Uganda Technical College Bushenyi

UTC BUSHENYI

Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Department of Civil and Building Engineering

YEAR I, SEMESTER I

DTCE 111 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION/CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY I

LECTURER: MUGISHA JULIUS ANDREW

2023
 Uganda Technical College Bushenyi
1.0 Introduction to construction technology
SUMMARY
 The building environment: elements of the environment; functions and relationship of elements.
 Builder’s plants and their maintenance.
1.1 Background
Construction Technology involves study on methods of construction to successfully achieve the
structural design with recommended specifications.
It also includes study of construction equipments, and temporary works required to facilitate the
construction process.
The modern trend is towards constructing lighter and taller buildings which is always a big challenge in
an era of financial crunch. To achieve it successfully there is a need of have sophisticated equipments
employed in the construction process.
Summary

 This subject consists of construction activities.

 Introduction to substructure: foundation and piles.
 Introduction to temporary works: scaffolds and formworks.
 Introduction to• Introduction to superstructure: Floors, Walls, Internal Fixtures and Fittings and
Roofs.
 Introduction to external works.

“It is a great profession There is a fascination of watching a figment of the imagination emerge
through the aid of science to a plan on paper. Then it moves to realization in stone or metal or
energy. Then it brings jobs and homes to men. Then it elevates the standards of living and adds to the
comforts of life. That is the engineer’s high priviledge” .
-Herbert Hoover

Sociological changes, new technology in industry and commerce, new building codes, other new laws
and regulations, inflationary economies of nations, and advances in building technology place an ever-
increasing burden on building designers and constructors.
They need more and more knowledge and skill to cope with the demands placed on them.
The public continually demands more complex buildings than in the past.
They must serve
 more purposes,
 last longer,

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 And require less maintenance and repair.
 As in the past, they must look attractive.

Yet, both building construction and operating costs must be kept within acceptable limits or new
construction will cease.
To meet this challenge successfully, continual improvements in building design and construction must
be made.
“Building designers and constructors should be alert to these advances and learn how to apply them
skillfully”. (Ricketts 2000)
One advance of note to building design is the adaptation of operations research, or systems design,
developed around the middle of the twentieth century and originally applied with noteworthy results to
design of machines and electronic equipment.
In the past, design of a new building was mainly an imitation of the design of an existing building.
Innovations were often developed fortuitously and by intuition and were rare occurrences. In contrast,
systems design encourages innovation. It is a precise procedure that guides creativity toward the best
decisions. As a result, it can play a significant role in meeting the challenges posed by increasing
building complexity and costs.
1.2 Civil/Building construction technology
There are two general aspects to the construction of buildings (Greeno 1999):

1. Conventional or traditional methods

2. Modern or industrialized methods

Conventional and traditional methods

Concentrate on smaller type of structure, such as a domestic dwelling of one or two storeys built by
labour intensive traditional methods.
Generally it is more economic to construct this type of building by these methods, unless large numbers
of similar units are required on the same site
Modern or industrialized methods
In these circumstances economic of scale may justify factory manufactured, prefabricated elements of
structure.
These industrialized manufacturing process used to produced complete elements, i.e. floors, walls, roof
frames, etc. in modules or standardized dimensional increments of 50 mm. (Modular Coordination by
CIDB Malaysia)
1.3 Types of construction projects
In general, there are three types of construction

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1. Building construction
2. Heavy/civil construction/infrastructure
3. Industrial construction
Each type of construction project requires a unique team to plan, design, construct, and maintain the
project
Building construction
Building
“A building is an assemblage that is firmly attached to the ground and that provides total or nearly
total shelter for machines, processing equipment, performance of human activities, storage of human
possessions, or any combination of these” (Ricketts 2000).
Building design
Building design is the process of providing all information necessary for construction of a building that
will meet its owner’s requirements and also satisfy public health, welfare, and safety requirements.
Architecture is the art and science of building design.
Building construction is the process of assembling materials to form a building.
Building design may be legally executed only by persons deemed competent to do so by the state in
which the building is to be constructed.
Competency is determined on the basis of education, experience, and ability to pass a written test of
design skills.
Architects are persons legally permitted to practice architecture.
Engineers are experts in specific scientific disciplines and are legally permitted to design parts of
buildings; in some cases, complete buildings. In some states, persons licensed as building designers are
permitted to design certain types of buildings.
Building construction is generally performed by laborers and crafts people engaged for the purpose by
an individual or organization, called a contractor.
The contractor signs an agreement, or contract, with the building owner under which the contractor
agrees to construct a specific building on a specified site and the owner agrees to pay for the materials
and services provided.

