Theories of IR

Theories Of IR
Marxism
Marxism is a political, social, and economic theory developed by Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels that critiques the capitalist system and advocates for a
classless, socialist society. Marxism argues that society is divided into two
primary classes: the bourgeoisie (the capitalist class that owns the means of
production) and the proletariat (the working class that sells labour for wages).
Key Concepts in Marxism
1. Class Struggle:
○ The core idea in Marxism is that history is defined by the conflict
between classes with opposing interests. Under capitalism, the
bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat, leading to inevitable tension
and, eventually, revolution.
2. Historical Materialism:
○ Marx believed that material conditions—like the economic base of
society—shape social, political, and intellectual life. Each stage of
history (e.g., feudalism, capitalism) has its own economic structure
that influences how society is organized.
3. Alienation:
○ Marx argued that capitalism alienates workers because they do not
own the products of their labor. This alienation leads to a sense of
powerlessness and lack of control over their own lives.
4. Surplus Value:
○ Capitalists make profits by exploiting workers, paying them less
than the value of what they produce. This difference is called
surplus value and is a primary mechanism for class exploitation
under capitalism.
5. Revolution and the Dictatorship of the Proletariat:
○ Marx predicted that as the working class becomes aware of their
exploitation, they would eventually overthrow the capitalist system
through revolution. Following this, a period of “dictatorship of the
proletariat” would ensue, where the working class controls the state
and dismantles class structures.
6. Communism:
○ In the final stage, a classless, stateless society would emerge where
resources are collectively owned, and people work according to
their abilities and receive according to their needs. In this society,
the exploitation and alienation seen in capitalism would be
eliminated.
Marxism in International Relations
In the field of International Relations (IR), Marxism emphasises the global

inequalities created by capitalism. It argues that international relations are
largely shaped by economic interests, and it critiques imperialism as an
extension of capitalist exploitation. Here, richer nations (core) exploit poorer
nations (periphery) for resources and cheap labour, sustaining global inequality.
Modern Relevance of Marxism
Although Marxism has adapted over time, it still influences discussions on

global inequality, the ethics of capitalism, labour rights, and anti-imperialism.
Many social and political movements draw on Marxist ideas to advocate for
more equitable economic systems and challenge exploitation
Russian Revolution (1917)
● Inspired by Marxist ideas, the Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir Lenin,

overthrew the Russian monarchy and established a socialist state. This led
to the formation of the Soviet Union, which attempted to create a
classless, communist society based on the principles of Marxism. The
Soviet Union abolished private ownership of industry and established a
planned economy.
2. Chinese Communist Revolution (1949)
● Led by Mao Zedong, the Chinese Communist Party adopted

Marxist-Leninist principles to overthrow the existing government and
establish the People's Republic of China. Mao adapted Marxism to fit
China's largely agrarian society, focusing on peasant support rather than
urban workers, leading to unique policies like the collectivization of
agriculture and land reforms
Dependency Theory
● This is an economic theory influenced by Marxism, developed by

scholars from Latin America in the 20th century. It argues that wealthy
countries (core) exploit poorer, developing countries (periphery), keeping
them in a state of dependency. Dependency theorists critique global
capitalism, seeing it as a system that perpetuates inequality and limits the
development of poorer nations
Constructivism
Constructivism is a theory in international relations (IR) that focuses on how
ideas, beliefs, and identities shape the international system. Unlike traditional
theories like realism and liberalism, which view states as rational actors acting
mainly in their self-interest, constructivism argues that the international
environment is socially constructed. This means that the relationships and
behaviours between states are influenced by the ideas, identities, norms, and
cultures that states hold about themselves and others.
Key Founders
● Alexander Wendt
● Nicholas Onuf
● John Ruggie
Key Principles of Constructivism in International Relations
1. Ideas and Beliefs Shape State Behavior

○ Constructivists believe that states' actions are influenced by their
ideas and beliefs. For instance, if a country sees itself as a "leader
of democracy," it may feel morally obligated to promote
democratic values abroad, even if it's not in its immediate
self-interest.
2. Importance of Norms and Social Structures
○ Constructivism emphasises that international norms (accepted
behaviours) shape how states interact. For example, norms around
human rights can influence states to condemn or intervene in
countries violating those rights. Norms are not static; they evolve
as collective ideas change over time.
3. Identity and Interests are Socially Constructed
○ Constructivists argue that a state’s identity (e.g., democratic,
capitalist, or revolutionary) affects its interests and actions. A
state’s interests aren’t fixed but are shaped by its history, culture,
and social context. For example, after World War II, Germany
adopted an identity as a peaceful, cooperative nation, which shaped
its foreign policy in ways that avoid military confrontation.
4. Anarchy is What States Make of It
○ A central constructivist argument by Alexander Wendt is that
"anarchy is what states make of it." This means that, while the
international system lacks a central authority (anarchy), states can
choose to act either cooperatively or confrontationally based on
their relationships, not just based on fear or power struggles. For
example, allies like the United States and the United Kingdom
don’t view each other as threats, despite both being powerful,
because of their shared identity and trust.
5. Change is Possible Through Interaction
○ Constructivism holds that state behaviour can change through
interaction, socialisation, and communication. States learn from
one another and adapt to norms and ideas over time. For example,
over the decades, European countries transformed from fierce
competitors into cooperative members of the European Union,
sharing sovereignty in many areas.
Examples of Constructivism in Action
● End of the Cold War: Constructivists argue that the end of the Cold War
was not just about material power shifts but also about changing ideas.
Mikhail Gorbachev’s "new thinking" in Soviet foreign policy emphasised
cooperation over competition, which helped reduce tensions with the
West.
● Human Rights and Anti-Apartheid: International norms around human
rights have shaped state behaviour. For instance, the global anti-apartheid
movement in the 20th century influenced countries and the United
Nations to condemn and sanction South Africa, demonstrating how
international norms pressured a change.
● Climate Change Cooperation: Efforts to combat climate change often
rely on shared norms and values rather than self-interest alone. States
cooperate to address environmental issues based on a collective
understanding of their responsibility, influenced by the norm that climate
change is a global challenge requiring shared solutions.
Criticisms of Constructivism
1. Lack of Predictive Power: Constructivism focuses on understanding

rather than predicting state behaviour, making it less effective at
forecasting future actions.
2. Subjectivity: Critics argue that constructivism relies too much on
interpreting state intentions and identities, which can be subjective and
hard to measure.
3. Limited Focus on Power and Material Factors: Constructivism is
sometimes criticised for not adequately addressing the role of power and
economic resources in shaping state behaviour.

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Theories Of IR

Key Concepts in Marxism

Marxism in International Relations

In the field of International Relations (IR), Marxism emphasises the global

Modern Relevance of Marxism

Although Marxism has adapted over time, it still influences discussions on

Russian Revolution (1917)

● Inspired by Marxist ideas, the Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir Lenin,

2. Chinese Communist Revolution (1949)

● Led by Mao Zedong, the Chinese Communist Party adopted

● This is an economic theory influenced by Marxism, developed by

Key Principles of Constructivism in International Relations

1. Ideas and Beliefs Shape State Behavior

Examples of Constructivism in Action

1. Lack of Predictive Power: Constructivism focuses on understanding

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