J Food Sci Technol

DOI 10.1007/s13197-012-0708-x

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Effect of fat types on the structural and textural properties

of dough and semi-sweet biscuit
Hasmadi Mamat & Sandra E. Hill

Revised: 20 March 2012 / Accepted: 16 April 2012

# Association of Food Scientists & Technologists (India) 2012

Abstract Fat is an important ingredient in baking products Introduction

and it plays many roles in providing desirable textural prop-
erties of baking products, particularly biscuit. In this study, the One of the important features of a biscuit is its texture. The
effect of fat types on dough rheological properties and quality texture depends on the formulation and the used cooking
of semi-sweet biscuit (rich tea type) were investigated using regimes (Maache-Rezzoug et al. 1998; Kulthe et al. 2011).
various techniques. Texture profile and extensibility analysis But, the key factor is the component that forms the main
were used to study the dough rheology, while three-point bend component in the matrix that links the different elements
test and scanning electron microscopy were used to analyse together. Starch is the major structural element in many
the textural characteristics of final product. TPA results foods. However, it is often considered as “inert filler” in
showed that the type of fat significantly influenced dough biscuits, with the fat or sugar playing the structuring role.
textural properties. Biscuit produced with higher solid fat oil Fat plays a unique role in many food products. In the area of
showed higher breaking force but this was not significantly baked goods, biscuits belong to a group of products that
different when evaluated by sensory panel. Scanning electron contain considerable amount of fat and the overall quality is
microscopy showed that biscuit produced with palm mid- largely determined by the type of used fat. Flour, sugar, and
fraction had an open internal microstructure and heteroge- fat are the main ingredients used in biscuit production.
neous air cells as compared to other samples. Fats perform a shortening function in dough. The term
shortening refers to the ability of fats to lubricate, weaken,
Keywords Semi-sweet biscuit . Texture profile analysis . or shorten the structure of food components to provide a
Dough rheology . Palm oil fractions food product with desirable textural properties. Fats act as a
lubricant during mixing; they also prevent the formation of a
gluten network in dough (Wade 1988). The water or sugar
solution, in the absence of shortening, would interact with
the flour protein to create cohesive and extensible gluten,
H. Mamat (*) but when shortening is present, the fats surround the pro-
Food Technology & Bioprocess Programmme, teins and the starch granules, isolating them from the water,
School of Food Science & Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, thereby breaking the continuity of protein and starch struc-
88400 Kota Kinabalu,
ture (Ghotra et al. 2002). Fat is a principle ingredient re-
Sabah, Malaysia
e-mail: [email protected] sponsible for tenderness of biscuits and it keeps the quality,
grain and texture besides adding the rich quality of the
S. E. Hill biscuits (O’Brien et al. 2003). Fat interacts with other ingre-
Food Sciences Division, School of Biosciences,
dients to develop and mould texture, mouthfeel, and
University of Nottingham,
Sutton Bonington Campus, overall sensation of lubricity of the product (Giese
Loughborough, Leicestershire NG1 5RD, UK 1996; Stauffer 1998). Mechanical properties of biscuits
 J Food Sci Technol

