Marxism

Marxism is a materialist philosophy which tried to interpret the world based on the concrete,
natural world around us and the society we live in. It is opposed to idealist philosophy which
conceptualizes a spiritual world elsewhere that influences and controls the material world. In
one sense it tried to put people’s thought into reverse gear as it was a total deviation from the
philosophies that came before it. Karl Marx himself has commented on this revolutionary
nature of Marxism, “The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways; the
point is to change it.” It is true that while other philosophies tried to understand the world,
Marxism tried to change it.

Origins of Marxism

Developed by the German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the mid-19th century
when Europe was undergoing rapid industrialization and urbanization.

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, motivated by the social and economic injustices of their time,
embarked on a mission to analyze the dynamics of capitalism and to propose an alternative
system.

Karl Marx (1818-1883): Marx is the central figure of Marxism. He developed the core ideas and
concepts, including historical materialism, class struggle, and the critique of capitalism, outlined
in works such as The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867).

Friedrich Engels (1820-1895): Engels collaborated closely with Marx and co-authored The
Communist Manifesto. He also played a significant role in developing and popularizing Marxist
theory.

1) Means of Production

The means of production refers to the physical and non-physical assets, tools, and resources
that are used to produce goods and services in an economic system.

a) Physical Means of Production: This includes tangible assets such as land, factories,
machinery, raw materials, and technology. These physical elements are essential for the
production of goods and services in any society.
b) Non-Physical Means of Production: This refers to the social and organizational aspects
of production, including labor power, knowledge, skills and expertise, financial systems
and the relationships between individuals and groups within the production process.
2) Mode of Production ("the way of producing")

The mode of production describes the specific economic system that characterizes a society.
Marx and Engels identified four main modes of production:

Primitive communism: This is the earliest mode of production, in which people lived in
small, hunter-gatherer societies. The means of production were owned communally,
and there was no class division.

Slave society: This mode of production is characterized by the ownership of slaves by a

ruling class. The slaves were forced to work for the ruling class, and they did not own
any property.

Feudal society: This mode of production is characterized by the ownership of land by a

ruling class, the lords. The serfs were forced to work the land for the lords, and they did
not own any property.

Capitalist society: This mode of production is characterized by the ownership of the

means of production by a capitalist class. The workers sell their labor power to the
capitalists in exchange for a wage. The capitalists exploit the workers by paying them
less than the value of their labor.

3) Class

In Marxism, class is a social group that shares a common interest and a common relationship
to the means of production.

The two main classes in capitalist society are the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

● Bourgeoisie (Capitalist Class): The bourgeoisie are the owners of the means of
production. They control factories, land, resources, and capital. Their primary goal is to
maximize profit.

● Proletariat (Working Class): The proletariat consists of individuals who do not own the
means of production. Instead, they must sell their labor power (work) to the bourgeoisie
in exchange for wages. Their primary goal is to secure employment and fair wages.

The bourgeoisie and the proletariat have opposing interests. The bourgeoisie want to make as
much profit as possible, while the proletariat want to earn a living wage. This conflict of
interest leads to class struggle.

4) Class Struggle:
Marx believed that the inherent conflict of interest between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat
would lead to class struggle. The bourgeoisie seeks to maximize profits by paying lower wages,
while the proletariat strives for better working conditions and higher wages.

This ongoing class struggle is considered the driving force of historical change and social
transformation. Marxists believe that it will eventually culminate in a proletarian revolution
that overthrows the bourgeoisie and leads to a classless society.

5) Class Consciousness

Class consciousness refers to the awareness and understanding that members of a particular
social class have about their shared interests, common economic position, and the power
dynamics that exist within society.

Marxists argue that false consciousness can result from the manipulation of information and
ideology by the ruling class. Media, education, and cultural institutions can shape people's
perceptions in ways that serve the interests of the dominant class.

6) False Consciousness

False consciousness is the opposite of class consciousness. It refers to a situation in which

individuals, particularly members of the working class, lack a clear understanding of their own
class interests and may even hold beliefs or attitudes that are contrary to those interests.

Those with false consciousness may believe that their interests align with those of the capitalist
class, even though this is not the case. For example, they may support policies that primarily
benefit the bourgeoisie.

Individuals with false consciousness do not fully grasp their class position or may see
themselves as temporarily disadvantaged rather than recognizing their systemic economic
status.

