The five major parts of Bridges – Concrete Span Bridge

Even though there are various types of bridges to be discussed, in this post we will stick to major parts
of Bridges – Concrete span bridges. Every bridge engineer should have a clear knowledge of the various
terminologies used during the Bridge design process. During the design process, every bridge can be
divided broadly

Superstructure

Substructure

Foundation

Superstructure

Superstructure that part of the structure which supports traffic and includes deck, slab and girders. All
the parts of the bridge which is mounted on a supporting system can be classified as a Super structure.

Substructure

Substructure that part of the structure, ie piers and abutments, which supports the superstructure and
which transfers the structural load to the foundations.

Foundation

Foundation is the component which transfers loads from the substructure to the bearing strata.
Depending on the geotechnical properties of the bearing strata, shallow or deep foundations are
adopted. Usually, piles and well foundations are adopted for bridge foundations.

Now let us discuss the five major parts of a RC bridge

Beam / Girder

Beam or girder is that part of superstructure structure which is under bending along the span. it is the
load bearing member which supports the deck. Span is the distance between points of support (eg piers,
abutment). Deck is bridge floor directly carrying traffic loads. Deck transfers loads to the Girders
depending on the decking material.

Bearing
Bearing transfers loads from the girders to the pier caps. Bearing is a component which supports part of
the bridge and which transmits forces from that part to another part of the structure whilst permitting
angular and/or linear movement between parts.

Pier Cap / Headstock

Pier Cap / Headstock is the component which transfers loads from the superstructure to the piers. Pier
cap provide sufficient seating for the Bridge girders and disperse the loads from the bearings to the
Piers.
Pier

Pier is that part of a part of the substructure which supports the superstructure at the end of the span
and which transfers loads on the superstructure to the foundations. Depending up on aesthetics, site,
space and economic constraints various shapes of piers are adopted to suit to the requirement. Mostly
Reinforced Concrete or Prestressed concrete are adopted for the construction of piers.

Piers are compression members. Depending on the loading and bearing articulations, piers may be
subjected to bending as well.

Pile cap and Piles

Pile foundation is the most commonly used foundation system for bridges. Pile is a slender compression
member driven into or formed in the ground to resist loads. A reinforced concrete mass cast around the
head of a group of piles to ensure they act together and distribute the load among them it is known as
pile cap.

Structure, Components and Parts of Bridge

Since the use of first simple bridges made from a single beam that had to endure all the forces of
tension, compression, torsion and shear forces by itself, engineers and architects tried to develop new
and better techniques for spanning the gaps between one point of terrain to another. Eventually, the
entire engineering field was formed, and dozens upon dozens of bridge designs were created utilizing
many components, parts and brand new terminology that describe them.

All the basic components are placed inside three main bridge areas – Foundation (which holds the
shallow or deep base of the bridge and transfers it’s load to the bearing strata, this includes foundations
below the main span of the bridge and the abutments below starting points of the bridge), Substructure
(piers, abutments, spandrels, caps, bearings, and other components that holds the upper construction)
and Superstructure (all the parts of the bridge that are mounted on top of the supporting substructure
system, it covers elements such as decking, girders, slab, and everything placed above the main deck
such as posts, steel truss system, bridge girder, cable-stayed system, cable suspended systems and
more).

"Three main bridge areas,

 Foundation, Substructure,
& Superstructure."
The components of the bridge are picked to fit not only its use case scenario (pedestrian, highway,
railway, transit or industrial bridges) but also location on which it is built, the span between its main
structural beams and their basic structure (arch, beam, cantilever, cable-stayed, suspension or other).

Main components of the modern bridges are:

Abutment – Endpoints of the bridge. They are reinforced so that they can endure intense lateral
pressures.

Pile (also known as beam, footing, and pier) – Reinforced concrete post that is driven into the ground to
serve as the leg or support for the bridge. The distance between piles is calculated so that is can support
the rest of the structure that will be laid on top of them.

Cap – Cap sits on top of the pile beam, providing additional support and dispersing the load to the piles
below. The combination of Pile and Cap elements is called Bent.

Girder or Span – One of the main components of the bridge that connects all the Piles beams. It can
consist from multiple simple spans, a single continuous span that is supported by multiple beams,
cantilever spans and cantilever spans with the suspended span between them. They are usually made from
metal or reinforced concrete and also can be made in the form of haunches girded that can carry more
load. Girder sections are typically not made from a simple block of material but are made from truss
network (or Orthotropic beams) that increases their resistance to load. Girders can also be used as a part
of rigid frame network where they are fully connected with frame legs (which can be inclined or in V
shape).

Superstructure truss network – Truss network that supports travel surface can be made in three basic
ways – Deck truss where traffic flows on top of truss network, Pony truss where truss network flows
between two parallel walls of trusses, and Through truss that adds additional cross-braced truss network
above and below the traffic.