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Figure 1: simple components of a building

Systems design and analysis

Systems design comprises a logical series of steps that leads to the best decision for a given set of
conditions. The procedure requires:
 Analysis of a building as a system.
 Synthesis or selection of components, to form a system that meets specific objectives while
subject to constraints or variables controllable by designers.
 Appraisal of system performance, including comparisons with alternative systems.
 Feedback to analysis and synthesis of information obtained in system evaluation, to improve the
design.
For a building to be treated as a system, as required in systems design, it is necessary to know what a
system is and what its basic characteristic are.
“ A system is an assemblage formed to satisfy specific objectives and subject to constraints and
restrictions and consisting of two or more components that are interrelated and compatible, each
component being essential to the required performance of the system.”
Major building systems
The simplest building system consists of only two components.
 One component is a floor, a flat, horizontal surface on which human activities can take place

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 The other component is an enclosure that extends over the floor and generally also around it to
provide shelter from the weather for human activities.
Structural system
 The portion of a building that extends above the ground level outside it is called the
superstructure
 The portion below the outside ground level is called the substructure.
 The parts of the substructure that distribute building loads to the ground are known as
foundations.
In most buildings, the g superstructure structural system consists of
 floor and roof decks,
 horizontal members that support them,
 Vertical members that support the other components.

Figure 2: structural-steel skeleton frame work of a building

Industrial construction
These works include construction of manufacturing, processing and industrial plants like steel mills,
petroleum refineries and consumer goods factories. Industrial construction, though a relatively small part

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of the entire construction industry, is a very important component. Processes in these industries require
highly specialized expertise in planning, design, and construction. As in building and heavy/highway
construction, this type of construction requires a team of individuals to ensure a successful project.
1.4 Construction processes
Selection of Professional Services
When an owner decides to seek professional services for the design and construction of a facility, he is
confronted with a broad variety of choices. The type of services selected depends to a large degree on the
type of construction and the experience of the owner in dealing with various professionals in the previous
projects undertaken by the firm. Generally, several common types of professional services may be
engaged either separately or in some combination by the owners.
1.4.1 Design team
In the modern industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of paper or computer
based designs into reality. A formal design team may be assembled to plan the physical proceedings, and
to integrate those proceedings with the other parts. The design usually consists of drawings and
specifications, usually prepared by a design team including the client architects, architects, interior
designers, surveyors, civil engineers, cost engineers (or quantity surveyors), mechanical engineers,
electrical engineers, structural engineers, and fire protection engineers. The design team is most
commonly employed by (i.e. in contract with) the property owner. Under this system, once the design is
completed by the design team, a number of construction companies or construction management
companies may then be asked to make a bid for the work, either based directly on the design, or on the
basis of drawings and a bill of quantities provided by a quantity surveyor. Following evaluation of bids,
the owner will typically award a contract to the most cost efficient bidder
Several project structures can assist the owner in this integration, including design-build, partnering, and
construction management. In general, each of these project structures allows the owner to integrate the
services of architects, interior designers, engineers, and constructors throughout design and construction.
In response, many companies are growing beyond traditional offerings of design or construction services
alone, and are placing more emphasis on establishing relationships with other necessary participants
through the design-build process. The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for
design professionals trained in all phases of the project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of the
building as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their
individual components, including sustainability.

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The building team
Building is essentially a team process in which each member has an important role to play. Figure 1
shows the organisation structure of a typical team for a large project, and the function of each member is
outlined below

Figure 3: Organizational structure

Building owner: The client is the person or organization that finances and commissions the work. They
directly or indirectly employ all other personnel, with particular responsibility for appointing the
planning supervisor (usually the architect) and nominating the principal contractor
Architect: Engaged by the building owner as agent to design, advise and ensure that the project is kept
within cost and complies with the design
Clerk of works: Employed on large contracts as the architect’s on-site representative. The main
function is to liaise between architect and main contractor and to ensure that construction proceeds in
accordance with the design. They can offer advice, but directives must be through the architect
Quantity surveyor: Engaged to prepare cost evaluations and bills of quantities, check tenders, prepare
interim valuations, effect cost controls, and advice the architect on the cost of variations
Consulting engineers: Engaged to advise and design on a variety of specialist installations, e.g.
structural, services, security. They are employed to develop that particular aspect of the design within
the cost and physical parameters of the architect’s brief

