African
schools?
•• To what extent is the blesser-blessee phenomenon prevalent in South African
universities?
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Interesting reading
For further information regarding examples given for the research problem, see the
following websites:
•• http://www.timeslive.co.za/lifestyle/2016/04/26/Pretoria-mother-declares-war-on-
blesser-says-he-is-a-curse-for-her-daughter ;
•• http://www.scirp.org/journal/PaperInformation.aspx
Activity 4.2
Think of a possible research question/problem that flows from your own experience in
the world.
There is no model/one correct answer for this activity; you are encouraged to consult additional
sources that will help you to formulate a research question/problem. After you have identified
a research question/problem, ask yourself the following questions:
yy Is it feasible? In other words, you must be able to conduct a research project within a given
time frame and with the resources you have.
yy Is it of social importance? Criminological research is not a simple undertaking; you must
focus on a substantive area that you feel is important to the discipline or to public policy.
yy Is it scientifically relevant? Every research problem/question in criminology should be
grounded/informed by what others before us have done on the topic.
Do you see how important the literature review is?
4.4.3 Conceptualise a research design and methods

Once the research problem has been formulated, the researcher should think carefully
108
about what kind of data is needed to address the problem, and which is the best way to
collect this data. This, in research, is referred to as the research design. Kumar (2014:381)
defines it as a procedural plan adopted by a researcher to satisfactorily answer research
questions posed in the study. This includes a description of the methods that will be used
to collect and analyse the data (Maree, 2016:36).
109 The different types of data collection techniques will be discussed in the next unit.
In the social sciences, questionnaires are probably the most common techniques for
110
obtaining information from people. A major advantage of questionnaires is that this

technique enables the researcher to reach people who live far away.
Interviewing is a typical example of a qualitative technique of data collection. There are

111
several kinds of interviews and these will be discussed in more detail in the qualitative
research unit (lesson 6) in this lesson.
37
4.4.4 Conduct a literature review
As per the definition of literature review in lesson 3, it is a process where current and
112
previous research is critically analysed and compared in order to bridge knowledge gaps
and make appropriate connections to put the current study in perspective in terms of
what other researchers have done.
113 The following are outlined as guidelines in conducting a literature review:
4.4.4.1 Topic focused review

Maree (2016:28) identified the importance of reviewing previous and current research
114
by focusing on their contextual and conceptual weaknesses. Onwuegbuzie and Frels

(2016:15) support this kind of review based on the following reasons:
•• To inform the topic
The researcher will need to identify the key areas that previous and current research
115
focused on concerning the particular topic. This will be beneficial as unnecessary replication
of a study will be avoided.
•• To narrow the topic
Narrowing the topic will enable the researcher to direct the study and focus on the
116
relevant area in the discipline. The will give the researcher an opportunity to make use
of, and refine, the terminology related to the topic.
•• To provide a new lens to the topic
After reviewing present research studies, the researcher is able to present a new perspective
117
on and approach to the topic. This will result in the researcher making new and relevant
contributions to the topic in the discipline.
Interesting reading
Kindly see the following websites for further information on literature review:
•• www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/29986_Chapter3.pdf
•• https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Andrew_Denney/publication/263041369_
How_to_Write_a_Literature_Review/links/55d6760408ae9d65948bdd39/How-to-
Write-a-Literature-Review.pdf?origin=publication_detail
4.4.4.2 Method focused review

After identifying the topic, the researcher should investigate which method would be the
118
best to use when conducting the study. This process will entail identifying the philosophical
stances, research design, data collection instruments and analysis techniques used by
previous researchers (Onwuegbuzie & Frels, 2016:15). This will enable the researcher to
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identify methodological difficulties experienced in previous studies and improve on them

in the current study (Kumar, 2014:473; Godwill, 2015:37).
4.4.4.3 Results and connection focused review

The reader of the study should not be left in the dark about the implications of previous
119
research in the current study (Bachman, 2014:30). The researcher needs to make a
connection between the results in previous studies and what still needs to be researched
(Onwuegbuzie & Frels, 2016:15).
To ensure that the researcher is up to date with previous research, the following guidelines
120
must be adhered to (Bachman & Schutt, 2014:30):
•• Make a clear distinction between your own opinion and the conclusions of authors
of the articles you have reviewed.
•• Emphasise that your own approach is based on the theoretical framework that you
used, and not on the results of previous research.
•• Always acknowledge the prospective limitations of any empirical research project.
A researcher should never emphasise problems in previous research that he/she
cannot avoid.
•• You need to explain why unanswered questions/issues and limitations raised by
previous research make it so important for you to conduct your own inquiry.
Activity 4.3
Write a paragraph in which you mention how summarising previous research can save
you a great deal of time.
After you have summarised previous research, ask yourself the following questions: “Have I
been selective?”, meaning “Have there been more than a few prior investigations of my research
question, and will I have to narrow my focus down to the most relevant and highest-quality
studies?”; “Is my research up to date, and did I include the most recent findings?”; and “Did I
use direct quotes cautiously?”, (i.e. you need to express the main points from previous research
in your own words). You are welcome to compare answers with other students on myUnisa
on the discussion forum.
4.4.5 Collect and analyse data

It has been pointed out that the “heart of qualitative research lies in the extraction of
121
meaning from data” (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011:151). Data collection is a very important step;
the researcher needs to be cautious to avoid loss of data. (Godwill, 2015:41). It is advisable
that the researcher take handwritten notes throughout the research process. One of the
first steps in the data processing phase is to write out or type up all your handwritten
39
notes. Perusal of handwritten notes is aimed at making them comprehensive and clear.
Ideally, the revision should be done on the first day of the interview, since the data will
still be clear and fresh in the researcher’s memory.
The typewritten notes should form a chronological verification of all the researcher’s
122
observations. You are supposed to keep a record of the dates and times of the interviews
and all the notes should be filed. The files could be classified according to the type of
data. Case studies of offenders, for example, may be filed according to the type of crime
or the type of punishment that was handed out.
The use of computer programs is associated mainly with quantitative data. Recently,
123
however, personal computers have been used for the analysis of qualitative data as well.
Notes made during interviews can be saved in a program or file on the computer. The
use of computer programs does not only save time, but also makes it possible to analyse
more than one variable affecting a problem simultaneously (Godwill, 2015:41). There is
no single correct way of analysing data; it is, therefore, important for the researcher to
plan well in advance as to how they will analyse and present the data (Maree, 2016:39).
4.4.6 Presentation of findings

The last step in the research process is the actual writing of the research report. The
124
main purpose of writing the report is to share information, such as research findings,
with interested parties. These parties, however, will differ depending on the purpose of
the report.
Besides writing up the formal responses, researchers should also make notes about
125
their own feelings, speculations and perceptions. These notes should include both the
empirical observations and their interpretations. This should be done in a precise, logical
and clear manner so that the researcher may be able to defend their stance should it be
challenged (Kumar, 2014:355).
126 A detailed discussion on report writing is presented in lesson 8.
4.5 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROPOSAL?

A research proposal is a document that outlines the researcher’s thinking about the
127
research problem. The main purpose of writing a research proposal is to obtain permission
or funds to conduct a study. Wang and Park (2016:133) explain a proposal as a blueprint
for your research. It contains details of the research plan and why you are doing the
research. Proposals are also submitted to university committees to register the research
project for a postgraduate degree. A proposal also clarifies the topic in the mind of the
researcher (Mmako, 2017:2). In the research proposal, the researcher needs to justify the
choice of topic in terms of a theoretical basis and the relevance of potential results. A
research proposal will, therefore, give an indication of whether enough preparation was
done for the study.
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Interesting reading
Kindly see the following websites for further information on research proposals:
•• https://www.slideshare.net/chukunoyeenunuweo/research-proposal-writing-2013
•• https://m.eliteediting.com.au/how-to-write-a-research-proposal/
4.6 HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A research proposal should be presented in a well-considered exposition that is scientifically
128
justifiable and it should present a clear picture of the scope of the project and the manner
in which it is to be conducted. Fundamentally, a research proposal should demonstrate
that the research is useful. Research proposals vary in format, but generally include the
following sections (Maree, 2016:29):
•• Introduction
•• Rationale/significance of the study
•• Review of related literature
•• Statement of the problem, research questions, or focus of the study
•• Research design or research method
129 The following is a brief catalogue of what each section entails:
4.6.1 Introduction
130 The introduction presents an outline of the body of the proposal:
•• The areas of relevance of the study for practice, policy and theory are briefly described.
•• The broad areas of theory and research to be discussed in the literature review sec-
tion are outlined.
•• The design of the study is sketched and the particular approach, major data collec-
tion techniques and unique features of the design are noted.
•• The introduction provides a transition to a more detailed discussion of the general
topic or research questions to be explored in the study.
4.6.2 Rationale/significance of the study

The rationale alludes to the researcher’s interests in the topic and why the research is
131
worth doing (Dudovskiy, 2018:1). The rationale informs the reader about:
•• gaps in the knowledge related to the topic

•• how the research will contribute to the existing body of knowledge, i.e. fill the gaps
•• how interest in this topic was developed by the researcher
132
41
This section of the research proposal that demonstrates the significance of the proposed
133
study may, in fact, be the core of the research. It forces the researcher to ask and answer
the crucial question: What does the real world need to know?
•• The researcher must describe how this study will provide information that will con-
tribute to the solution of some real world problems.
•• He/she must also show that practitioners need the information that the research
will provide.
4.6.3 Review of related literature

The guidelines of conducting a literature review were discussed in detail in section 4.4.4;
134
however in this part of the unit we will outline the four broad functions a literature review
serves as a component of a research proposal.
•• It demonstrates the underlying assumptions behind the general research questions.

•• It demonstrates that the researcher is thoroughly knowledgeable about related
research and the intellectual traditions that surround and support the study.
•• It shows that the researcher has identified some gaps in previous research and that
the proposed study will fill a demonstrated need.
•• The review defines and redefines the research questions and related tentative hy-
potheses by embedding those questions in larger empirical traditions.
4.6.4 Statement of the problem, research questions or focus of the study

As previously mentioned, the beginning of a proposal should include a brief introduction
135
that describes the general research questions, topic of focus and the questions and
dilemmas that will be explored through research. This serves the purpose of orientating
the reader, but is not a specific research question or problem statement. In many qualitative
proposals, the proposal statements develop logically from the review of the literature.
A qualitative problem statement should include a brief interpretation of the general

136
focus of the research (from the introduction), a more precise statement of the problem,
questions or areas for exploration (derived from the literature review), and a number
of guiding hypotheses. It is essential, however, that the researcher explain that guiding
hypotheses are merely tools used to generate questions and to search for patterns.
The researcher must state the logical connections between the research purpose, the
137
research topic and the methods selected as most appropriate. He/she cannot assume
that the reader will make those connections. Once the research problem has been stated,
the researcher must develop a rationale for the choice of the qualitative research design
(Maree, 2016:32).
4.6.5 Research methodology

This section answers the question, “How”? How is the research question to be answered?
138
What is the plan of action? What is the research design?
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(1) A research … is a statement that clearly defines the research idea, the scope and limita-
tion of the research.
(1) topic
(2) problem
(3) questionnaire
(4) objective
(2) Which step in the research process revolves around the four Ps?
(1) Identification of a research topic
(2) Formulating a research problem
(3) Conceptualising a research design and methods
(4) Conducting a literature review
(3) Which one of the following guidelines in conducting a literature review enables the re-
searcher to identify methodological difficulties in previous studies with the aim to improve
them in the current study?
(1) Topic focused review
(2) Connection focused review
(3) Method focused review
(4) Results focused review
(4) Which one of the following statements best defines research proposal?
(1) A document that is written with the aim of sharing information, such as research
findings with interested parties.
(2) A set of interconnected statements that explain how two or more events or factors
relate to one other.
(3) A body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or
correcting and integrating previous knowledge.
(4) A document that outlines the researcher’s thinking about the research problem.
(5) Which section of the research proposal alludes to the researcher’s interests in the topic
and why the research is worth doing?
(1) Introduction
(2) Rationale/significance of the study
(3) Statement of the problem, research questions or focus of the study
(4) Research methodology
Feedback on multiple-choice questions
(1) 1
(2) 2
(3) 3
(4) 4
(5) 2
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(1) Explain the importance of background reading. (10 marks)
(2) Identify and explain the different sections in a research proposal. (15 marks)
Feedback on paragraph-type questions

(5th edition). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Dantzker, ML & Hunter, RD. (2012). Research methods for criminology and criminal justice.
(3rd edition). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Dudovskiy, J. 2018. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: A
step by-step assistance. Available at: https://research-methodology.net/research-
methodology/rationale-for-the-study/ (accessed: 14 February 2018).
Godwill, EA. 2015. Fundamentals of research methodology: a holistic guide for
research completion, management, validation and ethics. New York: Nova.
Hesse-Biber, SN & Leavy, P. (2011). The practice of qualitative research. (2nd edition). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kumar, R. 2014. Research methodology: a step-by-step guide for beginners. (4th edition)
Thousand Oaks CA: Sage.
Maree, K. 2016. Planning a research proposal (pp 25–47). In K Maree (Ed). First steps in
research. 2nd edn. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Mmako, N. 2017. ‘Writing a researcher paper’. [PowerPoint Presentation]. Student R&I
Week. Available at: http://www.unisa.ac.za/static/myunisa/Content/Announcements/
Documents/RI-week-writing-researcher-paper-2017.pdf (accessed: 1 October 2017).
Onwuegbuzie, AJ & Frels, R. 2016. 7 steps to a comprehensive literature review: a multimodal
and cultural approach. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage.
Wang, GT & Park, K. 2016. Student research and report writing: from topic selection to
the complete paper. John Wiley & Sons.
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Lesson 5
Quantitative research
139 Revised by K Matsi

•• understand the main quantitative research concepts
•• discuss quantitative research approaches
•• discuss the characteristics of quantitative research
•• examine quantitative data collection methods
3Assessment methods
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Lesson 1 introduced you to scientific research, and the aims, skills, practical problems and
140
the main research concepts. Lesson 2 familiarised you with the two main processes in
research and the aims and motives for doing research in criminology. Lesson 3 explained
the important role of criminological theory in research. Lesson 4 took you through the
planning and the various steps in the research process. In this lesson, you will be introduced
to the different research techniques in quantitative research by considering a selection
of examples. Once you have completed this unit with its various activities, you should
be able to follow the various steps in a typical research process.
There are two forms of research methodology, namely quantitative and qualitative.
141
For the purpose of this lesson, we will discuss the quantitative research methodology,
which is used to conduct research primarily using numerical data such as questionnaires,
graphics and statistics. Quantitative research methods often place emphasis on measuring,
experimenting to reach conclusions/findings, and it is far easier to generalise as it is
objective and more logical/structured. Researchers using a quantitative methodology
ask descriptive, comparative and relationship-based type of questions in an attempt to
generalise a certain behaviour, attitude or phenomena (Allen, Titsworth & Hunt, 2009:3).
45
For example: “What is the relationship between unemployment and criminality/criminal
behaviour?”
5.2 BASIC APPROACHES TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

