Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017

Lecture Notes
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Deterioration: Deterioration is the process of degeneration or reduction in quality to an inferior state of a

material.

Physical deterioration

1. F & T action

2. Abrasion & Erosion

3. Pitting

Freezing and thawing:

• The most severe climatic attack on concrete occurs, when concrete containing moisture is subjected to cycle of
freezing and thawing.
• The capillary pores in the cement paste are of such a size that water in them will freeze, when the ambient
temperature is below 00C.
• The freezing water contained in the pore structure expands as it is converted into ice. The expansion causes
localized tension forces and leads to fracture of concrete.
• The repeated cycles of freezing and thawing have a cumulative effect.
• Freeze and thaw deterioration generally occurs on horizontal surfaces that are exposed to water.
Preventive measures:

• Use of low water cement ratio

. • Adequate air entrainment has been found effective to control the freezing damage.
• Use of durable aggregate
• Designing the structure to minimize the exposure to moisture i.e. providing positive drainage rather than flat
surfaces.
Abrasion & Erosion:
Abrasion refers to wearing away of the surface by friction.
• Erosion refers to wearing away of the surface by fluids.
• Cavitation refers to the damage due to non-linear flow of water.
• The concrete used in the roads , floors, the pavements and the concrete used in the hydraulic structures should
exhibit resistance against abrasion, erosion and cavitation
• The more compressive strength the higher the resistance to abrasion erosion and cavitation.
• The shape and surface texture of aggregate plays an important part in the abrasion resistance of the concrete.
• Use of steel fibres and polymer based systems in concrete matrix improves abrasion resistance of concrete.
Chemical Causes:
 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
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The chemical reactions on the concrete may be classified as those that occur as the result of external chemicals attacking the
concrete like

1. Carbonation:

2. Sulphate attack etc., or

• Those that occur because of internal chemical reactions between the constituents of the concrete like

(a). alkali- silica reaction and

(b). Alkali carbonate reactions

3. Aggressive water attack

4 acid attack

Carbonation:

• This is mainly due to reaction of carbon dioxide with the hydrated cement. Carbonation is the effect of carbon dioxide in
the air on cement products mainly the hydroxides in the presence of moisture.

• The calcium hydroxide is converted to calcium carbonate by absorption of carbon dioxide.

Ca(OH)2+CO2—CaCO3+H2O

• Calcium carbonate is slightly soluble in water and destroying the permeability system of the concrete. So top
layer of concrete becomes carbonated and this layer is not alkaline to protect reinforcing steel.
H2O+CO2—H2CO3 (Carbonic Acid)
• This is due to the reaction between water and carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid that allows steel to corrode.
The corrosion product occupies much greater volume than original metal that results surrounding concrete to burst.
Influence Factor
The rate at which carbonation reaches the reinforcement is dependent on the following factors:
• Time: Rate decreases with increasing time of exposure to air.
• Cover to reinforcement: the grater the cover, the better the protection afforded to steel.
• Concrete of CO2 in atmosphere: Rate increases with increasing CO2 in the air.
• Alkali content in the Concrete: This depends on cement content and type of cement.
• Permeability of concrete: Depends on concrete quality.
• Concrete of good quality usually carbonates very slowly. Carbonation reduced due to reduced moisture content
and reducing the concentration of carbon dioxide in atmosphere.
• Sulphates are found in most of the soils as calcium, potassium
 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
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Sulphate Attack:

• Sulphate are found in most of the soils as calcium, potassium, sodium and magnesium sulphates. Solid salts do
not attack concrete, but when present in solution they can react with hardened cement paste. Sulphates are present
in seawater, industrial effluents and some ground water.
• Sulphate reaction is dependent on the following parameters:
1. Concentration of sulphate ions
2. Cations present in sulphate solution
3. C3A content of cement
4. Density, permeability of the concrete
• Chemical Mechanism: This is mainly due to chemical reaction between sulphate and hydration products, which
results changes in the microstructure and pore size distribution of cement paste.

• Sulphate converts calcium hydroxide in to large volume of calcium sulphate (Gypsum).

Na2SO4 .10H2O+Ca(OH)2--- CaSO4 .2H2O+ 2NaOH+8H2O
• The second hydration product tricalcium aluminates hydrate reacts with sulphate solution to form sulpho
aluminates hydrate (ettringite) which has a greater volume than that of the original compound.

2(3CaO.Al2O3 .12H2O)+3(Na2SO4 .10H2O)--- 3CaO.Al2O3 .3CaSo4 .31H2O+2Al(OH)3+6NaOH+17H2O

• Due to this internal stress is greater enough to cause deformation, cracking and eventually loss of cohesion.
When concrete cracks its permeability increases and the aggressive water penetrates more easily in to the interior,
thus accelerating the process of deterioration
Alkali- Aggregate Reaction:

Alkali aggregate reactions (AAR) occur when aggregates in concrete react with the alkali hydroxides in concrete
producing a hygroscopic gel, which, in the presence of moisture, absorbs water and causes expansion and cracking
over a period of many years. This alkali-aggregate reaction has two forms, namely: Alkali-silica reaction (ASR)
and Alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR).