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Principal or main contractor: Employed by the client on the advice of the architect, by nomination or
competitive tendering. They are required to administer the construction programme within the
architect’s direction.
Contract’s manager or site agent: On large projects, the main contractor’s representative on site, with
overall responsibility for ensuring that work proceeds effectively and efficiently, i.e. in accordance with
the design specification and to time. Sometimes known as the general foreman, but this title is more
appropriate on small to modest-size contracts.
Surveyor: Employed by the main contractor to check work progress and assist the quantity surveyor in
the preparation of interim valuations for stage payments and final accounts. He May also be required to
measure work done for bonus and subcontractor payments.
Estimator: Prepares unit rates for the pricing of tenders, and carries out pre-tender investigations into
the cost aspects of the proposed contract.
Buyer: Orders materials, obtains quotations for the supply of materials and services
Accountant: Prepares and submits accounts to clients and makes payments to suppliers and
subcontractors. May also have a costing department that would allocate the labour and material costs to
each contract to assist with the preparation of accounts
Administrator: Organizes the general clerical duties of the contractor’s office for the preparation of
contract documents and payment of salaries, subcontractors’ and suppliers’ invoices, insurances and all
necessary correspondence.
Assistant contract manager: Often a trainee, in the process of completing professional examinations.
He/she assists with the general responsibility for administering site proceedings.
Nominated subcontractor: Engaged by the client or architect for specialist construction or installation
work, e.g. lifts, air conditioning.
Domestic subcontractor: Employed by the principal contractor to assist with the general construction,
e.g. ground workers, bricklayers.
Operatives: The main workforce on-site; includes craftsmen, apprentices and laborers.
The size of the building firm or the size of the contract will determine the composition of the
construction team. For medium-sized contracts some of the above functions may be combined, e.g. that
of the surveyor and estimator.
Furthermore, many design-and-build practices have been created by combining the professional
expertise of architect, builder and consultants. The objective is to improve communications and create
better working relationships to provide the client with a more efficient and cost-effective service.
1.4.2 Financial advisors
Many construction projects suffer from preventable financial problems. Underbids ask for too little

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money to complete the project. Cash flow problems exist when the present amount of funding cannot
cover the current costs for labour and materials, and because they are a matter of having sufficient funds
at a specific time, can arise even when the overall total is enough. Fraud is a problem in many fields, but
is notoriously prevalent in the construction field. Financial planning for the project is intended to ensure
that a solid plan, with adequate safeguards and contingency plans, is in place before the project is started,
and is required to ensure that the plan is properly executed over the life of the project
Mortgage bankers, accountants, and cost engineers are likely participants in creating an overall plan for
the financial management of the building construction project. The presence of the mortgage banker is
highly likely even in relatively small projects, since the owner's equity in the property is the most obvious
source of funding for a building project. Accountants act to study the expected monetary flow over the
life of the project, and to monitor the payouts throughout the process. Cost engineers apply expertise to
relate the work and materials involved to a proper valuation. Cost overruns with government projects
have occurred when the contractor was able to identify change orders or changes in the project resulting
in large increases in cost, which are not subject to competition by other firm as they have already been
eliminated from consideration after the initial bid.
Large projects can involve highly complex financial plans. As portions of a project are completed, they
may be sold, supplanting one lender or owner for another, while the logistical requirements of having the
right trades and materials available for each stage of the building construction project carries forward. In
many English-speaking countries, but not the United States, projects typically use quantity surveyors.
1.4.3 Legal Aspects
A construction project must fit into the legal framework governing the property. These include
governmental regulations on the use of property, and obligations that are created in the process of
construction. The project must adhere to zoning and building code requirements. Constructing a project
that fails to adhere to codes will not benefit the owner. Some legal requirements come from malum in se
considerations, or the desire to prevent things that are indisputably bad – bridge collapses or explosions.
Other legal requirements come from malum prohibitum considerations, or things that are a matter of
custom or expectation, such as isolating businesses to a business district and residences to a residential
district. An attorney may seek changes or exemptions in the law governing the land where the building
will be built, either by arguing that a rule is inapplicable (the bridge design won't collapse), or that the
custom is no longer needed (acceptance of live-work spaces has grown in the community) A construction
project is a complex net of contracts and other legal obligations, each of which must be carefully
considered. A contract is the exchange of a set of obligations between two or more parties, but it is not so
simple a matter as trying to get the other side to agree to as much as possible in exchange for as little as
possible. The time element in construction means that a delay costs money, and in cases of bottlenecks,