METHODS
Research approaches can be divided into two common research methods, namely
142
qualitative and quantitative research.
Quantitative research entails “precisely measuring variables and testing hypotheses

143
that are linked to general causal explanations” (Maree, 2016:311). Quantitative research
is characterised by numeric data such as official crime statistics (Ladikos, 2009:159).
Quantitative researchers tend to rely on deductive reasoning (moving from the general to
the specific), beginning with certain premises (e.g. hypotheses, theories) and then drawing
logical conclusions from them. Quantitative research is regarded as a structured approach
because everything that forms the research process – objectives, design, sample and
measuring instruments – is predetermined (De Vos, Strydom, Fouché, & Delport, 2011:64).
5.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

There are many characteristics of quantitative research; however, for the purpose of this
144
lesson we will discuss only a few as identified by Maree (2016:307–308):
•• Quantitative research aims to describe trends and explain relationships between

variables.
•• The researcher asks specific research questions or formulates hypotheses about the
variables.
•• The sample size is generally large and it is selected randomly from the larger popula-
tion so that results can be generalised regarding the population.
•• Quatitative research often makes use of the convenience sampling method to select
research participants.
•• The researcher commonly uses experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational and
survey designs.
•• The data is collected using existing pilot-tested, self-developed instruments (such
as surveys, tests, questionnaires and scales).
•• For data analysis in quantative research, the researcher assigns a number to each
response category variable, then the data is entered into a computer to describe
trends that relate to the variables.
•• The researcher then interprets the results in light of initial predictions and prior
research on the same topic.
An important distinction between the two research approaches stems from the nature of
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their empirical data: quantitative data is expressed in numbers. For example, the researcher
wants to determine how many rapes occurred in the Johannesburg CBD over the period
January 2017 to December 2017.
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Activity 5.1
Read the following case study thoroughly and answer the question that follows:
Parents of the Milner High School pupils have recently been complaining about the in-
creasing violent behaviour among learners. The parents have read research conducted
on violent pupils and the findings were that learners born into large families with many
siblings are more likely to be violent and aggressive as opposed to those learners born
into smaller families. The school principal is concerned, and would like to conduct a study
to determine the relationship between violent behaviour and family size.
Based on this case study, identify the characteristics that make it fit or not fit to be a
quantitative case study. Which research methodology would you recommend the prin-
cipal use and why?
A quantitative research methodology would be most ideal because the principal seeks to
conduct a comparative study. Quantitative research can be used to answer questions about
relationships among variables with the purpose of explaining, predicting and controlling
phenomena. The purpose is to create, confirm or validate relationships and to develop gen-
eralisations. Furthermore, the principal seeks to determine the possible cause-effect relations
and thus experiments will be useful to compare the control group and the experimental group.
5.4 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

After selecting the most appropriate research methodology, you will have to select the
146
most appropriate research design. Babbie and Mouton (2001:75) describe research design
as a blueprint or step-by-step process of how one intends conducting the study, and that
it is pivotal for researchers to match the research design with the desired outcomes of
the study. Maree (2016:166) identifies two types of research design, namely, experimental
and non-experimental designs.
Experimental designs are developed to answer a specific question – the “cause and effect”
147
question. It aims to measure whether a specific treatment/variable has any effect on the
participants measured. It is a procedure that allows the researcher to maintain control over
all factors that may affect the results of an experiment (Allen et al., 2009:9). Manipulation
takes place where some participants receive treatment and others are used as a control
group where they do not receive any treatment (Maree, 2016:166). Experiments rely on
tests of mean difference such as t tests and ANOVA.
Non-experimental surveys, on the other hand, use tests of association such as correlation
148
and regression. Surveys are predominantly used in descriptive studies where the research
participants are measured on all the relevant variables at a specific time (Maree, 2016:171).
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5.4.1 Experiments as a quantitative research design
When researchers want to study possible cause-effect relations, they might perform
149
experiments. Maree (2016:36) defines an experiment as an artificially created situation

that permits researchers to manipulate variables and introduce control variables at the
same time (Ladikos, 2009:163). Ladikos (2009:163) distinguished between two kinds of
experiments: the classical experimental design or laboratory experiment and the quasi-
experimental design or field experiment (Ladikos, 2009:163).
150 Example: Elderly people and fear of crime
A group of elderly people were subjected to an experiment in order to find the answer
151
to the following research question: “Does fear of crime influence the behaviour of elderly
people by motivating them to seek self-protection and security?” The old people’s fear
of crime was heightened by showing them photographs of real life crime situations. The
reactions of the subjects were noted. Most of them planned to fit new alarms and other
security systems in their homes (Ladikos, 2009:165).
152 From the example, one can deduce the following:
(a) Members of the research group were equivalent in respect of age; that is, all could
be described as “elderly”.
(b) There was no control group.
(c) The experimental interventions were photographs of real life crime situations.
(d) The planning for fitment of new locks reflected heightened awareness of security.
5.4.1.1 The quasi-experimental design or field experiments

Quasi-experimental designs or field experiments are more commonly used in the
153
criminological disciplines. The situation is more realistic than if one were to put people
in a laboratory and observe their reactions in that artificial setting. The advantage of field
experiments is that they have greater external validity because the more realistic situation
allows broader generalisation. Participants in field experiments usually do not know that
they are involved in an experiment and react spontaneously (Ladikos, 2009:165).
5.4.1.2 The classical experimental design

The classical experimental design is also referred to as randomised prettest-posttest control
154
group design. This form of experimental design consists of an experimental and a control
group, which are both created by random sampling and random selection methods. Both
the experimental and control group take a pretest at the same time. However, only the
experimental group is exposed to the independent variable or treatment. The control
group does not receive the stimulus but only serves as a baseline to evaluate the behaviour
(dependent variable) of the experimental group (DeVos et al., 2011:152). Once the pretest
has been conducted, both the experimental and control group take the posttest to measure
the dependent variable. The main purpose of this step is to determine the impact of the
independent variable on the behaviour of the test group. Finally, the researcher needs
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to compare the measurement results to determine if there are any differences between
the two groups (DeVos et al., 2011:152).
5.4.1.3 Laboratory experiments

Laboratory experiments is also referred to as controlled experiments which is conducted in
155
a well controlled environment (not necessarily a laboratory) where accurate measurements

are possible. This design is similar to the classical experiment, except there are no pretests.
There is random selection of the experimental and control groups, however, only the
experimental group is exposed to the independent variable and the control group is
not. After a certain period of time both groups are measured on the stimuli (dependent
variable). Differences between the groups can provide evidence of association between
the independent and dependent variables (DeVos et al., 2011:153).
Activity 5.2
Now that you have read through the above section, see if you can give you own example
of a field experiment in criminology.
The Minister of Police, Bheki Cele, employed criminology researchers to conduct a field ex-
periment on gender based violence in an attempt to decrease the increase in female abuse/
murder. The researchers set up a hidden camera in a lift while one male researcher played
an abusive boyfriend and the female researcher played the abused girlfriend. The male actor
swore at the woman and physically assaulted her while members of the public were in the lift.
Most of the lift’s passengers ignored the abuse, while only one out of 53 people intervened in
an attempt to stop it. This proved to the minister that people are generally reluctant to help
women who are abused in public.
5.4.1.4 Advantages of using experiments

•• High level of control:
Researchers have a high level of control over their participants; they can manipulate data
156
because they know exactly what they are looking for and can illuminate that which is
not needed/unnecessary.
•• Can be widely used:
Can be used in various situations: in pharmaceutical and medical companies, as well as

157
the education sector and marketing.
49
•• Clear-cut conclusions:
Due to the high level of control, there’s usually only one variable tested at a time, which
158
provides more relevant and reliable results.
5.4.1.5 Disadvantages of using experiments

•• Human error:
159 Can provide many false positives and false negatives.
•• Can create artificial results:
Due to the high level of control over variables, data can be skewed if corrupted to fit the
160
researcher’s outcome.
•• Time-consuming:
Can take up an extensive amount of time

161
5.4.2 Surveys as a quantitative research method

Survey research involves the collection of information from a sample of individuals through
162
their responses to questions. Many newspaper editors, political analysts, and marketing
leaders have turned to survey research because it is an efficient method for systematically
collecting data from a broad spectrum of individuals and social settings. The results of
surveys are broadcast daily on most network news programmes. According to Dantzker
and Hunter (2012:122), surveys have become such a vital part of our social fabric that we
cannot assess much of what we read in the newspapers or see on TV without having
some understanding of this method of data collection (Bachman & Schutt, 2011:204).
A survey is a method of collecting data in a consistent way. Survey research is useful

163
for documenting existing community conditions, characteristics of a population,

and community opinion. In this chapter, you will find an outline of the steps needed
to conduct surveys using both the questionnaire and interview methods. Details on
preparing questionnaires and interview schedules are presented, along with a comparison
of both methods for different community-based situations. Survey data is not only useful
for immediate community development purposes, but it can also serve the future of
a community’s efforts by providing the baseline data needed later to demonstrate progress.
Survey research is used “to answer questions that have been raised, to solve problems
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that have been posed or observed, to assess needs and set goals. It is also used to
determine whether specific objectives have been met, to establish baselines against
which future comparisons can be made, to analyse trends across time, and generally, to
describe what exists, in what amount, and in what context.”
Surveys are capable of obtaining information from large samples of the population. They
165
are also well-suited to gathering demographic data that describe the composition of the
sample. Surveys are inclusive in the types and number of variables that can be studied,
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they require minimal investment to develop and administer, and are relatively easy for
making generalisations (Maree, 2016:175). Surveys can also elicit information about attitudes
that are otherwise difficult to measure using observational techniques. It is important
to note, however, that surveys provide only estimates for the true population; not exact
measurements (Maree, 2016:175).
5.4.2.1 The survey design process

According to Maree (2016:174), survey design involves two steps. First, a sampling plan
166
must be developed. The sampling plan is the methodology that will be used to select
the sample from the population. The sampling plan describes the approach that will be
used to select the sample, how an adequate sample size will be determined, and the
choice of media through which the survey will be administered. Survey media include
telephone and face-to-face interviews, as well as mailed surveys using either postal or
electronic mail (Maree, 2016:174). Second, procedures for obtaining population estimates
from the sample data and for estimating the reliability of those population estimates must
be established. This process includes identification of the desired response rate and the
preferred level of accuracy for the survey (Maree, 2016:174).
5.4.2.2 Types of surveys

It is important to note that there are different types of surveys and you need to understand
167
which one will be most appropriate for your study.
5.4.2.3 Written surveys

Written surveys require minimal resources (staff, time, and cost) and are best suited to
168
eliciting confidential information. Written surveys allow the respondent the greatest
latitude in pace and sequence of response. Written surveys may be distributed using
either postal or electronic mail. In some cases, written surveys are distributed in person to
a group of respondents to evaluate a recent event. Among the disadvantages of written
surveys is their subjectivity to certain types of error. For example, written surveys are
subject to coverage error where population lists are incomplete or out of date. They are
also typically subject to nonresponse errors. Less educated, illiterate, and disabled people
are particularly less likely to respond to written surveys (Dantzker & Hunter, 2012:200).
Written surveys are also subject to bias where the intended respondent refers to others
in completing the survey. Finally, written surveys are subject to item nonresponse where
some questions may be inadvertently or intentionally skipped (Dantzker & Hunter, 2012:200)
5.4.2.4 Verbal surveys

Verbal surveys include telephone and face-to-face interviews. The face-to-face interview
169
is a particularly flexible tool that can capture verbal inflexion, gestures, and other body
language. A skilled interviewer can obtain additional insights into the answers provided by
observing the respondent’s body language (Maree, 2016:176; Maxfield & Babbie, 2016:185).
Face-to-face interviews are useful where the true population is not known or when
51
respondents are unable or unlikely to respond to written surveys (Maree, 2016:176; Maxfield
& Babbie, 2016:185). They are also well-suited to long or complex questionnaires and for
reaching the correct respondents. Verbal surveys are, however, subject to measurement
errors when untrained interviewers are used (Maree, 2016:176; Maxfield & Babbie, 2016:185).
They are also resource intensive in terms of staff, facilities, and time. Findings from face-to-
face interviews, in particular, are difficult to summarise and incorporate in data analyses
(Maree, 2016:176; Maxfield & Babbie, 2016:189).
5.4.2.5 Types of survey questions
5.4.2.5.1 Open-ended question

Open-ended survey questions allow respondents to answer in their own words. Open-
170
ended questions also allow the researcher to explore ideas that would not otherwise be
aired and are useful where additional insights are sought. They are also useful where
the researcher is less familiar with the subject matter and cannot offer specific response
options.
5.4.2.5.2 Closed-ended questions

In contrast, closed-ended questions require the respondent to choose from among a
171
given set of responses (Maree, 2016:180; Maxfield & Babbie, 2016:1173). Closed-ended
questions with ordered choices require the respondent to examine each possible response
independent of the other choices. The choices form a continuum of responses, such as
those provided by Likert scales and numerical ranges. These types of questions are easiest
for respondents to answer and for researchers to analyse the data. Closed-ended questions
may also be categorised as: (a) questions that describe and evaluate people, places, and
events; (b) questions that measure responses to ideas, analyses, and proposals; and (c)
questions that measure knowledge.
5.4.2.6 Why are surveys useful?