Deck beam – Simple continuous decks are made from metal or reinforced concrete. They consist from
sub-components such as approach slab (that part that connects main bridge decking with the ground on
both sides of the bridge), expansion joint, drainage scupper, curb, running surface, footpath.
Barriers – Sides of the bridge decks usually have additional barrier components such as railings,
handrails and ground fixtures.

Arch – Arches on the bridges are distinguished by the number of hinges they have (usually between zero
or three) which determine how much stress and load they can safely carry, and the type of material they
are constructed (solid material, truss system). Arches below the bridge are called spandrel-braced
(cantilever) or Trussed deck arch. Arch bridges can also use suspension bridges where the arch is made
from truss system (tied arch, or bowstring bridge).

Spandrel – Spandrels are the almost triangular space between the main pillar of the bridge and decking.
Stone bridges use filled “closed” spandrels deck arches, while modern bridges made from metal use open
spandrel deck arch configurations.

Truss – Framework made by connecting triangles and other forms that share load and stress forces across
its entire structure. They are commonly separated into several categories such as simple truss (King and
Queen posts), covered bridge truss (multiple kingpost truss, Howe truss, long truss, Burr arch truss, town
lattice truss, Haupt, Smith, Partridge and Child truss), Pratt truss (and it’s many variations), Whipple
truss, Warren truss variations, Howe truss, Lenticular truss, Fink truss, multiple Cantilever truss
variations, and suspension truss arches.

ONE WAY SLAB:

One way slab is a slab which is supported by beams on the two opposite sides to carry the load along one
direction. In one way slab, the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is equal or greater than 2, i.e
Longer span (l)/Shorter span (b) ≥ 2
Verandah slab is a type of one way slab, where the slab is spanning in the shorter direction with main
reinforcement and the distribution of reinforcement in the transverse direction.

TWO WAY SLAB

When a reinforced concrete slab is supported by beams on all the four sides and the loads are carried by
the supports along both directions, it is known as two way slab. In two way slab, the ratio of longer span
(l) to shorter span (b) is less than 2.

i.e Longer span (l)/Shorter span (b) < 2

This types of slabs are mostly used in the floor of multi-storey buildings.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ONE WAY SLABS AND TWO WAY SLABS:

1. In one way slab, the slabs are supported by the beams on the two opposite sides.

In two way slab, the slabs are supported on all the four sides.

2. In one way slab, the loads are carried along one direction.

In two way slab, the loads are carried along both directions.

3. In one way slab, the ratio of Longer span to shorter span is equal or greater than 2. (i.e l/b ≥ 2).

In two way slab, the ratio of l/b is less than 2 (i.e l/b < 2).

A flat slab is a two-way reinforced concrete slab that usually does not have beams and girders, and the
loads are transferred directly to the supporting concrete columns.

Flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab supported directly by concrete columns without the use of beams.
Flat slab is defined as one sided or two-sided support system with sheer load of the slab being
concentrated on the supporting columns and a square slab called ‘drop panels’.

Drop panels play a significant role here as they augment the overall capacity and sturdiness of the
flooring system beneath the vertical loads thereby boosting cost effectiveness of the construction. Usually
the height of drop panels is about two times the height of slab.

Flat Slabs are considered suitable for most of the construction and for asymmetrical column layouts like
floors with curved shapes and ramps etc. The advantages of applying flat slabs are many like depth
solution, flat soffit and flexibility in design layout.

Even though building flat slabs can be an expensive affair but gives immense freedom to architects and
engineers the luxury of designing.
Benefit of using flat slabs are manifold not only in terms of prospective design and layout efficacy but is
also helpful for total construction process especially for easing off installation procedures and saving on
construction time.

If possible, try to do away with drop panels as much as possible and try to make the best use of thickness
of flat slabs. The reason is to permit the benefits of flat soffits for the floor surface to be maintained,
ensure drop panels are cast as part of the column.

To utilize the slab thickness to optimum level, the essential aspects that should be kept in mind are:

1. Procedure related to design

2. Presence or absence of holes

3. Significance of deflections

4. Previous layout application experience

Types of Flat Slab Construction

Simple flat slab

Flat slab with drop panels

Flat slab with column heads

Flat slab with both drop panels and column heads

Uses of Column Heads

It increase shear strength of slab

It reduce the moment in the slab by reducing the clear or effective span

Uses of Drop Panels

It increase shear strength of slab

It increase negative moment capacity of slab

It stiffen the slab and hence reduce deflection

Advantages of Flat Slabs

It is recognized that Flat Slabs without drop panels can be built at a very fast pace as the framework of
structure is simplified and diminished. Also, speedy turn-around can be achieved using an arrangement
using early striking and flying systems.