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the delay can be extremely expensive. Thus, the contracts must be designed to ensure that each side is
capable of performing the obligations set out. Contracts that set out clear expectations and clear paths to
accomplishing those expectations are far more likely to result in the project flowing smoothly, whereas
poorly drafted contracts lead to confusion and collapse.
1.4.4 Procurement
Procurement describes the merging of activities undertaken by the client to obtain a building.
There are many different methods of construction procurement; however the three most common types of
procurement are
1. Traditional (Design-bid-build)
2. Design and Build
3. Management Contracting
There is also a growing number of new forms of procurement that involve relationship contracting where
the emphasis is on a co-operative relationship between the principal and contractor and other stakeholders
within a construction project. New forms include partnering such as Public-Private Partnering (PPPs) aka
Private Finance Initiatives (PFIs) and alliances such as "pure" or "project" alliances and "impure" or
"strategic" alliances. The focus on co-operation is to ameliorate the many problems that arise from the
often highly competitive and adversarial practices within the construction industry
Traditional/Design-bid-build: This is the most common method of construction procurement and is well
established and recognized. In this arrangement, the architect or engineer acts as the project coordinator.
His or her role is to design the works, prepare the specifications and produce construction drawings,
administer the contract, tender the works, and manage the works from inception to completion. There are
direct contractual links between the architect's client and the main contractor. Any subcontractor will
have a direct contractual relationship with the main contractor
Design and build/turn-key: The modern trend in design is toward integration of previously separated
specialties, especially among large firms. In the past, architects, interior designers, engineers, developers,
construction managers, and general contractors were more likely to be entirely separate companies, even
in the larger firms. Presently, a firm that is nominally ”architecture" or "construction management" firm
may have experts from all related fields as employees, or to have an associated company that provides
each necessary skill. Thus, each such firm may offer itself as "one-stop shopping" for a construction
project, from beginning to end. This is designated as a "design Build" contract where the contractor is
given a performance specification, and must undertake the project from design to construction, while
adhering to the performance specifications. This approach has become more common in recent years and
includes an entire completed package, including fixtures, fittings and equipment where necessary, to
produce a completed fully functional building. In some cases, the Design and Build (D & B) package can

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also include finding the site, arranging funding and applying for all necessary statutory consents
The owner produces a list of requirements for a project, giving an overall view of the project's goals.
Several D&B contractors present different ideas about how to accomplish these goals. The owner selects
the ideas he likes best and hires the appropriate contractor. Often, it is not just one contractor, but a
consortium of several contractors working together. Once a contractor (or consortium/consortia) has been
hired, they begin building the first phase of the project. As they build phase 1, they design phase 2. This
is in contrast to a design-bid-build contract, where the project is completely designed by the owner, then
bid on, then completed.
Construction management
In this arrangement the client plays an active role in the procurement system by entering into separate
contracts with the designer (architect or engineer), the construction manager, and individual trade
contractors. The client takes on the contractual role, while the construction or project manager provides
the active role of managing the separate trade contracts, and ensuring that they all work smoothly and
effectively together. Management procurement systems are often used to speed up the procurement
processes, allow the client greater flexibility in design variation throughout the contract, the ability to
appoint individual work contractors, separate contractual responsibility on each individual throughout the
contract, and to provide greater client control.