172 Survey research owes its popularity to three features:
5.4.2.6.1 Versatility
The first and foremost reason for the popularity of survey methods is their versatility.
173
Although a survey is not the ideal method for testing hypotheses or learning about
social process, it is true that a well-designed survey can enhance our understanding of
just about any social issue.
Example: “Politicians campaigning for election use surveys, as do businesses marketing

174
a product, governments assessing community needs, agencies monitoring programme

effectiveness, and lawyers seeking to buttress claims of discrimination or select favourable
juries” (Bachman & Schutt, 2011:205).
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5.4.2.6.2 Efficiency
Surveys are popular because data can be collected from many people at a relatively low
175
cost and – depending on the survey design – relatively quickly. Surveys are efficient research
methods because many variables can be measured without substantially increasing the
time and cost. According to Labaw (1980), the efficiency of surveys can be attained only
in a place with a reliable communications structure. Bachman & Schutt (2011:205) gave
the following example to illustrate the efficiency of surveys:
“A reliable postal service and phone surveys can be effective. Also important to efficiency
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are the services of many survey organisations that provide trained staff and the proper
equipment for conducting high-quality surveys.”
5.4.2.6.3 Generalisability
Survey methods lend themselves to probability sampling from large populations. Thus,
177
survey research is appealing when sample generalisability is a central research goal. In fact,
survey research is often the only means available for developing a representative picture
of the attitudes and characteristics of a large population (Bachman & Schutt, 2011:205).
178 Example:
The incidence of HIV/AIDS infection in South African prisons has been extensively
179
documented in recent years. The KwaZulu-Natal Correctional Centre formulated

a comprehensive HIV/AIDS strategy and was largely reliant on national HIV/AIDS
programmes and on the policies that emanate from them. The KZN correctional service
centre conducted a survey to investigate the HIV/AIDS prevalence in the department
and found that the national HIV infection rate among all staff was 9.8% – lower than the
national estimate of 16.25%. However, disaggregated, the Department of Correctional
Service (DCS) survey reveals patterns that are similar to national norms. Thus, the KwaZulu-
Natal region recorded an infection rate of 22.7%, indicating that roughly one out of every
four officials in the correctional system is HIV positive. The survey found that the majority
of officials infected (87.2%) were in the age cohort of 26 to 45 years. It further found that
93.6% of HIV positive staff was employed at the production level, meaning that staff
members were involved either in the direct management of offenders or in providing
support services (Tapscott, 2008:2).
5.4.2.7 Advantages of using surveys

•• Surveys are capable of obtaining information from large samples of the population.
•• They are also well-suited to gathering demographic data that describe the composi-
tion of the sample (Maree, 2016:175).
•• Surveys are inclusive in the types and number of variables that can be studied,
require minimal investment to develop and administer, and are relatively easy for
generalisations (Maxfield & Babbie, 2016:191).
•• Surveys can also elicit information about attitudes that are otherwise difficult to
measure using observational techniques.
53
•• It is important to note, however, that surveys provide only estimates for the true
population, not exact measurements (Maxfield & Babbie, 2016:191).
5.4.2.8 Disadvantages of using surveys

Maxfield and Babbie (2016:191) noted that surveys are generally unsuitable where an
180
understanding of the historical context of phenomena is required.
Biases may occur, either in the lack of response from intended participants or in the nature
181
and accuracy of the responses that are received.
Other sources of error include intentional misreporting of behaviours by respondents to

182
confound the survey results or to hide inappropriate behaviour.
Finally, respondents may have difficulty assessing their own behaviour or have poor recall
183
of the circumstances surrounding their behaviour.
5.5 SAMPLING METHODS
5.5.1 Understanding sampling methods

Since it is not feasible to include the whole population in a study due to time and financial
184
constraints, the researcher is left no choice but to select a sample frame from the entire
population (Maree, 2016:192). However, it is pivotal for the researcher to draw a sample in
such a way that it would be possible to generalise the results to the rest of the population.
Sample selection depends on the population size, its homogeneity, the sample media
185
and its cost of use, and the degree of precision required (Maxfield & Babbie, 2016:152–153).
The people selected to participate in the sample must be selected at random; they must
have an equal (or known) chance of being selected. Maxfield and Babbie (2016:153) further
observed that a prerequisite to sample selection is to define the target population as
narrowly as possible. It is often not possible, however, to know the true population. In
such cases, a theoretical sample may be used. Theoretical samples purposively select
organisations that exhibit the desired features that are the focus of the researcher’s study.
Although the theoretical sample is not randomly selected, individual respondents from
within that sample can be selected at random to achieve an approximate effect.
Maree (2016:192) identified two forms of sampling: probability and none probability
186
sampling, however, in this section we will focus on only probability sampling. In probability
sampling, all the subjects/participants get an equal chance of being selected as a
representative sample. This means that an objective mechanism is used to select the
participants. Maree (2016:192) distinguishes between four different probability sampling
methods:
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5.5.1.1 Simple random sampling

In order to use this method, the researcher would need an updated sample frame (a
187
list of the population/community members who can be sampled, e.g. a list of inmates
who committed murder) (De Vos et al., 2011:228). The researcher can then number the
participants appearing on the list chronologically so each one can be uniquely identified,
for example, number the participants 1–10 then select randomly from the list, such as all
the number 5’s, until the researcher reaches saturation. This signifies that everybody has
an equal chance of being selected.
5.5.1.2 Stratified sampling

In stratified sampling, the population is divided into a number of homogenous groups
188
called strata and within each stratum, independent sampling (simple random sampling)
in then concluded. The strata can be selected based on the availability of information,
for example, a specific grade in a certain primary school. This method is advantageous
when a subpopulation is heterogeneous to the overall population. The researcher divides
the entire population into different subgroups or strata, then randomly selects the final
subjects proportionally from the different strata (De Vos et al., 2011:230; Maree, 2016:195).
5.5.1.3 Cluster sampling

This method is similar to stratified sampling; the population is divided into a number
189
of non-overlapping groups. However, these groups are usually much smaller than in
stratified sampling, hence they are called clusters. This method involves the random
selection of a number of clusters from which all elements or a randomly selected number
forms a sample. Maree (2016:196) emphasises the fact that the clusters formed should be
as heterogeneous as the population so it can represent the whole population (which is
the opposite in stratified sampling). For example, if a researcher aims to study inmates
in a specific province, it would be difficult to compile a sample frame of all prisons. This
is where cluster sampling would be more convenient; the prisons would be clustered
according to cities, then simple or systematic random sampling would be used to select
a few prisons.
5.5.1.4 Summary on sampling

Sampling is a portion of the population and considered to be representative of that
190
population. Generalising the results of the study based on the sample used means that
whatever conclusion was drawn from the study can be generalised to the rest of the
population, hence it is paramount for the research to ensure that the sample selected is
a representation of the population.
191
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5.6 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
5.6.1 Introduction
When one is at this stage of data in the research process, we assume that a literature review
192
has been conducted, the researcher has decided on a relevant theoretical approach,
has chosen a suitable data collection method, and has selected an appropriate research
design and sampling method.
Quantitative data analysis is a systematic approach in which the researcher transforms

193
what is collected or observed into numerical data or statistical analysis (De Vos et al.,
2011:249). Here are the steps that the researcher needs to follow:
5.6.2 Data preparation

Once the researcher has collected the data, he/she must prepare for data entry. Data
194
preparation includes checking and editing collected data and eventually coding it by
systematically reorganising raw data into a format that is readable (De Vos et al., 2011:252;
Fouché & Bartley, 2011:255).
5.6.3 Data entry

Data entry is influenced by the data collection method used, for example, if the data was
195
collected through a questionnaire, coding might be done on the questionnaire itself

and the codes will in turn be entered into the spreadsheet manually. The same principle
applies in online surveys that are self-administered, where respondents enter their own
answers into the database. The same applies in the case of computer-assisted telephone
interviewing (CATI) where interviewers’ responses are typed directly into the computer
and are ready for analysis (De Vos et al., 2011:254). The spreadsheet consists of columns
that contain the variables or questions.
5.6.4 Process, analyse data and interpret results: univariate results

This is regarded as the simplest form of data analysis. Only one variable is analysed with
196
the aim of describing that variable – meaning the data gathered on that one variable
needs to be summarised in tabular or graphic form.
5.6.5 Types of data analysis methods

There are four basic methods of data analysis, which mainly depends on the type of
197
research one conducted:
5.6.5.1 Descriptive method

This is usually the first level of analysis and is used to report the distributions or spread of
198
a sample across a wide range of variables. It provides summaries about the sample and
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the measurements by focusing on one variable. This is also known as univariate (De Vos
et al., 2011:251). A few commonly used descriptive statistics are:
•• Mean: provides numerical average of the scores or values for a particular variable
•• Median: the middle point of a set of numerical values
•• Mode: the most common score or value for a particular variable
•• Percentage: used to express how a value or group of respondents within the data
relate to the larger group of respondents
•• Frequency: counts the number of times a particular score or value is found in the
data set
5.6.5.2 Association method

This is used to determine whether positions on one variable can be consistently associated
199
with positions on another variable. This method compares two variables (bivariate analysis).
5.6.5.3 Causation method

Involves the use of factor analysis, path analysis or regression to determine the relationship
200
between variables by comparing more than two variables (multivariate analysis).
5.6.5.4 Inference method

This method is used to make estimates from the sample’s characteristics to determine
201
whether relationships within a sample can be used to assist in predicting (beyond

reasonable doubt) relationships in the population from which the sample is drawn.
This is achieved by comparing more than two variables and running various significant
202
tests. It tests whether descriptive results are likely to be due to random factors or to a
real relationship (multivariate analysis) (De Vos et al., 2011:252). The following provides a
list of basic statistical tests that can be used:
•• Correlation: seeks to describe the nature of the relationship between two variables
such as strong, negative, positive, weak or statistically significant. If a correlation is
found, it indicates a relationship or pattern. However, it is imperative to note that
correlation/relationship does not imply causation.
•• Analysis of variance (ANOV): aims to determine whether the two sampled groups differ.
•• Regression: is often used to determine whether one variable is a predictor of another
variable. For example, regression analysis may indicate whether poverty leads to
criminal behaviour.
5.7 CONCLUSION
Quantitative research attempts to recognise and isolate specific variables contained in the
203
study. It seeks correlation or relationships and causality between variables and attempts
to control the environment in which data is collected. Quantitative research allows for a
broader study, which can involve a great number of respondents, and in that manner it
57
enhances the generalisation of the results to the rest of the population. The quantitative
research methods and data collection methods are discussed to equip students with
the knowledge of discussing the tools and methods used to collect information and to
identify variables used. The process of analysing and interpreting the data provides one
with the knowledge of how to make sense of data in quantitative research.
the following section contains self-assessment questions comprising multiple-choice ques-

(1) Quantitative research methodology is used to express or measure the … of a specific

research problem.
(1) quality
(2) feasibility
(3) quantity
(4) generalisability
(2) In experimental research designs, the control group is described as those participants
who are … .
(1) experimented on
(2) not experimented on
(3) spectators/observers
(4) a technical team
(3) According to Maree (2016:171), the most widely/common non-experimental research

design is the … .
(1) survey
(2) questionnaire
(3) lab test
(4) one-on-one interviews
Fill in the missing words:
(4) Quantitative research is characterised by ... data, for example, official crime statistics.
(1) explorative
(2) investigative
(3) numeric
(4) hypothetical
(5) The questionnaire or interview schedule is the central feature of the ... process.
(1) research
(2) observation
(3) data collection
(4) survey
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(1) 2
(2) 3
(3) 1
(4) 3
(5) 4
(1) Explain why surveys are so popular by giving examples. (10 marks)
(2) Provide a discussion on what quantitative data analysis entails. (15 marks).
(1) Refer to section 5.4.6 for the answer.

Allen, M, Titsworth, AS. & Hunt, SK. 2009. Quantitative Research in Communication. Thousand
Oaks: Sage Publications.
Babbie, E & Mouton, J. 2001. The practice of social research. Cape Town: Oxford University
Press.
Fourth edition. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications Inc.
Dantzker, ML & Hunter, RD. 2012. Research Methods for Criminology and Criminal Justice.
USA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
De Vos, AS, Strydom, H, Fouché CB & Delport, CSL. 2011. Research at grassroots for the social
sciences and human service professions (4th edition). Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Fouché, CB & Bartley, A. 2011. Quantitative data analysis and interpretation (Pp. 248–276).
In AS de Vos, H Strydom, CB Fouché & CSL Delport (Eds), Research at grass roots: For
the social sciences and human service professions (4th edition). Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Ladikos, A. 2009. Research methodology in criminolgy: Only study lesson for CMY307P.
Pretoria: University of South Africa.
Maree, K. 2016. First steps in research. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Maxfield, MG & Babbie, ER. 2016. Basics of Research Methods for Criminal Justice &
Criminology. USA: Cengage Learning.
Tapscott, C. 2008. An assessment of the impact of HIV/AIDS on correctional system
governance with special emphasis on Correctional Services staff.
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Lesson 6
Qualitative research
204 Revised by Ms L Mpuru

•• understand qualitative research
•• discuss characteristics of qualitative research
•• differentiate between the three qualitative research methods
•• understand types of interviews used in data collection
•• discuss characteristics of participant observation
•• identify sampling methods in a qualitative research project
•• analyse and interpret data in a research project
3Assessment methods
paragraph-type questions in order to demonstrate an understanding, knowledge of and
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this lesson, you will be introduced to qualitative research methodology as a research
205
technique by considering a selection of examples. Once you have completed this unit with
its various activities, you should be able to follow the various steps, and data collection
techniques, in a typical qualitative research process.
The once combatant stance between those advocating quantitative research over
206
qualitative research, and vice versa, has begun to give way to a new methodological
tolerance. Instead of thinking in terms of one versus the other (mutual exclusivity),
most methodologists now view both qualitative and quantitative approaches as
having unique strengths, weaknesses and compatibilities. These two approaches
can complement each other by mixing them together in a single study or series of
studies (called mixed method research).
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6.2 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACH
The main challenge in approaching a qualitative study is how to define it and, most
208
importantly, how to distinguish it from other research approaches. The procedure for
conducting a successful research endeavour depends on the approach within which the
research is done. This simply means that different research methodologies may be used
to answer different types of research questions, which is fundamental in a qualitative
research endeavour.
Qualitative or field based research refers to “a systematic enquiry into understanding

209
the meaning, not the frequency, that people or groups ascribe to a phenomenon and
experiences in their social world” (Merriam, 2015:140). Qualitative research is useful in
that it aims to explore or investigate the views and attitudes of human behaviour; tries
to identify why a particular issue has occurred (or not occurred) in a specific setting, or
answer research questions by means of factual data, which involves human behaviour.
In this context. Yin (2016:28–33) highlights the following personal attributes to ensure a
successful qualitative study: “Knowing your topic of study, listening, asking good questions,
caring about your data, doing parallel tasks and persevering.”
6.2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

210 The following are characteristics of qualitative research (Creswell, 2014:4; Yin, 2016:9):
•• It entails a systematic approach that takes place in a natural setting.