Marxists argue that false consciousness can result from the manipulation of information and
ideology by the ruling class. Media, education, and cultural institutions can shape people's
perceptions in ways that serve the interests of the dominant class.

7) Base and Superstructure

The base, also known as the economic base, refers to the production forces, or the materials
and resources, that generate the goods society needs. It includes the means of production,
such as factories, land, resources, technology, and labor power.
The superstructure describes all other aspects of society, such as the political system, the legal
system, the educational system, the religious system, and the cultural system.

Marx argued that the base is the foundation of society and that the superstructure is built on
top of the base. The base determines the nature of the superstructure, and the superstructure
in turn helps to maintain the base. For example, the political system of a society is shaped by
the economic system of that society. In a capitalist society, the political system is designed to
protect the interests of the capitalist class.

8) Dialectical Materialism and Historical Materialism

Dialectical materialism and Historical Materialism are two key components of Marxist theory
that evolved from dialectics, a concept developed by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, a
prominent idealist German philosopher of the 19th century.

Hegel's dialectics is a method of philosophical inquiry that sees the world as constantly
changing and evolving through the conflict of opposing ideas. That is according to Hegel, when
opposing ideas clash, it causes new ideas to emerge, and this is what makes the world change.

Dialectical materialism is a philosophical framework that was developed by Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels, building upon the dialectical method of Hegel but shifting it toward a
materialist perspective.

It is a method of reasoning that sees the world as constantly changing and evolving through the
conflict of opposing forces. These forces can be material, such as the conflict between classes,
or they can be ideological, such as the conflict between different ideas.

Historical materialism is a specific application of dialectical materialism. It is the cornerstone of

Marxist thought.

It posits that the evolution of societies is primarily determined by changes in the material or
economic conditions of society. That is human history is not a series of random events, but
rather a structured and evolving process driven by the relationship between people and their
material environment.

Historical materialism recognizes that societies are divided into social classes based on their
relationship to the means of production. For instance, in capitalist societies, you have the
bourgeoisie, who are the capitalists or owners, and the proletariat, who are the working class.
These two classes are often in conflict because they have opposing interests. This class struggle
is a powerful force behind changes in history and the transformation of society.
For example, the French Revolution was a period of political and social upheaval that was
driven by the conflict between the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy. The bourgeoisie wanted to
overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic, while the aristocracy wanted to maintain the
status quo. The French Revolution was a major turning point in history and led to the
development of modern democracy.

Even though Dialectical materialism and Historical Materialism are closely related concepts,
there are significant differences as well. Dialectical materialism is a way of understanding how
change happens, while historical materialism is a way of understanding how history changes.
Dialectical materialism provides the philosophical foundation, while historical materialism
applies this framework specifically to the study of human history and societal evolution.

While DM considers the conflict of opposing forces as the primary determinant of change, HM
considers the material conditions of life as the primary determinant of change.

In DM, the base and superstructure are seen as two distinct entities. The base is seen as the
primary determinant of the superstructure. In HM, on the other hand, the base and
superstructure are seen as more interconnected. The base is still seen as the primary
determinant of the superstructure, but the superstructure is also seen as having a feedback
effect on the base.

9) Capital

It refers to the means of production, such as machinery, tools, and raw materials. It also refers
to the money used to buy these means of production. There are two primary categories of
capital:

a. Constant capital (c): The value of the means of production, such as machinery, tools, and
raw materials. It does not create any new value, but it is necessary to produce goods and
services.
b. Variable capital (v): The value of labor power, or the wages paid to workers. It creates
new value through the workers' labor.

Marx argued that the capitalist class extracts Surplus Value from the working class by paying
workers less than the value of their labor power. The difference between the value of the labor
power and the wages paid to workers is the surplus value. The capitalist class then uses the
surplus value to accumulate more capital, which can be used to buy more means of production
and hire more workers.

10) Capitalism
Marxists define capitalism as an economic and social system in which the means of production
are privately owned, leading to the exploitation of labor for profit. It is marked by class
divisions, where the bourgeoisie controls the means of production and accumulates wealth,
while the proletariat sells their labor power for wages, often experiencing alienation and
economic inequality.

11) The Theory of Production

The theory of production in Marxism, often referred to as Marxist Political Economy or the
Labor Theory of Value, is a fundamental component of Marxist economic analysis. It focuses on
how goods and services are produced within a capitalist framework and the role of labor,
capital, and the means of production in this process.