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2.0 Site investigation, Setting out and Site Excavations
SUMMURY
The construction site, drawings and documentation, site layout, sequence of work.
Site clearance, setting out simple buildings and excavation work.
2.1 Site investigation
Before foundation design can begin there are a number of preliminary stages. These, separate stages, are
generally referred to as site investigation. Site Investigation normally involves three basic stages
2.1.1. The desk study:
This is the first stage in the site investigation. Essentially, it comprises the collection and analysis of
existing information about the site. The desk study has two main objectives:
 To determine the nature, past use, and condition of the site.
 To determine whether this has any implications for the proposed building and its foundations.
A sensible starting point is to consult large scale maps of the proposed site and check site boundaries,
building lines, existing buildings and other man-made, or natural, features which will affect the future
buildings. A comparison with older maps may give some clues to determine former use and, therefore,
potential hazards. Geological maps, other written records, and local knowledge will help identify the
likely nature of the subsoil and determine the extent of difficult ground conditions.
Most subsoil, including firm and stiff clays, compact sands, gravels and rocks will easily support the
relatively low loads of two and three storey buildings using simple strip foundations. However, soft
cohesive soils, peaty soils, and of course, fill, pose problems. A site that has been mined also needs
treating with caution - foundation solutions can be costly. Large scale historical maps, often held at city
and county libraries, show the extent of former mining. Thousands of old shafts and tunnels still exist in
many countries.
Other items which should come to light during the desk study include the likelihood of:
 Filled or contaminated ground
 Quarrying or mining
 Rights of way
 Ponds, watercourses, ground water levels and the risk of flooding
 Utility services (drains, electricity, gas, telephone, and optical cables etc - see left-hand plan)
 Previous vegetation (ie large felled trees)
 Landslip
Naturally occurring aggressive chemicals (eg sulphates), harmful gases (radon) and landfill gases e.g
(Methane and CO2).

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2.1.2. A walk-over survey
It is the second stage in the site investigation. It's a detailed site inspection which:
 Enables much of the material discovered in the desk study to be confirmed or further investigated
 Identifies other potential hazards
 Enables the surveyor to collect photographic records
 Gives the surveyor/engineer the opportunity to make detailed drawings of all those items (trees,
existing buildings, watercourses, etc) which will have implications for the building design
2.1.3. Sub-soil survey
A direct ground investigation is the third stage in the site investigation. As far as low rise housing is
concerned its main objective is to determine whether strip foundations will be suitable and, assuming they
are, whether they can be designed in accordance with the simple 'rule of thumb' approach contained in the
Building Regulations. The ground investigation will provide detailed information on:
 Nature and thickness of made up ground/top soil above the subsoil
 Nature, thickness and stratum depth of subsoil
 An assessment of allowable bearing pressure
 Groundwater levels, chemicals in the ground etc.
 Existing structures or hazards in the ground
The natural vegetation at a site gives guide to the nature of the soil, and the conformation of the natural
surface will be a guide to the nature of the subsoil. Any adjacent earth work such as quarries and railway
or road cuttings will give some indication of subsoil. Geological maps of the area and information from
the Local Authority Surveyors will supply further information. This preliminary inspection will be a
guide to the preferred siting of buildings on open land and will provide background information in built
up areas. Once the preliminary designs of the buildings are completed and the position of the buildings on
the site established the Engineer will require a precise knowledge of the subsoil under the proposed
buildings for some depth below the surface.
2.2 Depth of Exploration
The depth to which exploration of the subsoil should be carried depends on the nature of the subsoil
strata, the size of the structure and the type of foundation.
Exploration in general, should be carried out to a depth up to which the increase in pressure due to
structural loading is likely to cause perceptible settlements or shear failure of foundations. Such a depth,
known as significant depth, depends upon the type of structure, its weight, size, shape and disposition of
the loaded areas, and the soil profile and its properties. The significant depth may be assumed to be equal
to one-and-a-half or two times the width (smaller of the lateral dimension) of the loaded area.
The depth of exploration at the start of the work may be decided according to the following guide rules,

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which may need modification as exploration proceeds:
 Isolated spread footing or raft: One and a half times the width.
 Adjacent footings with clear spacing less than twice the width: One and a half times the length.
 Pile foundation: 10 to 30 metres, or more, or at least one a half times the width of the structure.
 Base of the retaining wall: One and a half times the base width or one and a half times the
exposed height of face of wall, whichever is greater.
 Floating basement: Depth of construction.
 Weathering considerations: 1.5 m in general and 3.5 m in black cotton soils.
Building Codes suggests that normally the depth of exploration should be one and half times the
estimated width (lower dimension) of the footing, single or combined, from the base level of he
foundation; but in weak soils, the exploration should be continued to a depth at which the loads can
be carried by the stratum in question without undesirable settlement or shear failure. In any case,
the depth to which weathering processes affect the soil should be regarded as a minimum depth for
the exploration of sites and this should be taken as 1.5 metres. But where industrial processes affect
the soil characteristics, this depth may be more.
Sub-soil exploration is done for the following purposes
For New Structures
1. The selection of type and depth of foundation.
2. The determination of bearing capacity of the selected foundation.
3. The predication of settlement of the selected foundation.
4. The determination of the ground water level.
5. The evaluation of the earth pressure against walls, basements, abutments etc.
6. The provision against constructional difficulties.
7. The suitability of soil and degree of compaction of soil.
For Existing Structures
1. The investigation of the safety of the structure.
2. The prediction of settlement.
3. The determination of remedial measures if the structure is unsafe or will suffer detrimental
settlement
Methods of Site Exploration
The various methods of site exploration may be grouped as follow:
1. Open excavations
2. Borings
3. Sub-surface soundings