•• It attempts to develop a complex and holistic view of a social phenomenon or hu-
man behaviour.
•• It entails multiple research instruments such as interviews and observation in respect
of humanity of the research subjects.
•• It focuses on the context of the study such as social, institutional, cultural and envi-
ronmental conditions.
•• It studies the meaning people attach to their real world, while simultaneously rep-
resenting the views and perspective of the participants.
211 Qualitative researchers tend to do the following:
•• Perceive research subjects’ social world as holistic and complex (Kelly, 2017:6).
•• Systematically reflect on who they are as researchers when conducting a study (Yin,
2016:9).
•• Remain sensitive to their social identities (Yin, 2016:9).
•• Use complex reasoning in their distinction between deduction (research that deduces
questions or hypothesis) or induction (research that collects data and generalises
results) approaches (Ruane, 2016:35).
•• Focus on learning the significance, which participants attach to the problem, and not
the meaning that the researchers bring to the research or the literature (Yin, 2016:9).
212
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Consonant with the foregoing, Kraska and Neuman (2012:11) provide the
213
following comparison between qualitative and quantitative research approaches:
Qualitative approach Quantitative approach

•• Construct social reality, culture •• Measure objective facts
•• Focus on interactive processes, meaning •• Focus on variables
•• Authenticity is key •• Reliability is key
•• Data is qualitative, words, images, •• Data is quantitative; precise measurement
categories •• Analysis looks for statistical relationships
•• Analysis looks for patterns, themes, holistic •• Research is detached
features •• Deductive process (top down)
•• Researcher is involved
•• Inductive process (bottom up)
Activity 6.1
The purpose of this Activity is to determine if you are able to distinguish between the
two research approaches.
After reading through the table above, summarise the differences between the two
research approaches by giving your own examples to illustrate their diversity.
Qualitative research is characterised by words, sentences, impressions and symbols, while

quantitative data is expressed in numbers. The following examples illustrate the basic differ-
ences between the two types of research: During qualitative research, the researcher wants to
investigate how homeless children cope with their everyday challenges on the streets or inside
shelters. You may also be able to find out from the children, “what led to their homelessness”.
During quantitative research, the researcher wants to determine how many murders took
place in Cape Town over the period, for example, January 2018 to December 2018.
6.2.2 Advantages of qualitative research

Mack, Woodsong, Mcqueen, Quest and Namey (2005:3–4) highlight the following
214
advantages of qualitative research:
•• It provides in-depth understanding and interpretation of the social world of research

subjects.
•• The sample is small, convenient and less expensive than surveys.
•• Qualitative methods are more flexible and involve face-to-face interaction between
the researcher and the participants.
•• It uses open-ended questions, which gives the participants an opportunity to respond
in their own words, and in greater detail.
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6.3 TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

There are various types of research methods in qualitative research. However, the following
215
qualitative research methods are three popular methods in criminological research.
6.3.1 Case study research

A qualitative case study method is well-known in the social sciences and very useful in
216
criminological research. Rule and John (2011:4) define a case study as a systematic and in-
depth investigation of a particular instance in its context in order to generate knowledge,
while Tran (2016:8) adds that a case study is an analysis of a particular phenomenon within
its real life context in order to understand the uniqueness of the case.
For the purposes of this lesson, a case study can be described as a thorough, comprehensive
217
study of a specific social situation or person. Data is usually collected by means of in-depth
interviews with case subjects and experts, or by studying relevant documents.
An example of a case study is a study of rape victims to determine “their experiences

218
of being raped and to show how for women it is a lived experience that affected the
course of their lives” (Spengler, CS. 2013. The experiences of women who have been
raped by a “known person”. A case study of women at a shelter in Johannesburg. MA
Thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.)
6.3.2 Ethnography research

The term, ethnography, is derived from the Greek word, “ethnos”, which means tribe, or
220
people, while “graphy”, typically means to “write”. Ethnography is defined as ‘’long-term

immersion into people’s cultural aspects such as their language, rituals, ceremonies
and artefacts’’. It strives for an up close, personal, and highly detailed understanding
of its research subject’s culture. It requires time, patience, resourcefulness, and caution.
Imagine involving yourself as an observer in real world situations such as an inner-city
drug dealer, a corrupt police or correctional officer, a criminal motorcycle gang member,
armed robber, a bouncer at a strip club, a graffiti artist, a juvenile prostitute, a victim of
domestic violence or an incarcerated serial murderer. This type of research epitomises
the notion of a researcher fully immersing him/herself into the subject matter (Kraska
& Neuman, 2012:14). It often involves researchers travelling across different countries
with diverse cultures to extensively immerse themselves in unfamiliar environments
for a period of time in order to understand their beliefs, norms, attitudes, customs and
traditions within their context. This method utilises data gathering techniques such as
field notes, observation, photographs, video recordings or internet based data services
(text recordings and images) obtained by way of online ethnographic research (Roller &
Lavrakas, 2015:169–170).
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A further example would be a researcher conducting a study of an indigenous tribe
221
in Africa, such as Malawi, in order to determine the relationship regarding a particular

societal problem.
6.3.3 Grounded theory research

Grounded theorists, Barney Glaser and Anselum Strauss (1967), proposed the use of
223
theories to be “grounded” in data gathered from the “field”, particularly in interactions

with participants. Hence, grounded theory research focuses on the development of
systematic theories through methodological gathering and analysis of data (Creswell &
Poth, 2018:82). The main characteristic of a grounded theory is that the researcher seeks
to develop a theory at the end of a research process.
An example of developing the theory would be: “The researcher writes down ideas as data
224
is collected and analysed. This process is known as ‘memoing’, which becomes a part of
developing the theory. In these memos, the ideas attempt to formulate the process that is
being seen by the researcher and to sketch out the flow of this process. The primary form
of data collection in this process is interviewing, in which data is constantly compared from
data gathered from the participants with ideas about the emerging theory. The inductive
procedures involved in data analysis are described in terms of the type of grounded
theory approach. The procedures can be structured and follow the pattern of developing
categories, selecting one category to be the focus of the theory and then forming additional
categories to form a theoretical model. Lastly, the theory can be presented in a diagram
or discussion” (Creswell & Poth, 2018:84).
Recommended reading
•• Schwartz, GJ. 2016. Workplace learning in the South African Police Service (SAPS):
themes and perspective in teaching the research methodology module, University
of South Africa, Pretoria. Available at <http://hdl.handle.net/10500/21924>
•• Flick, U. 2015. Introduction to criminology: a beginners’ guide to doing a research
project. SAGE Publications. Ltd.
6.4 METHODS OF COLLECTING QUALITATIVE DATA

Data collection in qualitative research is a process whereby information is gathered from
226
various data collection methods such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, action research
or observations, as well as private and public documents (Yin, 2016:139). The following
data collection instruments are common in a qualitative research study:
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6.4.1 Semi-structured interviews

Semi-structured interviews are a qualitative method of inquiry that involves questions, are
227
more systematic, pre-planned, and tend to be open-ended – making them less structured.
Like unstructured interviews, this tool is useful when exploring the experiences of the
participants by asking the questions in such a way that they encourage the participant
to elaborate on the topic (Olsen, 2012:36). It gives the respondents more control over the
direction of the interview, empowering them to provide their own perspective on the
subject matter (Ruane, 2016:194).
For example: sometimes the respondents may need an opportunity to explore the topic
228
further; the researcher can simply say, “Tell me more”.
•• Open-ended questions
The response to open-ended questions can be either explicit or non-explicit. This type
230
of question is usually used only for explorative purposes when there is little knowledge
about a particular topic and you want to uncover as much about it as possible without
restricting responses. For example, in-depth, qualitative interviewing mostly relies on
open-ended questions (Babbie, 2017:257).
According to Ladikos (2009:175), in open-ended questions respondents are free to answer

231
in their own words since no alternatives are offered. For example, if you are investigating
the perceptions of residents regarding a new community policing programme instituted in
the neighbourhood, open-ended questions such as the following could be informative: ‘’In
your opinion, what have been the benefits of the community policing programme established
in your neighbourhood?’’
Activity 6.2
The purpose of this activity is to determine your understanding of open-ended questions

in semi-structured interviews.
Indicate which question below is an example of an open-ended question and explain
why you think so.
Example 1:”Have you ever been a victim of a crime?” Answer: ‘’yes” or “no”.
Example 2: “In your opinion, what are the reasons for the high crime rate in the country?”
An example of an open-ended question would be … “In your opinion, what are the reasons
for the high crime rate in the country?” Open-ended questions are used only for explorative
purposes when there is little knowledge about a particular topic and you want to uncover as
much about it as possible without restricting responses.
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6.4.2 Participant observations
Participant observations have been practised primarily in Anthropology and Sociology.
232
According to Marshall and Rossman (2016:145), participant observation involves direct

observation and active involvement with participants in their natural settings. This means
that the researcher gains first-hand knowledge of people’s experiences in their social
world. Furthermore, the researcher relies extensively on the physical accounts of how
they react to a particular situation (Taylor, Bodgan & De Vault, 2016:103).
Batchman and Schutt (2008:183) summarise the following characteristics of participant

233
observation:
•• In a social setting the researcher plays the role of participant as well as the observer
in the group, while publicly acknowledging the researcher role at the same time.
•• Researchers ensure that they manage and maintain good relationships with the
participants by assuring confidentiality throughout the research process.
•• Data is recorded in the form of written field notes, which have to be complete, accu-
rate and detailed. These field notes represent the raw data of participant observation
(Ladikos, 2009:190).
An example would be … During a strike or protests, a researcher may assume the role
234
of participant-observer by going out into the field to witness the interaction between
protesters and the police during protests first hand. The researcher may either choose to
actively participate by moving into the participants’ world, or temporarily observe while
taking notes at the same time.
6.4.3 Focus group interviews

Interviewing is characterised by a relationship of trust between the interviewer and the
236
subject (respondent), and is useful in examining the social worlds of research subjects’
views. In focus group interviews, questions are directed at participants in an informal
group situation where the interviewer encourages or stimulates in-depth discussion of
various topics. This method is based on the view that the insights and motivation of certain
behaviour can be understood only from a dynamic or interactive discussion format with the
participants (Roller & Lavrakas, 2015:105). In-depth interviews, on the other hand, consist
of interviews in which qualified persons systematically retrieve masses of information
that people possess, which they then use for research purposes. The correlation between
focus groups and in-depth qualitative interviewing is that they both rely exclusively on
open-ended questions (Silverman, 2016:56).
6.5 POPULATION AND SAMPLING STRATEGIES

Population and sampling is one of the most important concepts in a research process.
237
It is important that students understand it clearly before selecting a sampling plan

and conducting their main research. If we want to learn something about people (e.g.
population), for instance, we take several people with special attributes (e.g. sample)
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and study them. After our study, we come to certain conclusions, often about people
in general. In order to come to such conclusions, we must sample the experiences of
the population. In fact, we take relatively small samples from populations of all possible
experiences. Mujere (2016:117) defines a sample as representative of a group of people,
a class, objects, items or specimen selected from a larger population. In this context, the
researcher makes a selection from population units such as people (students who have
enrolled for a particular course at a certain university), or cases (institutions, organisations
or countries).
In qualitative research, the most important technique that is likely to be utilised is non-
238
probability sampling, while probability sampling is usually preferred in quantitative

research. Non-probability sampling consists of certain elements in a study that focus
on the characteristics of the population (Mujere, 2016:117), while probability sampling
makes inferences to a larger population with inferential statistics. In this lesson we focus
on non-probability sampling, which is utilised for qualitative research purposes.
6.5.1 Non-probability sampling

Qualitative research generally does not involve drawing representative samples from a
239
huge number of cases. For qualitative researchers, “it is their relevance to the research
topic rather than their representativeness, which determines the way in which people
are selected” (Kraska & Neuman, 2012:139). In contrast to quantitative research, which
frames a selection approach based on arithmetical theory, the qualitative researcher picks
cases gradually, often during the course of the research itself, with the relevance of a case
determining whether it is selected. In non-probability sampling, the odds of selecting a
particular individual are not known because the researcher does not know the population
size or the members of the population, for example, if we are interested in the crime of
shoplifting and want to investigate the modus operandi used by shoplifters. It would be
hard to define a population in this case because we do not have a list of shoplifters from
which to select at random. There may be lists of convicted shoplifters, but of course, they
represent only those shoplifters who were actually caught. According to Bachman and
Schutt (2011:127), non-probability sampling methods frequently used in criminological
research include the following:
•• Snowball sampling: You identify one member of the population and speak to him/
her. You then ask that person to identify others in the population and speak to them,
after which people on the second tier are asked to identify others, and so on.
•• Purposive sampling: “Each sample element is selected for a purpose, for example, be-
ing knowledgeable about the issue under investigation. This is sometimes referred
to as judgment sampling because the researcher uses his/ her own judgment about
who to select for the sample” (Creswell & Poth, 2018:157). Purposive sampling may
involve studying the entire population of some limited group (members of a street
gang) or a division of a population (juvenile parolees).
•• Convenience sampling, also known as accidental sampling: This sampling gives the
researcher an opportunity to easily access the research subjects. Depending on the
research project, this sample may allow the researcher to simply choose the partici-
pants based on their availability during that time (Lanier & Briggs, 2014:221).
67
Activity 6.3
Explain why it is important to use sampling in qualitative research.
We use sampling in qualitative research because it is almost impossible to cover total popula-
tions in a study. The study of a phenomenon in its entirety would be tiresome, time-consuming
and expensive, not to mention the amount of data that would be produced, which would have
to be analysed and interpreted.
The most important feature of a sample is whether it is a true representation of the popula-
tion from which it was selected. The most important distinction made regarding samples is
whether they are based on a probability or non-probability sampling method.
Interesting reading
For further information regarding sampling strategies, please see the following websites:
•• Cw.routledge.com/textbooks/9780415884433/instructormanual/…Chapter%208/pptx
•• https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118517383.wbeccj003
•• http://www.allresearchjournal.com/archives/2017/vol3issue7/PartK/3-7-69-542.pdf
6.6 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

By now you should understand which methods to use when approaching a qualitative
240
study. You were introduced to the types of qualitative research methods, data collection
techniques and the sampling plan in a qualitative study and how to carry them out.
These methods provide you with a clear understanding of the qualitative process. Now
ask yourself this question: What happens once you have gathered all the data from the
participants?
Meriam (2015:128–129) defines qualitative data analyses as explanations of patterns derived

241
in data collected from the participant. This generally means that once data has been
collected from the research subjects, they will need to be evaluated and analysed by the
researcher. Irrespective of whether the researcher has used a quantitative or qualitative
approach, data will need to be analysed in order to interpret results. Furthermore, it must
be noted that although there are many research methods and techniques (such as content
analysis, narrative analysis, discourse analysis, framework analysis, grounded theory and
thematic analysis) that can be used in a study, each method has its own unique way of
analysing data (Lanier & Briggs, 2014:241). However, the following types of qualitative
analysis are most commonly used in qualitative research:
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6.6.1 Thematic analysis

According to Maree (2016:116), coding of information is a fundamental process in qualitative
242
data analysis. Coding is a process whereby data is transcribed into meaningful analytical
units, which allows the researcher to identify and arrange data related to some thematic
ideas or categories. This process is called open coding, while axial coding consists of data
gathered in order to make connections between categories.
However, the method frequently preferred by researchers in a qualitative study is thematic

243
coding. This type of coding is used when data is broken into themes or categories, and
the researcher seeks to reduce the data into manageable sections (Ladikos, 2009:62).
Thematic coding is a process whereby data is interpreted using themes or categories to
find patterns of meanings across the data. The following steps may be used to analyse
data during thematic coding (Crowe, Inder & Porter, 2015:617):
•• Read all transcripts carefully and make notes in the margin.