are largely dependent on the fat component of the Creation of model biscuit
formulation (Baltsavias et al. 1999).
The fat type and the level of fat added to the dough have a A model biscuit was created to investigate the effect of
strong effect on the final quality of biscuits. Manohar and different types of oils on the biscuit texture. A total of four
Rao (1999) investigated the effect of fat type and level of fat types of oils were used, namely butterfat, palm oil, palm
on biscuit dough and quality of biscuits. They found that the olein, and palm mid-fraction. Butterfat was used as control.
thickness of biscuits was significantly higher when hydro-
genated fat or oil was used, while biscuit produced with Laboratory biscuit production
bakery shortening had better surface characteristics and
higher crispness. Jacob and Leelavathi (2007) studied the The formulation for the rich tea biscuit was based on the recipe
effect of fat types on cookie dough and cookie quality. They of Manley (2000) with some modifications. The recipe for the
found that cookies containing liquid oil had a relatively biscuits produced was as follows: 57.6 % wheat flour (9 %
harder texture compared to bakery and hydrogenated fat. protein content), 14.4 % sugar, 13.4 % distilled water, 11.5 %
The ratio of the solid phase to the liquid phase, or the ratio fat/oil, glucose syrup 2.3 %, 0.3 % salt, 0.15 % sodium
of solid fat to the total fat (solid fat index (SFI)) is an bicarbonate, 0.2 % ammonium bicarbonate and 0.02 % sodium
important factor when considering the functionality of the metabisulphite. The processing of the biscuits was according to
fat/shortening in the dough. SFI determines the functional the method of Cronin and Preis (2000) differing in the choice
performance and textural quality of fats and fat-containing of leavening agent and amount of water added. The dough was
products. Normally, bakery fats (margarine and butter) con- prepared using a Kenwood mixer (Model KM200). The pro-
tain about 80 % fat whereas shortening contains 100 % fat. duction process consisted of dough mixing, dough sheeting,
Palm oil and palm oil fractions were used as the main fat dough kneading, dough relaxation, cutting and moulding, and
source in this study. Palm oil has become one of the leading biscuit baking. All the dry ingredients were mixed with flour
vegetable oils for edible applications because it has a bal- and sifted twice to break up any clumps and to add air to the
anced fatty acid composition in which the level of saturated flour in order to produce lighter biscuit. Sugar and glucose
fatty acids is almost equal to that of the unsaturated fatty syrup were then added to the flour. The fat was added at 50 °C,
acids. Palm oil, due to its natural balance of fatty acid and the water at 45 °C. At the beginning, all the ingredients
content, can be used to establish the links between lipid type were mixed at slow speed (MIN) for 30 s. The dough was then
and textural properties of foods. mixed for another 3 min at slow speed (MIN), followed by
In this study, the role of fat in determining the structural 4 min at high speed (NO 4) and 1 min again at slow speed
and textural properties of semi-sweet biscuits is reported. (MIN). The dough was then removed from the bowl and
Four types of fat, namely palm oil, palm olein, palm mid- kneaded by hand for 3 min. Kneading gives the dough elastic-
fraction, and butter, which vary in composition and solid fat ity as protein molecules create stronger bonds and gluten is
content, were used to produce semi-sweet rich tea type formed. After 30 min relaxation (to release stress produced by
biscuits. The reason for choosing these palm oil fractions handling and to reduce significant differences in quality when
was to provide a reasonable alternative for the mainly hy- the dough was used), the dough were then sheeted using a
drogenated shortening, in which the crystalline, solid form Roller Sheeter (Rollfix, West Germany). The initial roller gap-
exists naturally. Another reason is to provide a cheap, nat- width of 25 mm was progressively reduced to 2.5 mm (the
ural solid alternative to the shortening that is commonly dough passed the sheeter gauge rolls four times at each gap
used in bakery products because of its plasticity and solid/ width (25, 20, 15, 10, 5, and 2.5 mm). The sheet was allowed
liquid ratio. Butter fat was used as a comparison. The role of to relax for another 15 min. The dough pieces were cut out with
fat and type of fat were analysed in terms of the texture, a cutting ring of 6 cm diameter and baked for 8 min in an oven
appearance, and starch behaviour of the final baked biscuits. (Thomas Collins & Co, Bristol Ltd) at 190 °C with air circu-
Rheological properties of the dough were also compared. lation. The biscuits were left to cool for 30 min and placed in
plastic containers for further analysis.

Materials and methods Evaluation of biscuit dough

Materials Texture profile analysis (TPA)

Soft wheat flour for biscuit making was obtained from Stickiness is a common problem in the baking industry and
Smiths Flour Mills (UK) while palm oil and its fractions it causes a major problem during processing. Two-bite TPA
were provided by Loders Croklaan (the Netherlands). Butter was performed to measure the stickiness properties of bis-
was procured from local supermarket. cuit dough using a SMS Texture analyser. TPA analysis was
J Food Sci Technol