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4. Geo-physical methods
2.2.1 Open Excavation (Open Trial Pits)
Trial pits are the cheapest method of exploration in shallow deposits, since these can be used in all types
of soils. In this method, pits are excavated at the site, exposing the sub-soil surface thoroughly. Soil
samples are collected at various levels. The biggest advantage of this method is that soil strata can be
inspected in their natural condition and samples (distributed or undistributed) can be conveniently taken.
The method is generally considered suitable for shallow depths, say up to 3 m. The cost of open
excavation increases rapidly with depth. For greater depths and for excavation below ground water table,
especially in pervious soils, measures for lateral support and ground water lowering becomes necessary.
2.2.2 Boring Methods
The following are the various boring methods commonly used;
 Auger boring
 Auger and shell boring
 Wash boring
 Percussion boring
 Rotary boring
Auger boring
Augers are used in cohesive and other soft soils above water table. They may either be operated manually
or mechanically. Hand augers are used up to a depth of up to 6 m. Mechanically operated augers are used
for greater depths and they can also be used in gravelly soils. Augers are of two types; (a) spiral auger and
(b) post-hole auger

Figure 4: a typical spiral auger and post-hole auger

Samples recovered from the soil brought up by the augers are badly distributed and are useful for
identification purposes only. Auger boring is fairly satisfactory for explorations at shallow depths and for
exploratory borrow pits.

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Auger and shell boring
Cylindrical augers and shells with cutting edge or teeth at lower end can be used for making deep borings.
Hand operated rigs are sued for depths up to 25 m and mechanized rigs up to 50 m.
Augers are suitable for soft to stiff clays, shells for very stiff and hard clays, and shells or sand pumps for
sandy soils. Small boulders, thin soft strata or rock or cemented gravel can be broken by chisel bits
attached to drill rods. The hole usually requires a casing
Wash boring
Wash boring is a fast and simple method for advancing holes in all types of soils. Boulders and rock
cannot be penetrated by this method.
The method consists of first driving a casing through which a hollow drilled rod with a sharp chisel or
chopping bit at the lower end is inserted. Water is forced under pressure through the drill rod which is
alternatively raised and dropped, and also rotated. The resulting chopping and jetting action of the bit and
water disintegrates the soil. The cuttings are forced up to the ground surface in the form of soil-water
slurry through the annular space between the drill rod and the casing. The change in soil stratification
could be guessed from the rate of progress and colour of wash water. The samples recovered from the
wash water are almost valueless for interpreting the correct geo-technical properties of soil.
Percussion boring
In this method, soil and rock formations are broken by repeated blows of heavy chisel or bit suspended by
a cable or drill rod. Water is added to the hole during boring, if not already present and the slurry of
pulverised material is bailed out at intervals. The method is suitable for advancing a hole in all types of
soils, boulders and rock. The formations, however, get disturbed by the impact
Rotary boring
Rotary boring or rotary drilling is a very fast method of advancing hole in both rocks and soils. A drill bit,
fixed to the lower end of the drill rods, is rotated by a suitable chuck, and is always kept in firm contact
with the bottom of the hole. A drilling mud, usually a water solution of bentonite, with or without other
admixtures is continuously forced down to the hollow drill rods.
The mud returning upwards brings the cuttings to the surface. The method is also known as mud rotary
drilling and the hole usually requires no casing. Rotary core barrels, provided with commercial diamond-
studied bits or a steel bit with shots, are also used for rotary drilling and simultaneously obtaining the
rock cores or samples. The method is then known as core boring or core drilling. Water circulated down
the drill rods during boring.
Record of borings
In all exploration work it is very important to maintain an accurate and explicit record of borings.
Soil/rock samples are collected at various depths, during boring. These samples are tested in the