•• Identify themes or categories in data as they emerge and write ideas in the margin.
•• List all the themes and the codes that will be applied to the data.
•• Use a cut and paste method to assemble data belonging to each theme and do a
preliminary analysis.
•• Write corresponding codes next to the data segments; the themes will appear as
major findings, and can be used as headings.
•• The process of research findings will then be interpreted and reported.
6.6.2 Computer software analysis

The use of computer programs is associated mainly with quantitative data.
244
However, computers have recently been used for the analysis of qualitative data as
well. Notes made during interviews can be saved in a computer and analysed through
programs such as Atla.ti. These programs often label and organise data in such a way
that, if there are large amounts of data, the researcher can easily organise and keep track
of data on the computer. According to Lanier and Briggs (2014:243), “plotting data and
using paragraphs has become common in qualitative work”. Interviews can be coded and
entered into the computer and then analysed in the same way as with quantitative work,
however, visual graphs may also help when trying to understand the distribution of data.
6.7 CONCLUSION
Qualitative research is intended to provide in-depth information and a critical analysis
245
of data, which makes it more appropriate and useful in studying human behaviour. This
offers the qualitative researcher an opportunity to analyse and explore things that readers
may not know, or want to get more information about. As mentioned in the introduction,
the overall purpose of discussing qualitative research in this lesson is to equip you with
knowledge of the general issues to consider when conducting a qualitative study. This
includes the types of qualitative methods such as biographies, case studies, ethnographic
and phenomenological studies. The mentioned qualitative methods are accompanied by
data collection methods such as participant observation, and individual and focus group
69
interviews. Emphasis was also placed on data analysis and interpretation to facilitate your
understanding of the process of data analysis in qualitative research. These approaches
and methods will be discussed in more detail during your third level of study, to provide
you with additional insight regarding qualitative research.
Multiple-choice questions
(1) When conducting research, qualitative researchers tend to … .
(1) perceive research subjects as holistic and complex
(2) determine how involved they want to be in the research
(3) perceive research as complex and time-consuming
(4) remain oblivious to their social identities
(2) Which one of the following types of qualitative research methods focuses on the develop-
ment of a theory in scientific research?
(1) Ethnography research
(2) Phenomenology
(3) Grounded theory research
(4) Case study research
(3) Identify two basic approaches to research methodology.
(1) Qualitative, Mixed method
(2) Qualitative, Narrative
(3) Qualitative, Quantitative
(4) Quantitative, Narrative
(4) What happens after data has been collected from research subjects?
(1) Data will be evaluated and analysed
(2) Data will be recorded in the form of field notes
(3) Data will be analysed and divided into sections
(4) Data will be explored and described
(5) Which one of the following characteristics is part of participant observation?
(1) Researchers ensure that they manage and maintain good relationships with the
participants by assuring confidentiality throughout the research process.
(2) Researchers provide in-depth information and a critical analysis of data, which makes
it more appropriate and useful in studying human behaviour.
(3) Researchers provide an analysis and description of people’s everyday lives or
perceptions of their real life experiences.
(4) Researchers focus on learning the significance participants attach to the problem,
and not the meaning that the researchers bring to the research or the literature.

(1) 1
(2) 3
(3) 3
(4) 1
(5) 1
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Paragraph style questions

(1) Briefly discuss the use of non-probability sampling techniques in qualitative research.
(10 Marks)
(2) Identify and discuss the similarities and differences between the three qualitative research
methods and provide examples of each. (15 Marks)
(1) Refer to section 6.4.1 for the answer.

Babbie, E. 2017. The basics of social research. Seventh edition. Australia: Cengage Learning.
Bachman, R & Schutt, RK. 2008. Fundamentals of research in criminology and criminal justice.
Third edition. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications Inc.
Fourth edition. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications Inc.
Creswell, J. 2014. Research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches.
Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Creswell, J & Poth, C. 2018. Qualitative enquiry and research design: Choosing among five
approaches. (4th edition). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Crowe, M, Inder, M, Porter, R. 2015. Conducting qualitative research. Thematic and Content
analyses. Australian & New Zealand Journal, vol 49(7).
Kelly, K. 2017. A different type of lighting research – A qualitative methodology. Lighting
Research & Technology, 49(8), 933–942, https://doi.org/10.1177/1477153516659901.
Kraska, PB & Neuman, WL. 2012. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods. (2nd
edition). Boston: Pearson.
Ladikos, A. 2009. Research methodology in criminology: Only study lesson for CMY307P.
Lanier, MM & Briggs, LT. 2014. Research methods in criminal justice and criminology: A mixed
methods approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
Mack, N, Woodsong, C, Macqueen, KM, Quest, G & Namey, E. 2005. Qualitative research
methods: A data collector’s field guide. USA, family Health International publications.
Maree, K. 2016. First steps in research. Van Schaik Publishers. Pretoria.
Marshall, C & Rossman, GB. 2016. Designing Qualitative Research. 6th Edition. Sage
Publications, Inc.
Merriam, SB. 2015. Handbook of research on scholarly publishing and research methods.
University of Georgia, USA.
Mujere, N. 2016. "Sampling in Research." Mixed Methods Research for Improved Schientific
Study. IGI Global, ch006- 107–121. https://doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-0007-0.
Olsen, W. 2012. Data collection, key debates and methods in social research. California: SAGE
Publications, Ltd.
Roller, MR & Lavrakas, PJ. 2015. Applied qualitative research design: A total quality
framework approach. Available at: http:// books.google.co.za/books?isbn=1462515754.
(accessed on: 15 September 2017).
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Ruane, JM. 2016. Introducing social research methods: Essentials for getting the edge. UK:
Wiley-Blackwell.
Rule, P & John, V. 2011. Your guide to case study research. Pretoria: Van Schaick.
Silverman, D. 2016. Qualitative research. SAGE Publishers.
Taylor, SJ, Bodgan, R & De Vault, M. 2016. Introduction to qualitative research methods. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., Canada.
Tran, B. 2016. The nature of research methodologies: Terms and usage within quantitative,
qualitative, and mixed methods. In Baran, ML & Jone, EJ. 2016. Mixed methods research
for improved scientific study. Alliant International University, USA.
Yin, RK. 2016. Qualitative research: From start to finish. 2nd edition. A Division of Guilford
Publications, Inc.
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Lesson 7
Mixed methods research
246 Revised by Ms NP Magagula
•• understand the concept of research
•• differentiate between scientific and non-scientific research and analyse the criteria
for scientific research
•• explain the aims of scientific research
•• explain what research methodology is
•• describe the research process
3Assessment methods
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In this lesson, you will be introduced to mixed methods research as a research approach.
247
Once you have completed this unit with its various activities, you should be able to use
the mixed methods approach for any of your research studies.
This lesson highlights the characteristics, advantages, disadvantages and the types of
248
mixed methods research approach. The overall purpose of discussing this approach is to
equip you with knowledge of the general issues to consider when conducting a mixed
methods research study.
7.2 MIXED METHODS RESEARCH APPROACH

Qualitative and quantitative approaches should be viewed as flexible approaches to
249
research, representing opposite ends of a continuum (Creswell, 2014:3). On this continuum,

mixed methods research is located in the middle. In practice, a researcher will choose
73
to combine the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative research approaches to
provide a better understanding of research problems, thus improving the quality of the
study (Creswell 2014:4). This may be achieved by using two or more methods to collect
and analyse data (Kumar, 2014:375). The nature of the study and research problem will
guide the researcher as to how to combine the different elements of both the qualitative
and quantitative approaches (Almalki, 2016:291).
7.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MIXED METHODS RESEARCH

The following characteristics of the mixed methods research are outlined by Creswell
250
(2014:19):
•• Follows a pragmatic philosophical assumption that combines qualitative and quan-

titative data sets either sequentially or concurrently.
•• Uses both open and closed-ended questions respectively for both qualitative and
quantitative data collection.
•• Develops a rationale for mixing the approaches.
•• Integrates the data collected at a certain stage of the research with guidance from
the objectives of the study.
7.4 ADVANTAGES OF MIXED METHODS RESEARCH

251 Kumar (2014:28) highlights the following advantages of mixed methods research:
•• Enhances the research possibilities – this allows the researcher to achieve multiple
research objectives in the study by mixing several methods.
•• Better for more multifaceted situations – the researcher has the liberty and flexibility
to use the best methods from both approaches for comprehensive findings.
•• Enrichment of data – when researchers collect data by using two methods, where the
first set of data is enriched by the second set. The value and accuracy of the findings
is enhanced, considering that two different methods were used.
•• Collecting additional research evidence – the additional evidence may be used
for comparison to either confirm or contradict the findings from the first method.
This allows the researcher to present more evidence to prove the accuracy of the
findings beyond reasonable doubt.
7.5 DISADVANTAGES OF MIXED METHODS RESEARCH

252 The following disadvantages of mixed methods research are highlighted (Kumar 2014:29):
•• More data means more work and resources – Collecting or analysing data through
two or more methods means that the researcher is required to work more, spend
more time on the study, and will need more resources to complement two data sets.
•• Additional and diverse skills required – The researcher is required to have diverse
skills and be knowledgeable regarding the methods that will be used for the study.
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•• Contacting two study populations – The study may require the research to contact
and establish rapport with two or more different study populations.
•• Resolving disagreements in the data – The researcher should know how disagreements
will be resolved should there be a significant discrepancy within the two data sets.
Activity 7.1
(1) Define mixed methods research in your own words

(2) What challenges and benefits may be presented to a researcher when using the
mixed methods research?
In addition to the information provided in this lesson, kindly consult additional sources and come
up with your own definition. With reference to sections 7.2 – 7-5, please note that answers will
differ, as students will be creating their own independent opinions. Also, refer to articles on
mixed research methods in order to incorporate important elements in your response.
Interesting reading
Kindly see the following websites for further information on mixed methods research:
•• https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/3185521/mod_resource/content/1/Ma-
lina%20et%20al.%202011%20Lessons%20learned%20advantages%20and%20dis-
advantages%20of%20mixed%20method%20research.pdf
•• http://www.scielo.org.za/pdf/sajip/v43n1/11.pdf
•• https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/80b5/037ba5b808da110334bb60968b83d66413
8d.pdf
7.6 TYPES OF MIXED METHODS RESEARCH

253 As an introduction, this section will explore the three basic mixed methods designs.
7.6.1 Explanatory sequential mixed methods design

The explanatory sequential design requires the researcher to collect and analyse the data
254
through the quantitative approach, which will be explained by collecting and analysing
another data set through the qualitative approach (Almalki, 2016:292). This means that
the findings from the qualitative data set will be used to explain and clarify some of the
findings from the quantitative findings (Ivankova, Creswell & Clark, 2016:316).
As the name of this type of mixed methods research design suggests, the qualitative
255
approach essentially explains and clarifies the results from the quantitative approach.
75
7.6.2 Exploratory sequential mixed methods design
The exploratory sequential design requires the researcher to collect and analyse the data
256
through the qualitative approach first, and then to collect the second data set using the
quantitative approach (Ivankova et al., 2016:317). This design is appropriate when the
researcher wishes to explore a research area where little is known about a particular
phenomenon. The findings from the qualitative approach will be used to develop suitable
instruments for the quantitative approach (Creswell, 2014:16).
7.6.3 Convergent parallel mixed methods design

The convergent parallel mixed methods design requires the researcher to collect data
257
using the qualitative and quantitative approach at the same time (Bachman & Schutt,
2014:353). The findings of the two approaches are then integrated and analysed accordingly
(Almalki, 2016:292).
As presented above, it is clear that the essence of this approach is to mix the qualitative
258
and quantitative approaches. The key to this is to know what methods to mix, and at which
stage of the research study the mixing of the two approaches should be implemented
(Kumar, 2014:27).
Figure 7.1 illustrates the different types of designs that may be used in mixed methods
259
research:
260
Figure 7.1: Types of mixed methods research designs
Activity 7.2
Explain how you use the different types of mixed methods research for a study on the
impact of stigmatisation on HIV/Aids patients in the community.
With reference to section 7.6, please note that answers may differ, as students will be creating
their own independent research design, according to their research focus chosen.
yy Explanatory sequential mixed methods design

−− A quantitative study can be conducted on how the community perceives stigmatisation
of HIV/Aids patients.
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−− A qualitative study can be conducted on HIV/Aids patients to explain the effects of

stigmatisation in the community.
yy Exploratory sequential mixed methods design

−− A qualitative study can be conducted on HIV/Aids patients who have attempted suicide
as a result of being negatively labelled.
−− A quantitative study will follow by means of administering a survey on community
members regarding the awareness of support services available to HIV/Aids patients
who have attempted suicide.
yy Convergent parallel mixed methods design

−− A qualitative and quantitative study will be conducted simultaneously, where health
professionals will be interviewed on how to lead a positive life after testing positive for
HIV. A survey is also to be administered to members of a community.
Interesting reading
Kindly see the following websites for further information on the types of mixed methods
research:
•• https://dspace.nwu.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10394/15935/Prinsloo_CD_2015.
pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
•• http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1558689811425915
•• ht tp: //scho lar.uf s . ac . z a: 8 0 8 0/x mlui/ bit s tream / handle /116 6 0/6 411/
struct_v24_n1_a2.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
7.7 SAMPLING METHODS FOR MIXED METHODS RESEARCH

The importance of sampling in a research process is highlighted in the qualitative research
261
unit (lesson 5) of this lesson. The sampling plan for mixed methods research is guided
by the approach that will be used in that particular data set. In qualitative research,
non-probability sampling is usually preferred, while probability sampling is most likely
used in the quantitative approach. However, according to Kumar (2014:245), systematic
sampling may be used in a mixed methods approach because it has the characteristics of
both probability and non-probability sampling designs. Depending on the sample size,
the sample is divided into a number of intervals, then the researcher chooses a starting
point; thereafter, an element is selected the same way it was selected in the first interval
(Maree & Pietersen, 2016:195).
7.8 CONCLUSION
Mixed methods research is fundamentally intended to produce broad findings as a result
262
of combining the strengths of both the qualitative and quantitative approaches. This
approach may be challenging and time-consuming since the researcher will need to be
skilled in both approaches. Most importantly, when using the mixed methods approach,
77
the researcher should be guided by the research objectives and questions when selecting
a suitable design for the study.
As mentioned in the introduction, the overall purpose of the lesson was to introduce you
263
to the mixed methods approach and to equip you with knowledge of the general issues
to consider when conducting a mixed methods research study.