Marx argued that the capitalist mode of production is based on the exploitation of the working
class by the capitalist class. The working class produces goods and services, but they do not
receive the full value of their labor. The capitalist class appropriates the surplus value created
by the working class, which is the difference between the value of the goods and services
produced and the wages paid to the workers.

Marx explained this exploitation through the concept of surplus value.

Marx believed that the exploitation of the working class would eventually lead to the collapse
of capitalism. He argued that the working class would eventually become aware of their
exploitation, and they would revolt against the capitalist class. This would lead to the
establishment of a socialist or communist society, in which the means of production would be
owned by the working class and the surplus value would be shared equally.

12) Socialism

Socialism is an economic and political ideology that advocates for collective or state ownership
and control of the means of production, distribution, and exchange. In a socialist society, the
means of production, such as factories, land, and resources, are owned and operated either by
the state or by the workers themselves, often through cooperative or communal arrangements.
The central goal of socialism is to eliminate or reduce economic inequality and promote social
welfare, with the aim of achieving a more equitable and just society.

According to Marxists, socialism is a transitional stage in the development of society that

precedes communism.

Communism is a political and economic ideology that envisions a classless society where the
means of production, distribution, and exchange are collectively owned and controlled. In a
communist society, there is no private ownership of property, and resources are held in
common. Communism aims to eliminate social classes, economic inequality, and the
exploitation of labor.

Socialist systems may involve a government or state apparatus to oversee economic planning,
regulation, and wealth redistribution. But communists believe that as class distinctions and
social conflicts diminish, the need for a centralized government withers away, and society
becomes self-organizing based on voluntary cooperation.

13) Commodity

A commodity is a good or service that is produced for the purpose of exchange in the market. It
has economic value and can be bought and sold. Within a capitalist economic system,
commodification is the process by which non-commodities are transformed into commodities.
This can happen through a variety of means, such as the privatization of public goods, the
commodification of labor, and the commodification of culture.

Marx argued that, in a capitalist society, everything is commodified, including human labor,
relationships, and even ideas. This leads to a devaluation of human life and a loss of control
over our own lives.

Commodification of Human Beings:

The commodification of human beings refers to the process by which labor, skills, and even
personal attributes become treated as commodities to be bought and sold in the capitalist
market system.

In capitalism, individuals sell their labor power as a commodity to employers in exchange for
wages. This commodification of labor power means that workers are seen as a resource to be
used for profit, similar to other goods and services. One of the worst effects of commodification
of labor is alienation.

14) Alienation

Alienation, as described by Marx, is the feeling of disconnection or estrangement that

individuals experience in a capitalist system. It arises due to the nature of capitalist
production, where workers are often treated as instruments of production, forced to perform
repetitive tasks, and have limited control over their work. The products they create often
belong to the capitalist owners, and workers may not feel a sense of ownership or fulfillment
from their labor.

Reification is a similar concept developed by Hungarian Marxist philosopher Georg Lukács.

Lukács argued that reification is a form of alienation. He introduced the concept in his 1923
essay "Reification and the Consciousness of the Proletariat," which is part of his book History
and Class Consciousness.

Lukács defined reification as "the transformation of human relations into relations between
things." When people are reified, they are turned into objects, and they lose their sense of
agency and self-worth. This can lead to a number of problems, such as depression, anxiety, and
a sense of powerlessness.

Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno, key members of the Frankfurt School, explored the idea
of reification in their critical analysis of modern capitalist society, particularly in their influential
work "Dialectic of Enlightenment" (1947). They built upon Lukács's insights and expanded the
discussion of reification by incorporating it into their broader critique of modernity and the
culture industry.

15) Commodity Fetishism

It is a concept introduced by Karl Marx in his critique of capitalism, particularly in his work Das
Kapital, Volume I. It refers to the social phenomenon in which commodities (goods and
services) appear to have inherent value and power, independent of the human labor and
social relationships that produced them.

Marx argued that commodity fetishism is a central feature of capitalism. In a capitalist society,
commodities are produced for exchange, not for use. This means that the value of a commodity
is determined by its exchange value, or the amount of money that it can be sold for. The use
value of a commodity, or its usefulness to the person who consumes it, is secondary.