The former is of higher concern since aggregates containing various forms of silica materials are very common
whereas the latter occurs rarely because of the unsuitability of carbonates for use in concrete.

Nonetheless, concrete deterioration caused by each type of alkali-aggregate reaction is similar. It should be known
that no structure has ever collapsed due to alkali-aggregate reactions, but there are cases in which structural
concrete members demolished due to the effect of alkali-aggregate reactions. Most of the structures severely
cracked by AAR are exposed to the weather or are in contact with damp soil. This is because- for a significant
amount of expansion to occur, sufficient presence of moisture is essential. Apart from moisture, high content of
alkali in the concrete is also essential.
 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
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Types of Alkali Aggregate Reaction

(a) Alkali-silica reaction (ASR)

o Random map cracking and closed joints and attendant spalling concrete are indicators of alkali-silica
reactions.
o Petro graphic examination can identify alkali-silica reactions.
o It occurs broadly because aggregates containing reactive silica materials are more common.
o Alkali-silica reaction generates enough expansive pressure to damage concrete.
o Cracking initiates in areas with a frequent supply of moisture, such as close to the waterline in piers, near
the ground behind retaining walls, or in piers or columns subject to wicking action.
o It can be controlled using proper portions of supplementary cementitious materials like silica fume, fly ash,
and ground granulated blast-furnace slag.
o Lithium compounds can be used to decrease alkali-silica reactions.
(b)Alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR)
 It is observed with certain dolomite rocks.
 It may cause considerable expansion.
 Compare to alkali-silica reactions, ACR is rare because aggregates susceptible to this phenomenon are less
common.
 The use of supplementary cementing materials does not prevent deleterious expansion due to ACR.

So, it is recommended that ACR susceptible aggregates not be used in concrete.

Conditions for AAR Occurrence
 Sufficient moisture supply,
 High content of alkali in concrete
It is shown that when the total alkali content, in terms of equivalent sodium oxide, is less than 3 kg/m3, damage
expansion due to AAR is unlikely to happen, provided that known highly alkali-reactive minerals, such as opal
and glass, are not present in the concrete

Sources of Alkalis in Concrete

1. Cement
All ingredients of concrete may contribute to the total alkali content of the concrete; the major source of alkali is
from cement.

2. Aggregate
Aggregate containing feldspars, some micas, glassy rock and glass may release alkali in concrete. Sea dredged
sand, if not properly washed, may contain sodium chloride that can contribute significant alkali to concrete.

3. Admixtures
 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
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Admixture in the context of AAR in concrete means chemical agents added to concrete at the mixing stage. These
include accelerators, water reducers (plasticizers), retarders, superplasticizers, air entraining, etc. Some of the
chemicals contain sodium and potassium compounds that may contribute to the alkali content of concrete.

4. Water
Water may contain a certain amount of alkali.

5. Alkalis from Outside Concrete

In the areas of cold weather, de-icing salt containing sodium compounds, which may increase the alkali content on
the surface, layer of concrete. Soils containing alkali may also increase alkali content on the surface of concrete.

Effects of Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

 Loss of strength, stiffness, impermeability
 Affects concrete durability and appearance
 Premature failure of concrete structures
 Consequently, life of concrete structure is declined
 Maintenance cost is increased

Corrosion Mechanism:
Corrosion is defined as the destruction (or deterioration) of materials due to chemical (or electrochemical) reaction
with the environment, and the loss of steel due to formation of rust. The corrosion of steel is the depassivation of steel with
reduction in concrete alkalinity through carbonation.
Corrosion deteriorates concrete because the product of corrosion-FERRIC OXIDE brown in colour occupies a
greater volume (more than 2 to 10 times) than steel & exerts substantial bursting stresses on the surrounding concrete. The
outward manifestations of rusting include staining, cracking, & spalling of concrete. The progress of process of corrosion is
generally in geometric progression with respect to time. Consequently, the cross-section of steel is reduced. With time,
structural distress may occur either due to loss of the bond between steel & concrete, due to cracking and spalling of
concrete, or because of reduced steel cross-sectional area. This latter effect can be of special concern in structure containing
high-strength pre-stressing steel in which a small amount of metal loss could possibly induce a tendon failure.
 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
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Corrosion of steel in concrete is an electrochemical process. When there is a difference in electrical potential along
the steel reinforcement in concrete, an electrochemical cell is set up. In the steel, one part becomes anode and
other part becomes cathode connected by electrolyte in the form of pore water in the hardened cement paste. The
positively charged ferrous ions Fe++ at the anode pass into solution while the negatively charged free electrons e–
pass through the steel into cathode where they are absorbed by the constituents of the electrolyte and combine with
water and oxygen to form hydroxyl ions (OH)–. These travel through the electrolyte and combine with the ferrous
ions to form ferric hydroxide which is converted by further oxidation to rust.
 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
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Methods of Underwater Repair of Concrete Structures