carried out according to Gallagher et al. (2005) with some rapeseed and excess rapeseeds were trimmed off slowly.
modifications. Dough characteristics were evaluated using The bottom of the container was covered with rapeseed
texture profile analysis with a texture analyser (Stable Micro and biscuit of measured weight was placed in the container
Systems, Surrey, UK, 25 kg load cell). Cylinder dough disks with the flattest surface downwards. The container was
of 50 mm diameter and 5 mm thick were prepared with a filled with rapeseed and the total weight was measured.
circular shape-cutter. A 25 mm diameter cylinder aluminium For every biscuit, the mean of five determinations was taken
probe was used to compress the dough twice. The test speed as the density
was 1.0 mm/s, the compression distance was 2.5 mm, and the
recovery period between the two strokes was 5 s. Values for Hardness
hardness, springiness, and cohesiveness were calculated from
the recorded force values (Texture Expert version 1.17). The hardness of the biscuits was measured using the three-
Dough firmness is defined as the force (Newton) exerted point bend test performed on the TA-XT2 Texture Analyzer,
during the first compression cycle. Dough adhesiveness is equipped with the three-point bending rig (HDP/3PB). The
calculated as the negative force area obtained from the first span between the supports was 40 mm. The Texture Ana-
compression cycle, representing the work necessary to pull the lyzer settings were: Pre-test speed at 1.0 mm/s, Test speed at
compressing plunger away from the sample. Dough cohesive- 3.0 mm/s, Post-test speed at 10.0 mm/s, Distance at 10 mm,
ness is calculated as the ratio of the positive force area during and data acquisition rate at 500pps. The load cell used was
the second compression with that during the first compression 5 kg. The maximum force and the distance to break off the
(Bourne 1990; Yamul and Lupano 2003). The measurements sample were recorded and are referred to as the hardness of
were taken three times and the results were the mean values. the biscuit. An average value of 10 replicates was reported.

Kieffer gluten extensibility test Internal structure of biscuit by scanning electron

microscopy
Texture is one of the most important attributes that strongly
influences dough machinability and the quality of the final Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to investi-
product. The water added to make dough may result in the gate the microstructure of baked biscuits. The samples were
formation of gluten from the flour protein particles. Gluten mounted on individual metallic stubs and sputtered with a
develops slowly in the biscuit dough system because of the Balzers SCD 030 conductive coating of gold (Balzers Union
low ratio of liquid to flour. The protein-protein interactions LTD. Liechtenstein). Samples were imaged using a JEOL
help to explain the basis for the dough development and gas 6060LV variable pressure SEM instrument (Jeol (UK) Ltd).
retention. Extensibility tests were conducted on dough to Electron micrographs were produced for cross-section of
evaluate their tensile strength and extensibility character- each biscuit type at several different magnifications.
istics to study the effect of the oils on the gluten develop-
ment in the biscuit dough. Sensory evaluation of laboratory biscuits
Large deformation extensibility measurements were per-
formed using the SMS/Kieffer dough and gluten extensibility Ranking test is standard procedure to assess product prefer-
rig with a TA-XT2 Plus (Stable Micro Systems, U.K.) texture ence. In this test, panellists are asked to rank coded samples
analyser equipped with 25 kg load cell. A piece of test dough for acceptance in order from the least acceptable to the most
was made into a roll and rested for 10 min. Then, it was put on acceptable. A consumer panel (untrained panel) consisting
the lubricated (paraffin oil) lower plate of the Teflon mould of 31 judges was selected to evaluate biscuit hardness.
and compressed with the lubricated top with a clamps (Kieffer Biscuit samples were presented with different code numbers
et al. 1998). The dough was covered and rested at room to the panellists and they were asked to rank all the biscuits
temperature for 30 min before measurement. The sample according to their hardness. 1 is the least hard and 4 is the
was deformed to 50 mm at a speed of 0.5 mm/s. For each hardest. The samples were bitten evenly with the molars and
sample, at least 10 replicate measurements were performed. with the mouth open. Samples used in the sensory evalua-
tion had the same thickness as those used in the instrumental
Evaluation of biscuit testing. Friedman test was used to analyse the results
obtained.
Density
Statistical analysis
The density was determined according to method used by
Hasmadi et al. (2010) using solid replacement technique. A Mean and standard deviation (SD) were calculated for each
container of known weight and volume was filled with measurement where applicable. All the tests were carried
 J Food Sci Technol