A diamond ring is a commodity. It has a use value, in that it can be used as a piece of jewelry.
However, its exchange value is much higher than its use value. This is because diamonds are
considered to be valuable, and they are often used as a symbol of wealth and status.

A bottle of water is a commodity. It has a use value, in that it can be used to quench thirst.
However, its exchange value can vary greatly depending on the circumstances. For example, a
bottle of water might be worth very little in a developed country, but it could be worth a lot of
money in a developing country where there is a shortage of water.

Farm products, such as fruits, vegetables, and grains, have a high use value, in that they are
essential for human survival. However, their exchange value is often very low, especially in
developing countries. This is because farm products are often produced by poor farmers who
do not have much bargaining power.
The social relations between people who produce and consume commodities are obscured by
the exchange value of the commodities. This can lead to a number of problems, including
reification and alienation of workers.

Marx believed that commodity fetishism could be overcome only by abolishing the capitalist
mode of production and replacing it with a socialist or communist mode of production. In a
socialist or communist society, the means of production would be owned and controlled by the
people, and commodities would be produced for use, not for exchange.

16) Labour

Labour is a central concept in Marxist theory. Marx argued that labour is the source of all value,
and that the capitalist mode of production is based on the exploitation of labour.

Marx distinguished between two types of labour: concrete labour and abstract labour.
Concrete labour is the specific type of work that is done, such as weaving cloth or building a
house. Abstract labour is the amount of time and effort that is put into work, regardless of the
specific type of work.

For example, the amount of abstract labor required to weave a yard of cloth is the same
whether the cloth is made of wool or cotton. The specific type of work (weaving) is different,
but the amount of time and effort required is the same.

The capitalist class owns the means of production, and the working class does not. The working
class must sell their labor power to the capitalist class in order to survive. The capitalist class
pays the working class a wage, which is supposed to be the value of the labor power that the
worker sells. However, Marx argued that the capitalist class always pays the worker less than
the value of their labor power. This surplus value is then appropriated by the capitalist class.

Marx believed that the exploitation of abstract labor is the driving force of capitalism.

17) Division of Labour

The division of labor is the process of breaking down a task into smaller, more specialized tasks
that can be performed by different people. The division of labor is a fundamental principle of
economics and has been used to organize work in a variety of economic systems, including
capitalism, socialism, and communism.

Marx argued that the division of labor is essential to the functioning of capitalism, but that it
also leads to the exploitation of workers. He divided the specialization of labour into main
types: the social division of labor and the technical division of labor. The social division of
labor refers to the way in which tasks are divided among different social groups, such as the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The technical division of labor refers to the way in which tasks
are divided within a particular production process.

The assembly line in a car factory is a classic example of the technical division of labor. Workers
are divided into different tasks, such as welding, painting, or assembling. This allows the factory
to produce cars more efficiently. The IT industry is another example of the technical division of
labor. Workers are divided into different roles, such as software developers, system
administrators, and network engineers. This allows the industry to produce software and
services more efficiently.

The social division of labor is influenced by cultural norms, traditions, and social expectations.
It often assigns distinct roles to different groups within society. For example, it may dictate that
women are primarily responsible for caregiving and domestic work.

Marx argued that the social division of labor is based on the ownership of the means of
production. In a capitalist society, the means of production are owned by the bourgeoisie. This
means that the proletariat is forced to perform specific roles within the production process,
with limited control over their work and the products they create. This also reinforces class
divisions.

Marx argued that the division of labor leads to a number of problems, including: Exploitation of
Labor, Class Division and Inequality, Alienation, Commodification of Labor, Social Inequalities,
Class Struggle and Reproduction of Capitalism

18) Ideology

Ideology may be defined as a set of beliefs shared by a group of people. The term "ideology"
was born during the Reign of Terror of French Revolution, and acquired several other meanings
thereafter. The word, and the system of ideas associated with it, was coined by Antoine Destutt
de Tracy in 1796, while he was in prison pending trial during the Terror. It became more widely
used and accepted after it was used by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in their writings.

In Marxism, the term "ideology" is used to refer to a set of ideas, beliefs, values, and cultural
norms that serve the interests of a particular social class, typically the ruling class in a given
society. Marxists view ideology as a means through which the dominant class justifies and
perpetuates its power, while obscuring the underlying economic and social realities of class
struggle and exploitation.