(1) … refers to the use of different data collection and analysis techniques from both qualita-
tive and quantitative research approaches.
(1) Multiple methods research
(2) Qualitative research methods
(3) Mixed methods research
(4) Quantitative research methods
(2) Which type of mixed methods research design uses findings from the qualitative data set
to clarify the findings from the quantitative data set?
(1) Explanatory sequential mixed method design
(2) Exploratory sequential mixed method design
(3) Embedded design
(4) Convergent parallel mixed method design
(3) Identify the reason why systematic sampling may be used in a mixed method approach.
(1) It accommodates the quantitative approach only as a dominant data collection set.
(2) It has both characteristics of probability and non-probability sampling designs.
(3) The sample size for mixed methods always allows for probability sampling designs.
(4) It may not be used, because the dominant data set will prescribe a suitable sampling
plan for the entire study.
(5) An advantage of mixed methods research is … .
(1) The researcher is required to have diverse skills and be knowledgeable in the methods
that will be used for the study.
(2) It requires more time and resources.
(3) The study may require the researcher to contact and establish rapport with two or
more different study populations.
(4) The value and accuracy of the findings is enhanced, considering that two different
methods were used.
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(5) Which statement is true regarding the convergent parallel mixed methods design?
(1) Data is collected and analysed concurrently for both the qualitative and quantitative
approaches.
(2) Qualitative findings are used to develop suitable instruments to be used in the
quantitative approach.
(3) Quantitative data is collected and analysed first, then the qualitative data is collected
and analysed as a second data set.
(4) The qualitative data set will be used as the dominant method of data collection and
analysis.
(1) 3
(2) 1
(3) 2
(4) 4
(5) 1
(1) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the mixed methods research approach.
(10 marks)
(2) Explain the three basic types of the mixed methods research approach. (15 marks)
(1) Refer to sections 7.4 and 7.5
(2) Refer to section 7.6

Almalki, S. 2016. Integrating quantitative and qualitative data in mixed methods research –
challenges and benefits. Journal of Education and Learning, 2016:288–296.
5th edn. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Creswell, JW. 2014. Research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches.
4th edn. Los Angeles: Sage.
Ivankova, NV, Creswell, JW & Plano Clark, VL. 2016. Foundations and approaches to mixed
methods research (pp 305–335). In K Maree (Ed). First steps in research. 2nd edn.
Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Kumar, R. 2014. Research methodology: a step-by-step guide for beginners. 4th edn. Los
Angeles: Sage.
Maree, K & Pietersen, J. 2016. Sampling (pp 191–202). In K Maree (Ed). First steps in research.
2nd edn. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
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Lesson 8
How to write a scientific report
Revised by Mr DF Monyepao
264

•• understand what a scientific report is
•• compile a scientific report following the guidelines outlined
•• note common mistakes in scientific writing
3Assessment methods
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Science is about investigating and communicating new ideas, and writing is an important
265
aspect of this. In criminology, we write to share our discoveries with different types of
people and to make contributions to our field of study. To achieve this, we develop
a hypothesis and test it. Our findings/results either support or reject that hypothesis.
Consequently, we detail how we tested our hypothesis and discuss the resultant findings.
This process of detailing is done through a scientific report.
A scientific report is important in the sense that it helps those who need it. It could be
266
needed by many different types of people, such as policy-makers, other researchers,

and private and public organisations. In the field of criminology, the components of the
criminal justice system (law enforcement, i.e. police, courts and correctional services)
as well as other researchers are the main users of these reports. It is therefore critical
that the scientific report be compiled in such a way that it grabs the reader’s attention.
Furthermore, it must be clear, concise and must not confuse the reader. The main point
of the scientific report is to make information easily and quickly accessible. It is therefore
important to know how to correctly compile a scientific report.
80
In this unit you will be introduced to the correct way of writing a scientific report. Once
267
you have completed this unit with its various activities, you should be able to follow the
different steps in writing a scientific report. This lesson shows you how to “put together”
all the information you have collected in a structured and orderly way.
Take note: N
268 ot all scientific reports are the same, but they contain the basic aspects
outlined in this unit.
8.2 WHAT IS A RESEARCH REPORT?

Research is not complete until the findings have been written up. A scientific report is
270
thus a document that describes in detail the steps taken in research to yield results, as
well as the results themselves. It might also include recommendations and a conclusion
of the research (Bachman & Schutt, 2017:292).
8.3 APPROACH TO WRITING A SCIENTIFIC REPORT

Research findings must be reported so that they can be shared with other researchers
271
and other interested parties. The findings are recorded in a research report, which may
take the form of a dissertation (master’s degree), thesis (doctoral degree), article (for a
scientific journal), a report in respect of commissioned research, or an assignment (as for
an academic course).
There is no point in doing research and collecting information without putting it all
272
together in a logical and scientific way. The final research report is the end product
of your research. Therefore, your research report should present all the results in an
understandable manner.
If you do not write up your results nobody will ever get to know about your work. A
273
research report is also a means of publishing your work and gaining recognition for it.
Often, good research makes recommendations that lead to positive changes.
The research report is also a means of showing the world how you have analysed and
274
interpreted the data scientifically. Writing up your research in a scientific way is often
one of the most difficult tasks in research. Make sure that you set aside sufficient time
for this purpose.
8.4 THE READERS

A significant matter to consider by the author of a report is who the readers of your report/
275
journal/article are likely to be, because it is the readers who determine the form it will take.
Thus, inform your readers completely, since they must be able to evaluate the reliability
of your results for themselves. The content of your report will depend on whether you are
writing for an instructor, for students, for professional scientists or for the general public.
When writing for students, for example, it would be good to define technical terms and
81
mark each part of the report. According to Punch (2013:57), the researcher should start
with the research question and present the report as an answer, while focusing on using
simple language to explain why the various steps of the research have been conducted.
Professional scientists or scholars are more interested in how the research links to abstract
276
theory or to previous findings in the literature. They would rather pay close attention to
how the data was collected, and how variables were measured. When the research report
is prepared for the general public, the language should be simple and non-technical,
and concrete examples should be included. According to Punch (2013:327), no detailed
explanations of the research design are needed in these reports.
Interesting reading
•• Page(s) 60–61 in Neuman, WL & Wiegand, B. 2000. Criminal justice research methods:
Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
•• Page 239 in Padgett, DK. 2016. Qualitative methods in social work research (Vol. 36).
Sage Publications.
8.5 GETTING STARTED

There are no miraculous ingredients to this, and it does not necessarily come naturally.
277
There are, however, guidelines, which means that anybody can improve their scientific
writing skills by learning them.
Why are you writing? Be realistic about trying to get your work published. Your work
278
must be suitable for the article/journal, and you should be prepared to make revisions.
In short, the writing can be just as challenging as the research. You must work out why
you are writing a scientific report:
•• You have made a minor, but very interesting observation.

•• You have made a useful advance.
•• You are putting published information into a new context.
•• You are synthesising information in a novel way that will be of interest to others.
Your reasons must guide how you write and your choice of where to disseminate the
279
information you have written.
Activity 8.1
(The purpose of this activity is to encourage you to think of more reasons why people
are writing articles/scientific reports.)
After reading through the previous section, can you think of three more reasons why
people are writing scientific reports, and were they can publish or present this information.
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Refer to: https://undergraduatesciencelibrarian.org/a-very-brief-introduction-to-the-scientific-

literature/types-of-scientific-literature/
8.6 THE STRUCTURE OF A SCIENTIFIC REPORT

Structure is crucial to scientific writing. It is also fairly standardised, which makes life
280
easier. Writing up your research in a scientific way is often one of the most difficult tasks
in research. Make sure that you set aside sufficient time for this purpose. Most scientific
reports/papers are split into four main topics: introduction, methods, results, discussion
and conclusion. For the purposes of this lesson, we will discuss the following topics:
8.6.1 Title
281
More people will read the title than any other part of the report. A title should therefore
282
contain the smallest possible number of words that accurately describe the content of
the paper. An improperly titled paper may never reach the audience for which it was
intended, so be specific. Generally, attempt creating a title not longer than 15 words. The
title will be reproduced in the table of contents. Generally, it includes what was studied,
how and where it was studied, and in what context was it studied. Examples of research
topics: “Female offending in post-apartheid South Africa” or “The illicit trade of poached
rhino horn in Kruger National Park”.
Activity 8.2
(The purpose of this activity is for you to formulate a title for your research project.)
Read through newspapers and journal articles and pay attention to the televised media
with a view to finding a research topic that interests you in the criminological field. Read
through the preceding section again; then formulate a title for your research project.
83
Students are free to come up with any title. For further tips on how to write a good title, refer
to: https://www.editage.com/insights/3-basic-tips-on-writing-a-good-research-paper-title
8.6.2 Table of contents

The table of contents normally follows just after the title and cover page. It should be on
283
a separate page and have headings (in capital letters), subheadings and page numbers.
The page numbering must be correct in order to assist the reader in finding different
sections in the report.
Activity 8.3
(The purpose of this activity is to assist you in compiling a table of contents for your
research project.)
Write down the table of contents of your research project, following the guidelines above.
Ideally the table of contents will show the headings of the content of the report and where
they can be located in the report. It can be compiled after the report has been written, but it
still has to follow the cover page.
8.6.3 Abstract
Ninety percent of readers will look at only the title and abstract of your report (and most
284
of those will read only the title). These are, therefore, very important aspects to get right.
Remember, if the title is interesting, the reader will probably read the abstract. The abstract
follows the table of contents on a new page. Most researchers prefer to add the title,
followed by the abstract. The abstract should summarise your entire paper – including
your main findings and the importance of your results. All this should be done using no
more than 200 to 300 words; in some cases, it can be more.
A good abstract does the following (Dewan & Gupta, 2016):

285
•• puts your work into context and presents your conclusions

•• tells the reader what you did, without a detailed methodology
•• tells the reader what you found out, but does not provide statistics
•• clearly states the implications of your findings
•• must not go beyond the maximum words required by the journal
•• does not include references
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Do not repeat information contained in the title. The abstract, together with the title,
286
must be self-contained as it is often published separately from the paper in abstracting

services. A good abstract can be understood without reading the whole paper.
8.6.4 Introduction
You need to grab the reader’s attention and convince him or her that it is worth reading
287
the rest of the paper. The introduction should not be too long, or it will become flooded
with unnecessary information and mislead the reader. The introduction itself should have
a logical structure to it and should flow from paragraph to paragraph. It is very important
to remember that the introduction (and indeed the whole paper) should be prepared with
the reader in mind. This means that the introduction follows a logical story and explains
necessary information to the reader (Dewan & Gupta, 2016).
Thus, the introduction should be as brief and focused as possible, but without loss of
288
information essential for the assessment of the political, institutional and administrative
background of the paper. The idea of the introduction is to lead the reader into your
work so that, by the time you discuss your activities, the reader can understand what you
are doing and why. So the introduction serves to: provide context, introduce previous
research, and give the purpose of the study/research.
Activity 8.4
(The purpose of this activity is to assist you in writing an introduction.)

After reading through the above section, write the introduction of your research project.
Keep in mind that the introduction should not be too long and must grab the reader’s
attention.

33
Refer to this site for helpful tips: https://guides.lib.uci.edu/c.php?g=334338&p=2249903
8.6.5 Definitions of key concepts

Define the key concepts under a separate heading. The particular concepts to be defined
289
are derived from the title and main headings of the report. For this purpose, it is imperative
to consult a proper textbook on the subject. You should quote specific definitions and
describe, in your own words, the meaning you attach to the concept for the purpose
of the particular report/assignment etc. Your own definition of the concept is called
an operational definition. To define a concept means to state precisely the meaning or
essence thereof.
85
8.6.6 Presentation of the body
The body of the report/assignment consists of a discussion of the subject. Formulate your
290
own headings and subheadings.
8.6.7 Methodology
This part of your report is crucial, because you describe to the reader the best way of
291
answering your research questions. You will explain how the purposes, research questions
and methods for collecting and analysing data are all knitted together. A successful research
project depends upon the integration of all these elements (purpose, questions, approach
and methods) and you will be marked up or down on the way that you demonstrate your
understanding of the need for this integration. This chapter in your report/dissertation/
thesis is called your “methodology” or your “research design” chapter. It is important to
be clear on what methodology is and why methodology and research design are often
bracketed together.
Be aware that your methodology chapter is not simply a presentation of the method that
292
you have used in your research. Rather, it is a discussion of the methods that you have
used, and more importantly, why you have used them (Thomas, 2009:70).
Activity 8.5
The purpose of this activity is to assist you in formulating your data collection techniques.
Give a thorough discussion of the methodology you have used in collecting the data for
your research project, and why you chose the particular method.
You need to explain here the when, what, where and how of your research. The type of
approach you have followed and your data collection techniques, e.g., questionnaires,
interviews, etc. Always give a reason as to why you chose a certain paradigm and method.
You can refer to lesson 6 for assistance.
8.6.8 Results
The results present your findings, but exclude any discussion. Figures and tables – as
293
opposed to text – are usually the clearest way of showing results. You should avoid
repeating data in both tables and figures, or in tables and text (Trevelyan et al., 2007:6).
8.6.9 Discussion
This section tells us what your results mean, why they are important, and how they fit in
294
with existing knowledge. Be clear and specific about the interpretation of your results
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and the implications of your work. The discussion is also where you point out alternative
explanations for your findings and argue why you think your interpretation is the best
(or tell your reader what further test is needed to show which hypothesis is correct). You
should also acknowledge errors – and convince your reader why they should not alter
your conclusion (Wang & Park, 2016:247).
Activity 8.6
The purpose of this activity is to determine your ability to discuss the findings of your
research.
After reading through the above section, discuss the findings of your research by follow-
ing the guidelines provided relating to the discussion of research.