Flat slab construction can deeply reduce floor-to –floor height especially in the absence of false ceiling as
flat slab construction does act as limiting factor on the placement of horizontal services and partitions.
This can prove gainful in case of lower building height, decreased cladding expense and pre-fabricated
services.

In case the client plans changes in the interior and wants to use the accommodation to suit the need, flat
slab construction is the perfect choice as it offers that flexibility to the owner. This flexibility is possible
due to the use of square lattice and absence of beam that makes channelling of services and allocation of
partitions difficult.

Thickness of flat slab

Thickness of flat slab is another very attractive benefit because thin slab provides the advantage of
increased floor to ceiling height and lower cladding cost for the owner. However, there is profound lower
limit to thickness of slab because extra reinforcements are needed to tackle design issues. Besides this,
added margin must be provided to facilitate architectural alterations at later stages.

Types of Flat Slab Design

Multitudes of process and methods are involved in designing flat slabs and evaluating these slabs in
flexures. Some of these methods are as following:

The empirical method

The sub-frame method

The yield line method

Finite –element analysis

For smaller frames, empirical methods are used but sub-frame method is used in case of more irregular
frames. The designs are conceptualized by employing appropriate software but the fact is using sub-frame
methods for very complicated design can be very expensive.
The most cost effective and homogenous installation of reinforcements can be achieved by applying the
yield line method. A thorough visualization in terms of complete examination of separate cracking and
deflection is required since this procedure utilises only collapse mechanism.

Structures having floors with irregular supports, large openings or bears heavy loads, application of finite-
element analysis is supposed to be very advantageous. Great thought is put into choosing material
properties or installing loads on the structures. Deflections and cracked width can also be calculated using
Finite- element analysis.

Areas That Require Attention in Design of Flat Slab

1. Deflections-Usually at the center of each panel deflections are maximum. Foreseeing deflections can
be very tricky and will engage some form of elastic appraisal. While designing structure layout and
during implementation using sub frame method, one way to evaluate mid-panel deflection is to use at
least two parallel column strips.

2. Proprietary punching sheer reinforcement systems- In case of thin flat slab construction punching
sheer reinforcements are indispensable.

3. Optimization of Main reinforcement- In certain design procedures, especially in yield line output is
better optimized than in other design methods.

Benefits of Using Flat Slab Construction Method

Flexibility in room layout

Saving in building height

Shorter construction time

Ease of installation of M&E services

Use of prefabricated welded mesh

Buildable score

Flexibility in Room Layout

Flat slabs allows Architect to introduce partition walls anywhere required, this allows owner to change
the size of room layout. Use of flat slab allows choice of omitting false ceiling and finish soffit of slab
with skim coating.
Saving in Building Height

Lower storey height will reduce building weight due to lower partitions and cladding to façade

Approximately saves 10% in vertical members

Reduced foundation load

Tar And Bitumen

Tar: No longer used for road construction because of its *Carcinogenic Effect and high temperature
susceptibility. Presently, roads are mostly constructed using Bitumen.

Reason For Confusion Between Tar and Bitumen: Both have black color and both have very good
Waterproofing and adhesion property.

Production Method:

Tar→ From Destructive Distillation (Burning in Specific Condition of Temperature, Without Presence of
Oxygen) of Bituminous Coal

Bitumen→ Obtained From Refining Process (Fractional Distillation) of Crude Oil (A Petroleum Product)
* For Manufacturing of Tar, Coal is Burnt Without Presence of Oxygen. This induces formation of
specific molecules called Polyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons [PAH] which are carcinogenic.

(PAH represent 20–30% Composition of Tar. That’s the Reason the Use of Tar is Banned in Most
Countries.)

[PAH is also present in Bitumen. But only approximately 0.01%. So, it is not carcinogenic]

2. Bitumen and Asphalt:

In India and Europe, Asphalt = Aggregates + Bitumen i.e. Paving Material

In America, Asphalt = Bitumen (Black Viscous Liquid)

There is no difference between bitumen and asphalt. In fact both the terms are used to represent a by-
product of fractional distillation of crude oil. In India and most Asian countries the term bitumen used but
in the Americas and Europe the term Asphalt is more predominantly used.

Bitumen is a waste material obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil. When crude oil is
subjected to fractional distillation fuels such as petrol, diesel, kerosene etc are obtained. Along with the
fuels a waste material is obtained which is called bitumen which is extensively used for the construction
of Black Top pavements (Bitumen is dark brown to black in colour).

But Tar is a material which is obtained by burning wood under controlled conditions of temperature and
pressure in the absence of air. This process of burning results in a viscous material called Tar whose
production is now completely banned the world over since its production requires felling of trees.