out for 10 samples unless stated otherwise. Significant dif- values are summarised. The results obtained showed that
ference and Pearson correlations were calculated using different types of oil significantly changed the textural prop-
SPSS Windows 6.0. erties of dough. It is clear from the table (Table 1) that dough
made of fat containing higher solid contents showed an
increase in its hardness. Dough made of palm mid-fraction
Results and discussion (PMF) was the hardest and required more strength to com-
press it to the required extent. Biscuit dough containing
Texture analysis of biscuits dough palm olein was the softest and required the least force to
compress it. The results are in agreement with Manohar and
The rheological characteristics of dough are critical as they Rao (1999). They studied the effect of level and types of fat
affect the handling and processing of the dough as well as on the rheological characteristics of biscuit dough and qual-
the quality of the final products produced. Dough that is too ity of biscuits. They found that hydrogenated fat produced
firm or too soft will not process satisfactorily on the appro- the stiffest dough compared to bakery shortening and oil,
priate dough forming equipment and will not yield a satis- which is supported by the finding of this study. O’Brien et
factory product (Wade 1988). Fat is the ingredient that is al. (2003) also reported the same finding, concluding that
principally responsible for binding ingredients in the dough. the amount of solid in the fat influences the dough proper-
The first step in the analysis was therefore to see the effect ties. Fats having higher solid component produce stiffer
of fat in the mixing stage. Dough without any fat formed dry dough. Baltsavias et al. (1997) explained that during mix-
clumps, which would not stick to each other and was im- ing, the firm fat will be broken down to large lumps, where-
possible to knead. Wade (1988) reported that the addition of as the standard shortening fat will be smeared out over the
fat to dough has the effect of reducing the level of water particles. When liquid oil is used in the dough system, it gets
required to make dough of workable consistency. Similar dispersed on mixing throughout the dough in the form of
finding was also reported by Abboud et al. (1985). Handling minute globules, which are far less effective in their short-
properties of the dough especially during the kneading and ening and aerative actions than plastic fat films (Pyler 1988),
sheeting procedure showed visible differences. Subjective thus soft dough is produced. Springiness values, which
observation for the work currently being repeated showed describe the recovery behaviour between two cycles, were
that during dough preparation, the dough made with butter, similar for most of the dough, except for dough made of
palm oil, and palm olein was soft and easy to sheet, whereas palm mid-fraction, which had significantly higher springi-
dough made with palm mid-fraction (PMF) was stiff and ness values as compared to other dough. Dough made of
difficult to sheet and mould. The dough was also assessed palm mid-fraction also had higher adhesiveness and cohe-
using texture profile analysis (TPA) and Kieffer analysis to siveness values, but dough made of palm olein showed the
measure the effect of oils on dough properties. least values for these parameters.

Texture profile analysis (TPA) Dough and gluten extensibility analysis

In TPA testing, a bite size piece of food (usually 1 cm cube) Extensibility tests are typically conducted on dough to eval-
was compressed two times between two plates, usually to uate their tensile strength and extensibility characteristics
80 % of its original size. Because this test was intended to based on the wheat’s protein and gluten quality. Extensibil-
reflect human perception towards the texture, the first and ity testing on biscuit dough conducted in this study was used
second compressions were referred to as first and second to investigate the effect of different oil types on the gluten
bites (Yener 2008). The TPA results of dough made of four formation. The concept is that fat plays an important role in
different types of fats are shown in Table 1 where the determining the formation of gluten in wheat flour dough.
hardness, adhesiveness, cohesiveness, and springiness When mixed with the flour before its hydration, the fat

Table 1 Effect of fat type on the rheological characteristics (n05), resistance maximum force and extensibility distance (n010) of biscuit dough

Sample Hardness (g) Adhesiveness (g/s) Cohesiveness Springiness Max Force (N) Distance (mm)

Butter 9066.4±546.70c −142.5±18.17b 0.19±0.00c 0.49±0.02b 27.7±1.86c −17.6±2.76b

Palm oil 9903.5±282.92b −135.2b ±36.59b 0.22±0.00b 0.47±0.01b 44.1±3.45b −15.6±1.18b
Palm olein 5972.2±419.21d −116.2±9.96b 0.18±0.01c 0.46±0.02b 21.0±0.59d −15.5±0.95b
Palm mid-fraction 28819.8±505.66a −380.9±122.18a 0.28±0.02a 0.68±0.06a 69.8±4.22a −1.9±0.29a