35
Depending on what you have chosen to research, discuss the findings following the above
guidelines. You should consider whether the data obtained supports your hypothesis.
Further, explores the implications of your findings and potential limitations of your study.
For further reading on how to construct a good discussion, refer to: http://www.biosci-
encewriters.com/How-to-Write-a-Strong-Discussion-in-Scientific-Manuscripts.aspx
8.6.10 Conclusion
The conclusion section contains the following central elements: summaries, conclusions,
295
limitations of the research and recommendations for future research – if any. In the
conclusion, you should tell the reader what your take-home message is. Avoid statements
such as “further work is still needed” in your conclusion as this could contribute to your
paper being rejected. If you do wish to recommend future work, then state what needs
to be done and who should do it (Wang & Park, 2016:250).
Interesting reading
•• https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/ScienceReport.html
•• http://www.crlsresearchguide.org/18_Writing_Conclusion.asp
8.6.11 Bibliography
The bibliography consists of a list of sources, including the lesson, which you have
296
personally consulted. The sources should be arranged in alphabetical order according

to the surnames of the authors. Full details of the sources must be provided: surname,
author’s initials, date of publication, title, place where published, publisher (Shields, Inala
& Beck, 2015). Applications such as: Citation Maker, Reference Generator and Mendeley
87
can also be downloaded on a smartphone to compile a bibliography. RefMe, an online
and smartphone application, also allows you to organise and store all your references. A
request to the library can be made for assistance on this particular application.
297 Examples of sources and how to cite them:
(a) Periodicals
Maree, A & Joubert, E. 1999. Exposure to child pornography on the internet Acta
Criminologica, 12(3):59–66
(b) Prescribed books (two authors)
Siegel, LJ & Senna, JJ. 2000. Juvenile delinquency. Theory, practice and law. 7th edition:
Belmont, Ca: Wadsworth/Thomson.
(c) Composite work

Clegg, I & Whetton, J. 1995. In search of a third world criminology, edited by L Noaks, M
Maguire & M Levi, Cardiff: University of Wales.
(d) Study guide
The author of the particular chapter is indicated first, followed by the year of publication
298
and the title of the specific chapter. This is followed by the course code with the title of
the lesson in brackets and, finally, the publisher. Example:
Swart, DN & Joubert, E. 2008. Cultural and ethnic diversity and crime. Only study guide for
CMY201E (Crime risk perspectives). Pretoria: Unisa.
If the authors are not indicated in a specific lesson, refer to the authors in the title page
299
of the lesson: Ovens, M, Joubert & E, Dastile, P. 2009 Title of the lesson. Only lesson for
CMY3705 (Victimology). Pretoria: Unisa.
(e) Internet sources
300 If the author is known:
Dempster, C. Xenophobia in South Africa. http://www.news.bbc.cc.co.uk/2/hi/

africa/3153461.stm (accessed on 20 March 2010).
(f) If the author is unknown:
Victims of Crime Bureau. 1999. Parliament of New South Wales. http://www.par liament.
nsw.gov/au/pred/parlment/hansArt/nsf (accessed on 30 October 2010).
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8.7 SOME OF THE PROBLEMS YOU MAY ENCOUNTER DURING

SCIENTIFIC WRITING
You might find it difficult to get started, especially if you are a first-time researcher and
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this is your first report. You may be overwhelmed by the amount of information that you
have collected. These points need to be organised from the beginning. You might also
feel intimidated by the need to put it all into a coherent framework. Do not be put off by
this task. Another obstacle you might encounter is the so-called “writer’s block” – that is a
period of time in which you might feel that you are stuck for words or simply cannot come
up with any ideas and are not motivated to write. The key here is to just start writing. Do
not keep postponing it – get started! Even if you write only one paragraph a day, just
write and don’t stop until you are done.
A common problem is that students do not allocate sufficient time for the writing of their
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reports. As a result, they produce poor quality theses. Often inexperienced students do
not spend time planning and drawing up a framework for the research report. It is not
only necessary to do this for the research report as a whole, but also for each chapter of
the report (Nygaard, 2017:24).
Activity 8.7
The purpose of this activity is to make you aware of things you should do and things you
should not do in scientific writing.
Make a list of the do’s and don’ts of scientific writing.
Do’s Don’t’s
Start writing, and continue writing. Postpone writing due to writer’s block.
Organise data collected from the beginning. Be overwhelmed by the amount of data
collected.
Allocate enough time for writing the report. Produce a poor quality report.
This is by no means an exhaustive list. You may refer to the book, Writing Your Master’s
Thesis: From A to Zen by Nygaard, pages 24–25.
8.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SCIENTIFIC REPORT
8.8.1 The readers

A very important matter for the researcher to consider is who the readers are likely to be,
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because they determine the form your research report should take. You have to consider
89
your reader’s background knowledge. Inform your readers fully, since they must be able
to evaluate the reliability of your results for themselves. Thus, the “form” of your report
will depend on whether you are writing for an instructor, for students, for professional
scientists or for the general public. Students’ reports, for example, should concentrate on
a solid grasp of the methodological and substantive concepts. When writing for students,
it is a good policy to define technical terms and to label each part of the report (Ladikos,
2009:203).
When a research report is prepared for the general public, the language should be simple
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and non-technical, and concrete examples should be included. The focus should be on
the practical implications of the findings. No details of the research design are needed
in these reports (Ladikos, 2009:204).
8.8.2 Style and tone

Research reports are scientific documents, are written in a narrow range, and have a distinct
305
tone. Style refers to the types of words as well as the length and form of sentences and
paragraphs, while tone refers to the attitude of the writer towards the subject. Research
reports have a formal and concise style, which means they are not conversational and
that they convey a lot in a few words. In a research report you do not use flamboyant
language because the aim is not to entertain.
The style of research reports should be objective, accurate and clear. When researchers find
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carelessness in the writing or in the disclosure of how the research was conducted, they
will question the results. The detail of research reports can be complex and complexities
can lead to confusion. Clear writing is essential (Nygaard, 2017:183).
8.8.3 Logic and clarity

The researcher must see to it that his or her report complies with at least the requirements
307
of scientific logic and clarity. Be sure that each point follows logically from the previous
one. Write clearly, without repeating yourself. State your point of view concisely. Express
yourself clearly and understandably. Avoid fine-sounding, but meaningless words. If
tables are used, they must be clear and understandable.
Logical, clear writing does not just “happen”. It takes hard work and involves certain steps.
308
The topic of the research involves elements such as the research question, the research
design, the data collection techniques, the findings and the implications of the findings.
An outline is used to organise all these elements for a proper report. Topics are also
called subheadings. If topics are not used properly, they can become a barrier to clarity
in writing. One way to test whether the topic indeed enhances clarity is to read only the
topics (subheadings) and skip the content. When the topics (subheadings) follow a logical
train of thought, they will most probably enhance, rather than hinder, clarity (Nygaard,
2017:183).
309 Neuman and Robson (2014:343) summarise the following guidelines for writing a report:
•• keep to the theme
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•• be honest and objective

•• list the findings and recommendations
Interesting reading
•• https://www.tcd.ie/disability/assets/doc/Word%20Docs/AST%20booklets/Subject%20
specific/Sciences/Qualities%20of%20good%20scientific%20writing.doc
8.9 THE PROCESS OF WRITING SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

REPORTS
310 There is a process behind writing a research report, namely:
8.9.1 Prewriting
You learn to write by writing! It takes effort, and it improves only with practise. Starting
311
is the difficult part. Begin by collecting a file of notes, outlines and lists.
8.9.2 Composing
The first draft consists of the ideas you have to put on paper. “Free writing”, compiling
312
the bibliography, preparing the data presentation and drafting the introduction and
conclusion are the first steps in the composition of the report. To get started, many writers
start with free writing (writing down as quickly as you can whatever you think of about
the topic). Don’t stop to reread what you have written, don’t struggle to find the correct
words and don’t worry about the grammar and spelling. The idea of free writing is to get
the ideas down on paper – you can clean up later.
8.9.3 Rewriting
This phase consists of evaluating and polishing the report. As you rewrite, look at improving
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coherence, proofreading for errors, checking citations and reviewing language usage.
Rewriting will help you express yourself better. It is not unusual for professional researchers
to rewrite reports a dozen times. Rewriting should not discourage you. Actually, it reduces
pressure. It’s your chance to produce a rough draft, which you can polish later. A draft is
a complete report – from introduction to conclusion. During rewriting, the focus is on
improving clarity. Therefore, it needs slow and careful re-reading. It also helps to ask others
to read and comment on your rough draft. Friendly constructive criticism is very helpful.
Revising and editing are important during rewriting. Revising refers to inserting new
314
ideas. Editing refers to checking on spelling, grammar, verb tenses, sentence length, and
organising paragraphs. Check the voice: passive voice tends to obscure the meaning.
Check for unnecessary repetition of words, ideas and phrases.
91
It is important to rewrite the introduction (and the title!) after you have completed the
315
draft. This will ensure that the introduction and title are true reflections of the content
and what you have said.
8.10 COMMON MISTAKES

These are the most common mistakes that researchers make in the process of research.
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To produce good quality research, they should be avoided.
•• The problem statement was not clearly defined.

•• The researcher did not study what he or she was meant to study.
•• The problem was too broad to be dealt with by only one person with limited time
and resources.
•• There was no clear definition of the research in the first part of the report.
•• Instead of the problem and objective being stated and defined in the first chapter,
these facets of the report are distributed throughout the report, making it difficult
to form a clear picture of the objective and the problem.
•• An unimportant problem has been studied; as a result, the entire report is worthless.
Interesting reading
•• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5730143/
8.11 PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION

Researchers want to share their findings with the scientific community. They do so by
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publishing their research results in scholarly journals. This is the true testing ground for the
serious researcher. Once you have chosen a journal, which generally publishes research
from your field of specialisation, you need to stick to that journal’s technical requirements.
The editor starts the evaluation process by sending your text to two or more specialists
who will act as reviewers of your work. Remember that most manuscripts will have to be
largely rewritten because that is what the reviewers will require!
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The following section contains self-assessment questions comprising paragraph-type and

multiple-choice questions. Although your answers should not be submitted to your lecturer
for formal assessment, these questions allow you to self-assess whether you have achieved
the outcomes of the lesson, so please do not skip the section.
Self-assessment exercises
(1) A … is a detailed, complete, scientific report that presents the steps of research in detail.
(1) research proposal
(2) research design
(3) research report
(4) research statement
(2) Which element is self-contained and can be understood without reading the entire report?
(1) Introduction
(2) Methodology
(3) Abstract
(4) Discussion
(3) Which section in the scientific report tells the reader what the results mean, why they are
important, and how they fit in with existing knowledge?
(1) Discussion.
(2) Results.
(3) Presentation of the subject.
(4) Conclusion.
(4) Identify the most correct statement with regard to rewriting.
(1) It is characterised by free writing where everything is written down as quickly as

possible.
(2) It is not important to rewrite the introduction after the draft has been completed so
that it truly reflects the content.
(3) It consists of polishing the report by improving coherence, proofreading for errors
and reviewing the use of language.
(4) The ultimate goal is to get ideas on paper without worrying about grammar and
spelling.
(5) Identify the most common mistake made by a researcher during the writing process.
(1) The problem was too narrow to be dealt with by only one person with the vast time
and resources.
(2) There was no clear definition of the research in the last part of the report.
(3) An important problem has been studied; as a result, the entire report was of no value.
(4) The researcher did not study what he/she was meant to study.
Paragraph-type questions
(1) State and briefly discuss the structure of a scientific report.
(2) Discuss the three characteristics of a good scientific report.
93
Feedback on self-assessment
(1) 3
(2) 3
(3) 1
(4) 3
(5) 4
Paragraph-type questions

Bachman, RD & Schutt, RK. 2017. Fundamentals of research in criminology and criminal
justice. Sage Publications.
Dewan, P & Gupta, P. 2016. Writing the Title, Abstract and Introduction: Looks Matter.
Ladikos, A. 2009. Research methodology in criminology: Only study lesson for CMY307P.
Maree, K. 2016. First steps in research. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
Neuman, WL & Robson, K. 2014. Basics of social research. Pearson Canada.
Nygaard, LP. 2017. Writing Your Master’s Thesis: From A to Zen. Sage.
Punch, KF. 2013. Introduction to social research: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Sage.
Shields, E, Inala, P & Beck, N. 2015. MMU Harvard Referencing.
Thomas, G. 2009. How to do your research project: a guide for students in education.
London: SAGE Publications.
Trevelyan, R, Cook, J & Fisher, M. 2007. Scientific writing and publishing skills. Available
at: http://www.tropical-biology.org (Accessed: 24 November 2011).
Wang, GT & Park, K. 2016. Student research and report writing: from topic selection to
the complete paper. John Wiley & Sons.
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Lesson 9
Research ethics in criminology
318 Revised by Dr M Thobane
After working through this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
•• Understand research ethics in criminology
•• Explain the purpose of ethics when conducting research
•• Name and explain fundamental ethical principles of ethical research in criminology
•• Discuss other issues of ethics in criminology
3Assessment methods
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In this lesson, you will be introduced to research ethics in criminology. Once you
319
have completed this lesson with its various activities, you should have a better understanding
of ethics in the research process as well as the importance of conducting ethical research.
9.2 RESEARCH ETHICS IN CRIMINOLOGY

Criminological research, like research in other fields of social sciences, focuses mainly on
320
studying human beings and human behaviour. As a result, “whenever one is studying
humans along with their behaviour, the issue of ethics emerges” (Thobane, 2014:48).
Research ethics refers to conforming to the standardised conduct of a given profession
(i.e. criminology) or group. Davis, Francis and Jupp (2011:283) describe ethics as standards,
rules and norms, which ought to be applied towards others when conducting research.
One can say research ethics are the rules that distinguish between right and wrong
conduct in research.
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9.3 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH ETHICS
The main purpose of ethics in research is to assure trust, to protect human rights, and
321
ensure the general well-being of research participants (Schoeman, 2011:106). The following
are some of the reasons why it is important for researchers to adhere to ethics in research:
•• Research ethics promote the aim of research, which is to create knowledge and to
provide solutions to an identified problem (i.e. crime).
•• Research ethics promote values such as trust, accountability, mutual respect and
fairness.
•• Research ethics hold the researcher accountable to the public, research participants
and colleagues.
•• Research ethics build public support for the research.
•• Research ethics promote moral and social values such as social responsibility, human
rights and compliance to the law (Resnik, 2015).
Activity 9.1
What do you think are issues of human rights in research? Discuss this with your fellow
students on myUnisa under Discussion Forum 9.1.
In addition to the information provided throughout this lesson, please refer to other online
platforms to find information on human rights and discuss how some of those human rights
can be violated when conducting research.
9.4 PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH ETHICS

Research ethics in criminology are based on three fundamental principles: respect for
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persons, beneficence and non-maleficence, and justice.
9.4.1 Respect for persons

You must treat any person you are obtaining information from (the research participant)
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with respect and sensitivity. You ought to ensure that your participants are treated
autonomously. This means that participants must be able to make their own decisions
about what to do and what to agree to. Also, you need to respect the fact that participants
must make their own informed decisions about whether they want to participate in your
research study. The principle of respect for persons is sub-divided into informed consent/
voluntary participation and confidentiality/anonymity as explained in details under the
sections that follow.
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9.4.1.1 Informed consent/voluntary participation

