ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

NDDY
1st Year

CELLS AND TSSUES

Cell Definition
“A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s
processes.”

Characteristics of Cells
Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:

 Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

 The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a
separate membrane.
 The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction
and cell growth.
 Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the
energy transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organisation of the cell
by synthesising selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to
their appropriate locations.

What is a Cell?
A cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life. The study of cells from its basic structure
to the functions of every cell organelle is called Cell Biology. Robert Hooke was the first
Biologist who discovered cells.
All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or
many cells (multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest known cells. Cells are the building
blocks of all living beings. They provide structure to the body and convert the nutrients
taken from the food into energy.
Cells are complex and their components perform various functions in an organism. They are
of different shapes and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the buildings. Our body is made up
of cells of different shapes and sizes.
Cells are the lowest level of organisation in every life form. From organism to organism, the
count of cells may vary.

Types of Cells
Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that work towards a
common objective. Various types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular structure,
there are two types of cells:

 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes

Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out
life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and
cell organelles. Read on to explore more insights on cell structure and function.

Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of
substances in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment.
The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles,
such as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma
membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of
selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also
protects the cellular component from damage and leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from
external factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

Cell Wall
 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of
cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
  The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and
other cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks
and injuries.
Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria,
ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.
Nucleus
 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the
rest of the cell.
 The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.
Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry
out life’s processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as
follows:

Cell Organelles and their Functions

Nucleolus

The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling

cellular activities and cellular reproduction.

Nuclear membrane

The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the
nucleus and other cell organelles.

Chromosomes

Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each

human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances

throughout the cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates,
synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.

Golgi Bodies
 Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation
of materials within the cell.

Ribosome

Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.

Mitochondria

The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because

it produces ATP – the cell’s energy currency.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and
help in cell renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.

Chloroplast

Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the

pigment called chlorophyll.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.

Cell Theory
Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden,
and Rudolf Virchow. The cell theory states that:
 All living species on Earth are composed of cells.
 A cell is the basic unit of life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
A modern version of the cell theory was eventually formulated, and it contains the following
postulates:
 Energy flows within the cells.
 Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the other.
 The chemical composition of all the cells is the same.

Functions of Cell
A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism.
Important functions of cell are as follows:
Provides Support and Structure
All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the organisms.
The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide
support and structure to the organism. For eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells.
Xylem present in the vascular plants is made of cells that provide structural support to the
plants.
Facilitate Growth Mitosis
In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the cells multiply
and facilitate the growth in an organism.
Allows Transport of Substances
Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on
inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by
active and passive transport. Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol
diffuse across the cell membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive
transport. The larger molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport
where the cells require a lot of energy to transport the substances.
Energy Production
Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the
cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.
Aids in Reproduction
A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is termed
as the asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter cells. Meiosis
causes the daughter cells to be genetically different from the parent cells.

TISSUES

What are Tissues?

In simple terms, tissue can be defined as a group of cells with similar shape and function are
termed as tissues. They form a cellular organizational level, intermediate between the cells
and organ system. Organs are then created by combining the functional groups of tissues.
Animal tissues are grouped into four types:
 Connective Tissue
 Muscle Tissue
 Nervous Tissue
 Epithelial Tissue
The collection of tissues are joined in structural units to serve a standard function of organs.
The primary purpose of these four types of tissue differs depending on the type of organism.
For example, the origin of the cells comprising a particular tissue type also differs.

Connective Tissues
They are the group of tissues made up of cells separated by non-living material, called as an
extracellular matrix. This tissue provides shape to the different organs and maintains their
positions. For example, blood, bone, tendon, adipose, ligament and areolar tissues. There are
three types of connective tissue:
 Fluid Connective Tissue.
 Fibrous Connective Tissue.
 Skeletal Connective Tissue.
Functions of Connective Tissue
The connective tissue functions by providing shape and maintains the position of different
organs in the body. It functions as the primary supporting tissue of the body. Other important
and the major functions of connective tissue in the body are:
1. Insulating.
2. Helps in binding the organs together and provides support.
3. It protects against the invasions of pathogens by their phagocytic activity.
4. Provides shape to the body, conserves body heat and also stores energy.
5. It is involved in the transportation of water, nutrients, minerals, hormones, gases,
wastes, and other substances within the body.
Muscle Tissue
They are involved in producing force and generating motion, either for the locomotion or for
other body movements within internal organs. There are three types of muscle tissue:
 Skeletal Muscle – they are typically attached to bones
 Cardiac Muscle – found in the heart.
 Visceral or Smooth Muscle – they are found in the inner walls of organs.
Functions of Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissues are associated with their movements including walking, running, lifting,
chewing, picking and dropping objects, etc. The other major functions of muscle tissue in the
body are:
1. Helps in maintaining an erect position, or posture.
2. Helps in the constriction of organs and blood vessels.
3. Involved in both voluntary and involuntary movements.
4. Involved in pumping blood and regulating the flow of blood in arteries.
5. Controls respiration by automatically driving the movement of air both into and out
of our body.
Nervous Tissue
They are the main tissue components of the brain and spinal cord in the central nervous
system. While, in the peripheral nervous system, the neural tissue forms the cranial nerves
and spinal nerves.
Functions of Nervous Tissue
The nervous tissue forms the communication network of the nervous system and is important
for information processing. The other major functions of nervous tissue in the body are:
 Response to stimuli.
 Stimulates and transmits information within the body.
 Plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning.
 Maintains stability and creates an awareness of the environment.
 Nervous tissue is involved in controlling and coordinating many metabolic activities.
Epithelial Tissue
They are formed by cells which cover the external parts of the body organs and lines the organ
surfaces such as the surface of the skin, the reproductive tract, the airways, and the inner
lining of the digestive tract.
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
This tissue performs a wide variety of functions including:
1. Play a major role in sensory reception, excretion, filtration and other metabolic
activities.
2. Provide mechanical strength and resistance to the underlying cells and tissue.
 3. It is involved in the movement of materials through the process of filtration, diffusion
and secretion.
4. Protects the internal organs against the invasions of pathogens, toxins, physical
trauma, radiation, etc.
Epithelial tissues are also involved in secreting hormones, enzymes, mucus and other
products from ducts and transporting it to the circulatory system.