Values with the same letter within the same column are not significantly different
J Food Sci Technol

prevents the formation of gluten network and produces less significantly different with the biscuit made of bakery fats.
elastic dough. Highly elastic dough is not desirable in bis- Later, Jacob and Leelavathi (2007) reported that biscuits
cuit making since it shrinks after lamination (Faubion and containing liquid oil had relatively harder texture. However,
Hoseney 1990). Dough extensibility distance and maximum low breaking strength in sample containing palm olein may
force required to tear the strip are shown in Table 1. Kieffer be explained by the influence of the fat on the gluten
analysis results showed that the type of oil influenced the formation during mixing. According to Manley (2000),
extensibility and maximum force required to tear the dough during the mixing process in biscuit production, the fat
strip. Dough made of palm mid-fraction had the highest component and the aqueous phase compete for the surface
maximum force, while dough made of palm olein had the of flour particles. If the fat coats the flour before it is
least. The results obtained showed a similar trend with TPA hydrated, the gluten network is interrupted and a shorter
values. High amount of solid in the fat produced very stiff less hard biscuit is produced. Thus the biscuits made of
dough, whereas liquid oil produced soft dough. Dough palm mid-fraction were not as effective in competing with
made with butter had the highest elasticity, followed by the water for the flour particles; therefore a more extensive
palm oil, palm olein, and palm mid-fraction, accordingly. gluten network is formed leading to the production of harder
biscuits. It should be remembered that the model biscuits
Density have relatively high water content in the dough compared to
many formulations.
Density is considered the best index of sensory texture of Visual observation of the internal biscuits showed that
biscuits (Manohar and Rao 2002). Lower density means biscuits made of butter had well-distributed air cells, as
greater crispiness and higher textural value. The densities compared to other samples. Biscuits made of palm-mid
of dough and biscuits studied are shown in Fig. 1. It can be fraction and palm oil contained less air cells and were not
seen that the dough density seemed to be affected by the homogenously distributed. According to Manley (2000),
amount of solid ratio of the fat used. Results obtained dough made of semi-solid fat (oil) gives better structures
showed that dough and biscuits made of palm mid-fraction during baking than dough made of liquid fat. The crystals in
had the lowest and highest densities respectively and were semi-solid fat during mixing are separated from the liquid
significantly different from other samples. It is believed that (oil) phase and become enveloped in a protein membrane.
the solid content of fat at the time of mixing affects dough This membrane allows large numbers of crystals to attach to
density. Baltsavias et al. (1997) reported that dough with air bubbles. During baking, the fat crystals melt and the
lower solid fat content has higher density. protein membrane is incorporated into the surface of the
bubbles as they expand thus increasing the resistance to
Biscuit texture analysis rupture (Manley 2000). Burnt and Fearn (1983) and Ahmad
et al. (2001) reported that the texture of biscuits varies even
Three-point bend test values of the biscuits studied are within the same biscuit due to non-uniform moisture distri-
shown in Fig. 1. The values were obtained from three bution in the product.
different batches, which contained a total of 10 samples
for each batch. The results obtained showed that biscuits Internal structure of biscuit by scanning electron microscopy
made of palm mid-fraction and butter had the highest break-
ing force and were significantly different (p<0.05) from Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is often employed to
biscuits containing palm oil and palm olein. Biscuit made reveal the internal geometrical structure of a product in
of olein had the lowest breaking force. It was of interest to detail in food structure analysis. Structural characteristics
observe here that the hardness of the dough seemed to such as cell size, density, and uniformity strongly influence
influence the texture of the biscuits. As reported earlier, the sensory properties of a product. In this study, micro-
dough containing higher solid fat was the hardest and the structural analyses using SEM were carried out to examine
least dough hardness was observed for that containing palm and characterise the microstructure formed using different
olein. Peak force required to break the biscuits was posi- types of oil in the formulation. SEM images of the internal
tively correlated to dough hardness (r00.633, p<0.05). The cross-sectional area of biscuits are shown in Fig. 2. The
same effect was noticed by O’Brien et al. (2003), who found biscuits showed an open structure consisting of gaps in
that biscuit produced using lower free fat (high solid fat) had between the material layers. The expansion of bubbles of
higher breaking strengths. gases as a result of increasing temperature, which also
The present observations are in contrast to the findings by increases the water vapour pressure within them, may result
Manohar and Rao (1999), who reported that no significant in an increased tensile stress in the membrane initiating
difference was observed in breaking strength of biscuits rupture and the formation of holes and tunnels in the product
made of hydrogenated fat and oil. But, they were through which the gas finds a way to the outside (Bloksma
 J Food Sci Technol

1600

dough biscuit
1400

A A A
1200 B
Density (g/cm3)

1000

800

600

a a a b
400

200
Butter Palm oil Palm olein PMF

Oil

35

a a
30

25 b
b
Force (N)