For criminological research to be considered ethical, it is firstly required that participants
324
must agree to being part of the study before it commences. In addition, consenting to
take part in the research study by participants must be both informed and voluntary. In
order to obtain voluntary informed consent from a research participant, the following
must be evident:
•• Consent must be given by an individual who is capable of giving consent. This basi-
cally means that some research participants such as minors (children under the age
of 18) and people living with mental disabilities, for example, are not able to give
consent. Informed consent for minors can be obtained through parental/guardian
permission. Important to note though, is that the child must also consent to taking
part in a study by giving assent, which is the child’s affirmative agreement to take
part in the research. The assent form must be written at the appropriate reading
level of the youngest participant and in simple terminology.
•• The individual should not be coerced to give consent – consent must be voluntary; and
•• Participants must be fully informed about the research, its purpose, aims, objectives,
and fully understand what has been explained (Buchman & Schutt, 2012:61).
Important to note is that the language used to obtain consent must be clear, detailed,
325
and comprehensible to the research participant (Buchman & Schutt, 2012:61). It is, therefore,
important that participants are provided with sufficient information, which will enable
them to make a decision on whether they would like to participate in the research (Widd
& Digginess, 2009:22).
It is important that you fully disclose the purpose of your research to avoid deceiving your
326
participants. Deception takes place when participants are misled about the research in
order to persuade them to take part in the study (Widd & Digginess, 2009:22). What this
means is that, at times, researchers deceive their participants if they think that participants’
knowledge of the real purpose of the study may make them change their minds about
taking part. So avoid deceiving your participants and make sure that your research is
meant for the purpose for which you say it is.
Widd and Digginess (2009:22) further explain that the information provided to research
327
participants should inform them of the possible risks involved in participating in the study
and how the information they provide will be used. This also means that participants
ought to be given an opportunity to withdraw at any stage of the research should they
feel uncomfortable. It is, however, important that you inform the participant that, should
he/she withdraw, the information obtained up to that stage may still be utilised.
9.4.1.2 Confidentiality and anonymity

The principles of confidentiality and anonymity simply refer to protecting the identity of
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your research participants by not divulging their information to other people. Important to
note is that the information obtained from your research participants is private, is offered
voluntarily, and should therefore be used only by you. When an undertaking has been
given that the respondent’s particulars will not be disclosed, as agreed in advance, that
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agreement should be adhered to at all times (Sarantakos 2000:21). As already explained,
some information collected from research participants is extremely sensitive and may cause
embarrassment, and thus it is important to ensure that you keep all responses confidential.
Buchman and Schutt, (2012:66) are of the opinion that guaranteeing participants that
their responses will be kept confidential allows them to give honest and accurate answers
to even the most sensitive questions. This will then increase the reliability of the data
collected. Confidentiality in criminological research goes beyond undertaking not to
divulge private information; it includes ensuring that participants’ information is stored
safely. One way of protecting your research participants’ privacy is by locking completed
interview schedules and questionnaires in a place that only you have access to in order
to minimise the risk of access by unauthorised people (Buchman & Schutt, 2012:66).
According to Babbie (2017:67), “a research project guarantees anonymity when the

329
researcher – not just the people who read about the research – cannot identify a given
response with a given respondent”. This essentially means that in face-to-face interviews,
or cases where responses are forwarded directly to the researcher by participants, absolute
anonymity cannot be ensured. This is due to the fact that the researcher is in direct contact
with the research participants. However, when publishing the research results, anonymity
may be maintained by replacing participants’ personal information (such as their names
and organisations for example) with codes, numbers or pseudonyms.
9.4.2 Beneficence (Do good!) and non-maleficence (Do no harm!)

The ethical principle of beneficence mainly focuses on the well-being of research
330
participants. Therefore, your primary goal is to act in the best interest of your participants.
In this regard, you must ensure that you promote the well-being of your participants or
maximise the benefits for the community within which you are conducting your study.
For example, when conducting a study on residential burglary, you could provide practical
ways in which members of the community can protect themselves from being victims
of this crime. In this way, you have maximised the benefits for your research participants.
Criminological researchers are expected to minimise the cause of harm or discomforts

331
to research participants. Whether or not participants volunteered for the study, they
should never be harmed in any way by your research. “Although harm is most often
thought of in physical terms, it also includes psychological, social, environmental and
economic damage” (Israel & Hay 2012). According to Babbie (2017:64), in practice this
means that no information (including unpopular attitudes, demeaning characteristics
or deviant behaviour) should be released in a way that could endanger or embarrass
research participants. Can you think of other ways in which research participants can be
harmed psychologically?
Although it is not always possible to ensure that research participants are not harmed,
332
researchers should take care to minimise the risk of personal harm as explained above.
You must do everything in your jurisdictive power to ensure that participants are not
humiliated, ridiculed or made to feel uncomfortable during the research process (Widd
& Digginess, 2009:22). This is especially important as a criminology student as the type
of research you will be conducting requires you to collect data on sensitive issues, such
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as offending behaviour or victim experiences. Can you think of any questions that may
cause either an offender or victim as a research participant to feel uncomfortable?
9.4.3 Justice
This principle deals with the concept of fairness. “The principle of justice holds that
333
particular individuals, groups or communities should neither bear an unfair share of the
direct burdens of participating in research, nor should they be unfairly excluded from
the potential benefits of research participation” (Government of Canada, 2018). This
means that your research must be inclusive (where participants are concerned) and that
research benefits or burdens should be distributed fairly. So when you are choosing
your research participants, be careful not to exclude some individuals on the basis of
their culture, race, gender, age, language or disability. Equally important, when selecting
research participants, be careful not to focus too much on participants who do not have
autonomy (cannot give consent) such as children, incarcerated offenders or people living
with mental disabilities. This does not mean that these individuals must be avoided at
all costs, but if you must include them in your research, ensure that the proper ethical
procedures are followed and that these individuals are treated fairly.
Activity 9.2
As explained above, incarcerated offenders are considered a vulnerable research group.

Please answer the following questions regarding this vulnerable group of research and
discuss with your fellow students on myUnisa under Discussion Forum 9.4:
(1) What do you think are the ethical challenges of conducting research with a vulnerable
group such as incarcerated offenders?
(2) What practical steps would you take to overcome these ethical challenges?

39
To answer the question, refer to pages 25–27 (ETHICAL CHALLENGES) of Thobane and Herbig’s
research article titled “Getting to them and through them: Practical challenges of conduct-
ing research with incarcerated offenders” ( https://journals.co.za/content/crim/2014/sed-1/
EJC171236) and other online sources on the same topic.
9.5 ADDITIONAL ISSUES RELATED TO RESEARCH ETHICS:

INTEGRITY
There are basic rules essential for doing research with honesty and integrity. When you
334
carry out your research, you must do it in an honest and sound manner. As a criminology
researcher, you have a professional obligation to your colleagues to handle yourself with
honesty and integrity. Your integrity is maintained when you represent your work and the
99
work of others with honesty and by using other people’s work in an acceptable manner.
This means, among other things, the following:
9.5.1 Acknowledging other researchers

Your research presents your thinking about a chosen topic, supported by other people’s
335
ideas who may have conducted similar research in the past. It is, therefore, important for
you to differentiate between your own ideas and those of others as you write your research
report (which we dealt with in lesson 8) because failure to do so can lead to plagiarism.
Plagiarism takes place when you misrepresent someone’s work as your own. For example,
copying and pasting work word for word from another source and pretending it is your
own work. Doing research with integrity means that when you quote from a textbook,
article or report, you must acknowledge the source of your information. Plagiarism is
an action that is regarded as an extremely serious transgression, which can lead to the
expulsion of a student or the dismissal of an employee attached to an academic institution.
336 Below are some of the ways you can avoid plagiarism:
•• Referencing
The most important way to avoid plagiarism is including a reference or citing the source
337
of information you have used through both in-text referencing and a bibliography at the
end of your research report. In-text referencing can be done either at the beginning or
the end of a sentence or paragraph, or when you mention a factuality (a date or statistic),
which you personally looked up. This is done because you are required to give credit to
sources for facts and insights that are not your own. Where a bibliography is concerned,
the sources used in the text must be listed in the bibliography in alphabetical order.
There are strict rules concerning how to cite references, and you need to follow the
exact format that is required by the institution, college or department where you are
studying. The Harvard referencing style is one of several methods and it is the one used
in the Department of Criminology and Security Science at UNISA. So it is important that
students in this department follow the Harvard method. If you are taking modules from
other departments, they may use other methods and you need to follow their methods for
those modules. Based on the Harvard method, the author’s name and year of publication,
as well as the number(s) of the relevant page(s) in the work cited, should be given in the
text and enclosed in round brackets.
338 Examples:
In-text referencing
339
•• Creswell (2013:4) defines quantitative research as a structured approach.

•• Quantitative research is defined as a structured approach (Creswell, 2013:4)
340 Bibliography
•• Creswell, J.W. 2013. Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five ap-
proaches (3rd edition). Los Angeles: Sage.
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Doing a quick search on the internet for different referencing styles can yield thousands
341
of results. There are plenty of sites that can give specific details about specific referencing
styles.
Some websites relating to the Harvard method of referencing:

342
•• http://www.citethisforme.com/harvard-referencing
•• https://www.mendeley.com/guides/harvard-citation-guide
343
344 TAKE NOTE: The UNISA Department of Criminology and Security Science in-house
Harvard method of referencing does not include a p in front of page
numbers (i.e. Thobane, 2014:p22). The correct way based on our
departmental rule is (Thobane, 2014:22).
•• Paraphrasing
When you have found information you feel is perfect for your research paper, read it and
346
put it in your own words. Do not copy the original author word for word. However, even
after you have paraphrased you must still cite the source of your information as explained
previously under referencing.
•• Quoting
When you quote an author word for word you need to place the quote in double quotation
347
marks. If the direct quote is more than four lines you then need to indent it both on the
left and the right without the use of quotations marks. Important to note is that in both
cases the author must be cited.
348 Examples:
349 Less than four lines
“Whenever one is studying humans along with their behaviour, the issue of ethics
350
emerges” (Thobane, 2014:48).
351 More than four lines
Each researcher is compelled to sensitise themselves to what is right or wrong

352
when conducting research. Furthermore, researchers have an obligation to treat

research participants morally. However, due to the fact that research participants
studied in this study are categorised as vulnerable, certain ethical challenges were
encountered (Thobane, 2014:49).
353
101
•• Referencing your own material
If some of the work you are using for your research is your own, but was used in your
354
current or previous module or anywhere else, you must reference yourself. You must treat
the text written by yourself in the same way you treat the text written by someone else.
355TAKE NOTE: To learn more about the rules of ethical research or how to conduct ethical
research refer to the UNISA POLICY ON RESEARCH ETHICS, which can be
accessed by clicking on the link below. It is important that you familiarise
yourself with the policy document as it will guide you throughout
your research career. https://www.unisa.ac.za/static/corporate_web/
Content/Colleges/CGS/documents/Policy-on-Research-Ethics-rev-appr-
Council-20.09.2013.pdf
9.6 CONCLUSION
Whenever one is studying humans along with their behaviour, the issue of ethics emerges.
357
As already explained, ethics are standards and guidelines that must be applied in every
research project, and these standards provide guidance as to how researchers should
conduct themselves in their pursuit of issues of interest, especially if these issues involve
human beings.
The following section contains self-assessment questions comprising paragraph-type and

multiple-choice questions. Although your answers should not be submitted to your lecturer
for formal assessment, these questions allow you to self-assess whether you have achieved
the outcomes of the lesson, so please do not skip the section.
(1) Beneficence means:
(1) Do no harm!
(2) Do good!
(3) Maintaining confidentiality.
(4) Maintaining anonymity.
(2) Which one of the options below is NOT a fundamental principle of ethical conduct in
research?
(1) Justice
(2) Beneficence and non-maleficence
(3) Reliability
(4) Respect for persons
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(3) Plagiarism can be defined as failure to … the source of your information.

(1) renounce
(2) agree with
(3) disagree with
(4) acknowledge
(4) Non-maleficence is especially important in criminological research because topics that

are covered in this field of study are …
(1) sensitive
(2) general
(3) insensitive
(4) significant
(5) Which of the options below can one follow to avoid plagiarism?
(1) Quoting
(2) Replicating
(3) Referencing
(4) Paraphrasing
Choose the correct combination

(1) (a), (b) and (c)
(2) (a), (b) and (d)
(3) (a), (c) and (d)
(4) (b), (c) and (d)
(1) 2
(2) 3
(3) 4
(4) 1
(5) 3
358
(1) Name and briefly discuss the fundamental principles of research ethics in criminology. [15]
(2) Explain other issues related to research ethics in criminology. [10 ]
(3) List the five reasons why it is important to adhere to ethics when conducting research. [5]
(1) Refer to section 9.3.

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LESSON 2: Research in criminology 13

LESSON 3: The role of criminological theory in research 24

LESSON 4: Planning of research 33

LESSON 5: Quantitative research 45

LESSON 6: Qualitative research 60

LESSON 7: Mixed methods research 73

LESSON 8: How to write a scientific report 80

LESSON 9: Research ethics in criminology 95

1 Revised by Prof M Schoeman

According to Creswell (2014:3), research can be defined as “a process of steps used to

collect and analyse information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue”. As

Criminological research can be used in various organisations and settings, ranging

1.3 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCIENTIFIC AND NON-

research as the “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural

•• systematic – it follows a specific methodology and process associated with scientific

phenomenon in order to acquire new knowledge, or to improve on and/or incorporate

In contrast to scientific research, non-scientific research acquires knowledge by using

techniques that do not follow scientific methods. Information is collected haphazardly,

Overgeneralisation occurs when conclusions are drawn from personal experiences, or

•• Selective and inaccurate observation

One-sided or biased collection of information can result in selective and inaccurate

Illogical reasoning is associated with prematurely jumping to conclusions. For example,

From the discussion, it is clear that non-scientific research is an effective method of

resolving everyday challenges. Nonetheless, it is important for you to understand that

2Feedback on Activity 1.1

1.4 CRITERIA FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

information in order to answer a research question. A researcher will be able to create

generally followed in scientific research. The difference between these approaches is

scientific research. These criteria predominantly focus on determining if the measuring

measuring instrument (questionnaire or survey). It aims to determine whether a measuring

namely credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability.

3Feedback on Activity 1.2

research generally do so to obtain a qualification, while research conducted in an

23 The reasons for conducting research might be, inter alia,

•• to collect information about under-researched topics

1.6 CONCEPTUALISING RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Source: Adapted from Babbie & Mouton (2001:72).

a logical manner. The process can be depicted as follows:

2Self-assessment exercises for Lesson 1

The following section contains self-assessment questions comprising multiple-choice ques-

Feedback on self-assessment multiple-choice questions

Feedback on self-assessment paragraph-type questions

1.8 LIST OF REFERENCES

Revised by Prof M Schoeman

making a substantial contribution towards developing knowledge for application in a

methodologies to systematically produce scientifically based knowledge that could

5Feedback on Activity 2.1

2.3 RESEARCH IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

An Afrocentric qualitative approach in research is viewed as an appropriate method to

6Feedback on Activity 2.2

2.4 RESEARCH IN CRIMINOLOGY

•• Crime as a social phenomenon

•• The process of law-making

•• Breaking of laws and the reaction towards breaking of laws

•• Developing a body of general and verified principles

development in criminological sciences. It also recognises the importance of validity and