Underwater concrete structures are prone to damage due to many reasons. Some methods are specially adapted to
repair these damages. Care should be taken to ensure that the damaged area is not contaminated before the
application of the repair material. The material used for the repair should be compatible with its underwater usage
while placing as well as curing.
The different methods which are used to repair the underwater structures are as follows:
• Surface spalling repair
• Large scale repair
• Preplaced aggregate concrete
• Injection technique
• Guniting or shotcrete method
• Steel sleeve repairing technique
Surface Spalling Repair

The cover provided for the concrete structures can spall off due to the accidental damages. To prevent the future corrosion of
the reinforcement in the concrete, the damaged area must be repaired or replaced. The areas which are already slightly
deteriorated with time, will be prone to severe and dangerous damage in a short period of time, especially in the splash
zones. Before starting the repairing procedures, the damaged area must be cleared off of the marine growth and the loose
concrete.
After that, based on the amount of damages, the boundary of spalled area should be saw-cut to a depth of 1.2-2 cm. In splash
zones, cementitious mortar can be used for the damages region and water tolerant epoxy mortar may be employed in the case
of small damage area.

For large repaired area, formworks might be used to hold the repairing material at its position. This could postpone
enhancement work and prevent epoxy coat utilization because if it hardens it would produce smooth surface and
consequently the bond will be weak.

The basic procedures of surface spalling repair technique might include:

 Flush damaged region with fresh water completely.

 Apply a bonding coat.
 Apply the repair mortar before the coat is set.
 Apply a curing membrane to the applied repair mortar.
 Protect the repaired area against wave action until it hardened adequately.
Large Scale Repair

This type of repair is used when the damages is caused by:

• Structural overloading,
• Fire,
• Ship impact, or
• Reinforcement corrosion especially in the splash zone
The repair method and the material selection should be done carefully when a large area of damage has to be
restored because the shrinkage and bleeding may lead to a leakage path at the top of parent concrete and the repair
material surface.
 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
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When repairing materials possess high thickness, thermal cracking may develop due to rise of temperature even
though surrounding water decline the temperature rise. Additionally the repair of reinforcement is often required
because of distortion and corrosion of reinforcement.

Preplaced Aggregate Concrete

In this type of repair, formwork is installed in the area to be repaired and a well graded aggregate is compacted in
it. Before placing the grout in the aggregate, it is ensured that the aggregate is cleaned with the help of freshwater.
Then, specific grout is injected into the base of the well compacted aggregate in the formwork.
The water and voids which are present in the aggregate are expelled out by the grout. The formwork which is
placed at the damaged area, should be grout proof to avoid the leakage. Furthermore, there should be proper
venting so as to help the voids and sir to escape.
It is of great significance that the aggregates fill the formwork till the top of damage region. If the grouting is done
in the area where aggregate is not present, then the grout will shrink and will lead to the development of cracks. It
is recommended that, vibration is not to be applied during injection to prevent the washing out of grout.
Injection Technique
This type of repair is similar to the procedure used for repairing the dry structures where injection of cementitious
grout or resin can be employed to repair cracks and or voids. The selection for the material depends on the void
or crack size and also on the possibility of the predicted displacement of the member in the future.
• Epoxy resin is employed for a crack width of 0.1mm
• Cement grout is used when the crack width is greater than few millimeters.
• If the crack width is less than 0.1mm, injection is not necessary.
There are two methods of injection that include:
• Pressure injection
• Gravity feed.
Guniting or Shotcrete Method

This type of repair is used when large surface area or beams or columns are encased. Dry processing is employed
in this method where dry mix is transferred by a hose and water is added to the dry mix at the nozzle.
Guniting method is actually not suitable for the repair of underwater concrete structures but it can be utilized in
slash zones or tidal zones, if rapid setting additives are employed. The maximum thickness of shotcrete is limited
to 50mm but in case of thick layer, a second layer can be placed.
The success of this technique depends on skill of the man handling the nozzle and experience in
• Adjusting addition of water
• Pressure of water
• Thickness uniformity
Steel Sleeve Repairing Technique
This type of repair employs a steel sleeve which is used around a pile or column. Then the space between the
sleeve and pile or column is filled with mortar or concrete. The steel sleeve should be designed such that there
should be enough space for further reinforcement corrosion.
The sleeve should extend and exceed the damaged length of the pile/column from both top and bottom and should
bear the respective forces if the bars are ineffective due to corrosion.
 Civil Engineering Department, SKIT, M & G, Jaipur-302017
Lecture Notes
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