20

15

10

0
Butter Palm oil Olein PMF
Oil
Fig. 1 Densities of dough and biscuit and biscuit hardness (Force) of produced biscuit produced with different type of oil. Different capital letters
(Dough) and small letters (Biscuit) differ significantly (P<0.05) (n010)

and Bushuk 1988). No major conclusion can be drawn in fraction seems to have heterogeneous air cells with rough
relation to the resultant cross-sectional openness where the large holes. This can be related to the distribution of the oil
results obtained were not correlated with the biscuit texture in the dough prior to baking.
analysis finding. The size of the sample used during mea-
surement using SEM might contribute to the results due to Sensory evaluation of biscuits hardness
only a small portion of the biscuit was used. However, there
are some differences in the porosity observed between In this study, sensory evaluation of biscuits, which had also
biscuits made of palm olein, palm oil, and butterfat, where been used for hardness determination by instrumental meas-
the air cells in the structure seem to be more homogenous, urements (three-point bend test), was undertaken. Instru-
uniform, and well-dispersed in the butter sample compared mental methods of texture measurement have advantages
to the palm mid-fraction sample. Biscuit made of palm mid- over sensory methods, such as less time-consuming,
J Food Sci Technol

PMF Palm oil

Olein Butterfat
Fig. 2 Scanning electron microscopy photographs showing internal structure of biscuits. Bars0500 μm

cheaper, more repeatable, and free from variability caused by required to break the biscuits differ by about 7 N and this
psychological, physiological, and environmental factors influ- may not be sufficient for the panellists to detect.
encing the human responses. On the other hand, the advantage
of sensory methods over instrumental methods of texture
measurement is the complexity of perception, enabling an Conclusions
immediate analysis, integration, and interpretation of a large
number of single textural sensations at the same time. From a Fat is an important ingredient in baking products and it
sensory point of view, hardness of a solid food is defined as plays many roles in providing desirable textural properties
the force required to compress a substance when placed be- of baking products, particularly biscuit. TPA results showed
tween molar teeth (Szczesniak 2002). In the study, a Friedman that the type of oil significantly influenced dough textural
test was conducted to determine whether consumers (n031) properties. Hardness measurement showed that biscuit pro-
had a differential rank ordered perception for the four manu- duced with higher solid fat oil had higher breaking force, but
factured biscuit samples. Results of analysis indicated that this was not perceived when tested by sensory panel. Scan-
there was no differential rank ordered perception for all sam- ning electron microscopy showed that biscuit produced with
ples (corrected F00.41, p>0.05). It can therefore be conclud- palm mid-fraction had an open internal microstructure and
ed that consumers cannot detect any differences of hardness heterogeneous air cells as compared to other samples. It is
between the samples. Three-point bend test results showed important to be able to understand the critical properties of
that there was a statistical difference between biscuits made of oils within a biscuit so that sound decisions about the type
butter and palm mid-fraction and those made of palm oil or and quantity of oil can be made. Fats appear to be important
palm olein. The actual force difference between the biscuits in the initial stages of biscuit manufacture and the study
was small. The highest and the lowest peak force values shows that mixing and pressing of the samples are
 J Food Sci Technol

influenced by the type of oil. Hard oils (e.g. stearine) do not Giese J (1996) Fats and fat replacers, balancing the health benefits.
Food Technol 50:76–78
bind the product so that it can be sheeted. Despite using very Hasmadi M, Madian AH, Sandra EH (2010) Physicochemical proper-
different types of oil, the biscuit textures produced were not ties of commercial semi-sweet biscuit. Food Chem 121:1029–
very different. This leads to the view that aeration, using the 1038
chemical leaveners and the matrix between the voids, is not Jacob J, Leelavathi K (2007) Effect of fat-type on cookie dough and
cookie quality. J Food Eng 79:299–305
dominated by the effects of the oil. Therefore, if the biscuit Kieffer R, Wieser H, Henderson MH, Graveland A (1998) Corre-
dough can be formed, the texture can be satisfactory regard- lations of the breadmaking performance of wheat flour with
less of the hardness of the oil. rheological measurements on a micro-scale. J Cereal Sci 27
(1):53–60
Kulthe AA, Pawar VD, Kotecha PM, Chavan UD, Bansode VV (2011)
Development of high protein and low calorie cookies. J Food Sci
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