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laboratory for identification and classification. The samples are suitably preserved and arranged serially
according to the depth at which they are found. A boring chat is prepared for each bore hold. A site plan
should be prepared; showing the disposition of various bore holes on it
Number and disposition of trial pits and borings
The number and disposition of the test pits and borings should be such as to reveal any major changes in
the thickness, depth or properties of the strata affected by the works, and the immediate surroundings.
The following are recommended number of pit:
 For a compact building site covering an area of about 0.4 hectares, one bore hole or trial pit in
each corner and one in he centre should be adequate.
 For small and less important buildings, even one bore hole or trial pit in the centre will suffice.
 For very large areas covering industrial and residential colonies, the geological nature of the
terrain will help in deciding the number of bore holes or trial pits. Dynamic or static cone
penetration tests may be performed at every 100 metres by dividing the area into grid patterns
and number of bore holes or trial pits decided by examining the variation in the penetration
curves.
2.2.3 Sub-Surface Soundings
The sounding methods consist of measuring the resistance of the soil with depth by means of
penetrometer under static or dynamic loading. The penetrometer may consist of a sampling spoon, a cone
or other shaped tool. The resistance to penetration is empirically correlated with some of the engineering
properties of soil, such as density index, consistency bearing capacity etc. The values of these tests lie in
the amount of experience behind them. These tests are useful for general exploration of erratic soil
profiles, for dinging depth to bed rock or stratum, and to have an approximate induction of the strength
and other properties of soils, particularly for cohesion-less soil, from which it is difficult to obtain
undisturbed samples. The two commonly used tests are standard penetration test and the cone penetration
test.
2.2.4 Geo-Physical Methods
Geo-physical methods are used when the depth of exploration is very large, and also when the speed of
investigation is of primary importance. Geo-physical investigations involve the detection of significant
differences in the physical properties of geological formations. These methods were developed in
connection with prospecting of useful minerals and oils. The major method of geo- physical
investigations are; gravitational methods, magnetic methods, seismic refraction method and electrical
resistivity methods are the most commonly used for Civil Engineering purposes.
Seismic refraction method
In this method, shock waves are created into the soil at their ground level or a certain depth below it by

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exploding small charge in the soil or by striking a plate on the soil with a hammer. The radiating shock
waves are picked up by the vibration detector (also called geophone or seismometer) where the time of
travel of the shock waves gets recorded. A number of geophones are arranged along a line. Some of the
waves, known as direct or primary waves travel directly from the shock point along the ground surface
and are picked first by the geophone. The other waves which travel through the soil get refracted at the
interface of two soil strata. The refracted rays are also picked up by the geophone. If the underlying layer
is denser, the refracted waves travel much faster. As the distance between the shock point and the
geophone increases, the refracted waves are able to reach the geophone earlier then the direct waves. By
knowing the time of travel primary and refracted waves at various geophones, the depth of various strata
can be evaluated by preparing distance-time graphs and using analytical methods.
Seismic refraction method is fast and reliable in establishing profiles and different strata provided the
deeper layer have increasingly greater density and thus higher velocities and also increasingly greater
thickness.
Different kinds of materials such as gravel, clay, hardpan, or rock have characteristics seismic velocities
and hence they may be identified by the distance-time graphs. The exact type of material cannot, however
be recognized and the exploration should be supplemented by boring or soundings and sampling
Electrical Resistivity Method
The electrical resistivity method is based on the measurement and recording of changes in the main
resistivity of various soils. Each soil has its own resistivity depending upon its water content, compaction
and composition; for example, it is low for saturated silt and high for loose dry gravel or solid rock.
The test is conducted by driving four meal spikes to serve as electrodes into the ground along a straight
line at equal distances. A direct voltage is imposed between the two outer electrodes, andthe potential
drop is measured between the inner electrodes. The mean resistivity… ......... (0hmcm) is computed from
the expression
= 2*3.14*D*E/I, D= distance between the electrodes (cm)
The depth of exploration is roughly proportional to the electrode spacing. For studying vertical changes in
the strata, the electrode system is expanded, about a fixed central point, by increasing the spacing
gradually from an initial small value to a distance roughly equal to the depth of exploration required. The
method is known as resistivity sounding.
To correctly interpret he resistivity date for knowing the nature and distribution of soil formation, it is
necessary to make preliminary trial or calibration tests on known formations.
2.2.5 Choice of Exploration Method
The choice of a particular exploration method depends on the following factors
1. nature of ground