Ideology in Marxism is:

 1) It is Class based as it reflects and reinforces the interests of the ruling class, which, in
capitalist societies, is the bourgeoisie (capitalist class). The dominant ideology is used to
maintain the status quo and legitimize the existing social and economic order.

2) It is Hegemonic: Ideology is a tool used by the ruling class to maintain its power and
control over society. It operates through various institutions and practices, such as
education, media, religion, and culture, which shape individuals' beliefs and values,
often aligning them with the prevailing ideology of the ruling class.

3) It is False Consciousness. Ideologies prevent people from seeing the true nature of their
oppression. They make people believe that the status quo is in their best interests, even
when it is not.

Louis Althusser, a prominent French Marxist philosopher, expanded upon Karl Marx's ideas,
particularly regarding the role of ideology in society. Althusser argued that ideology creates
social roles and social classes by making them appear natural.

In his seminal work, Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, Althusser introduced the
concept of two apparatuses through which dominant ideologies are maintained. The first is the
Repressive State Apparatus (RSA), which includes institutions like the military and police. RSA
employs direct force and coercion to uphold the existing social and political order. For example,
the police force enforces laws and regulations, ensuring compliance through the threat of
punishment or physical force.

The second apparatus, the Ideological State Apparatus (ISA), comprises institutions such as the
media, education, and family. ISAs play a subtler but equally influential role in shaping ideology.
These institutions disseminate and reinforce dominant ideas, values, and norms. For instance,
the educational system imparts knowledge and socializes individuals into the prevalent
ideologies of their society. The media, including television, newspapers, and digital platforms,
disseminate information and narratives that often reflect and perpetuate the dominant
ideology.

Interpellation, a key concept in Althusser's theory, describes how individuals are hailed or
called into their roles and identities (called into being) within the ideological apparatus.
People are interpellated when they recognize themselves in the roles and norms presented by
ideology. For example, an individual might recognize themselves as a "good citizen" through the
ideology conveyed by institutions like education and media, reinforcing their alignment with
the dominant social order.

When a politician says "My fellow Americans," they are interpellating their audience as subjects
of the nation-state. The politician is calling them to rally around the flag and to support the
government. When a religious leader says "Believers," they are interpellating their congregation
as subjects of the faith. The religious leader is calling them to take on the role of believers and
to obey the teachings of the faith.

Antonio Gramsci, an Italian philosopher and Marxist, expanded on these ideas by emphasizing
that the power of ideology primarily operates through consent rather than sheer force.
Gramsci’s concept of Hegemony refers to the dominance or leadership of one social group or
class over others through the establishment of its ideas, values, and norms as the prevailing
common sense.

Gramsci emphasized that hegemony operates primarily through the consent of the masses. This
consent is secured through cultural and ideological means, including education, media, and
cultural production—the very institutions that Althusser identified as ISAs. These institutions
shape the beliefs and values of society in ways that align with the interests of the ruling class.

Media outlets, functioning as ISAs, can present narratives that depict the capitalist economic
system as natural and beneficial. Through such narratives, consent for the existing economic
order is manufactured, reinforcing the hegemonic structure.

19) Sublation

Sublation is a Hegelian concept that refers to the process by which a concept is both negated
and preserved. In Marxian terms, this means that a particular social formation is both overcome
and preserved in the next social formation. For example, capitalism can be seen as a sublation
of feudalism. Capitalism negates feudalism by abolishing the feudal system of land ownership
and social relations. However, capitalism also preserves certain aspects of feudalism, such as
the division of labor and the exploitation of labor.

In a similar way, socialism can be seen as a sublation of capitalism. Socialism negates capitalism
by abolishing the private ownership of the means of production and the exploitation of labor.
However, socialism also preserves certain aspects of capitalism, such as the division of labor
and the use of technology.

Communism can be seen as a sublation of both socialism and capitalism. It preserves certain
aspects of socialism, such as the common ownership of the means of production, but it also
negates socialism by abolishing the state. It preserves certain aspects of capitalism, such as the
division of labor, but it also negates capitalism by abolishing private property and the class
system.
The concept of sublation is useful for understanding the dialectical nature of historical change.
It shows how social formations are not simply replaced by new social formations, but rather
they are transformed through a process of negation and preservation.

The concept of sublation can also be used to understand the challenges of achieving
communism. Communism is a complex and difficult goal to achieve.