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2. Topography
3. cost
1. Nature of ground
In clayey soils, borings are suitable for deep exploration and pits for shallow exploration. In sandy soils,
boring is easy but special equipments should be used for taking representative samples below the water
table. Such samples can however, be readily taken in trial pits provided that, where necessary, some form
of ground water lowering is used. Borings are suitable in hard rocks while pits are preferred in soft rocks.
Core borings are suitable for the identification of types of rock but they cannot supply data on joints and
fissures which can only be examined in pits and large diameter borings.
When the depth of exploration is much, and where the area of construction site is large, geophysical
methods (specially the electrical resistivity method) can be used with advantage. However, borings at one
or two locations should be carried out, for calibration purposes. In soft soil, sounding method may also be
used to cover large area in relatively shorter duration
Topography
In hilly country sides, the choice between vertical openings (for example, boring sand trial pits) and
horizontal openings (for example, headings) may depend on the geological structure, since steeply
inclined by strata are most effectively explored by headings and horizontal strata best explored by borings
which may have to be put down from a floating craft.
Cost
For deep exploration, borings are usual, as deep shafts are costly. However, if the area is vast,
geophysical methods or sounding methods may be used in conjunction with borings. For shallow
exploration in soil, the choice between pi and borings will depend on the nature of the ground and the
information required for shallow exploration in rock; the cost of boring a core drill to the site will only be
justified if several holes are required; otherwise trial pits will be more economical.
Soil Samples and Samplers
Soil samples can be of two types
 Distributed samples
 Undistributed samples
A distributed sample is that in which the natural structure of soil gets partly or full modified and
destroyed although with suitable precautions the natural water content may be preserved. Such a soil
sample should, however, be representative of the natural soil by maintaining the original proportion of the
various particles intact. An undistributed sample is that in which the natural structure and properties
remain preserved.
The sample disturbance depends upon the design of the samplers and the method of sampling. To take

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undisturbed samples from bore holes properly designed sampling tools are required. The sampling tube
when forced into the ground should cause as little remoulding and disturbance as possible. The design
features of the sampler that govern the degree of disturbance are (i) cutting edge (ii) inside wall friction
and (iii) no-return value.
The area ratio should be as low as possible. It should not be greater than 25 percent; for soft sensitive soil,
it should preferably not exceed 10 percent. The inside clearance should lie between 1 to 3 percent and the
outside clearance should not be much greater than the inside clearance. The walls of the sampler should
be smooth and should be kept properly oiled so that wall friction is minimised.Lower value of inside
clearance allows the elastic expansion of soil provided in samplers, should permit easy and quick escape
of water and air when driving the sampler.
2.3 Clearing the Site and setting out
When a builder is given possession of a building site the contractor will have been provided with the site
layout plan and the detail drawings necessary for him to construct the building(s). Under most forms of
building contract it is the builder’s responsibility to see that the setting out is accurate.
The site having been taken over, the task of preparing for and setting out the building can be
commenced. These operations can be grouped under three headings
This may involve the demolition of existing buildings, the grubbing out of bushes and trees, and the
removal of soil to reduce levels. Demolition is a skilled occupation and should be tackled only by an
experienced demolition contractor.
The removal of trees can be carried out by manual or mechanical means. The removal of large trees
should be left to the specialist contractors.
Building Regulation C1, ‘The ground to be covered by the building shall be reasonably free from
vegetable matter.’ This is in effect to sterilise the ground, because the top 300 mm or so will contain
plant life and decaying vegetation.
This means that the topsoil is easily compressed and would be unsuitable for foundations. Topsoil is
valuable as a dressing for gardens, and will be retained for reinstatement when the site is landscaped.
The method chosen for conducting the site clearance work will be determined by the scale of
development, and by consideration for any adjacent buildings
2.3.1 Setting-Out
The first task is to establish a baseline from which the whole of the building can be set out. The position
of this line must be clearly marked on-site so that it can be re-established at any time. For on-site
measuring a steel tape should be used (30 m would be a suitable length). Linen and plastic-coated tapes
are also available. The disadvantage with linen tapes is that they are liable to stretch.

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