CHAPTER 1.

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Introduction:
When a glass rod is rubbed with a piece of silk, the glass rod acquires the property of
attracting light objects like bits of paper, straw and pith balls towards it. The glass rod is
said to be electrified or charged.
A common example of electric discharge is the lightning that we see in the sky during
thunderstorms. Electric charges are produced due to friction between two insulating
bodies which are rubbed against each other.
The branch of Physics which deals with the study of charges at rest (called static charges),
the forces between the static charges, fields and potentials due to these static charges is
called electrostatics.

Electric charge:
Electric charge is an intrinsic property of elementary particles of matter which gives rise to
electric force between various objects. Electric charge is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is
coulomb (C).

Two kinds of Electric charges:

The property which differentiates the two kinds of electric charges is called the polarity of
charge.
A glass rod rubbed with a piece of silk brought close to a suspended glass rod rubbed with
silk repel each other. The two pieces of silk with which the glass rods were rubbed also
repel each other. However, each glass rod attracts the silk piece with which it was rubbed.
This is because, when a glass rod is rubbed with silk the rod acquires one kind of charge
and the silk piece acquires second kind of charge. Hence there are two kinds of electric
charges. An American scientist Benjamin Franklin named the two kinds of electric charges
as positive and negative. By convention charge acquired by glass rod is called positive and
charge acquired by silk is called negative.
We can conclude that:
1. There are only two kinds of electric charges
a) Positive charge
b) Negative charge
2. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.

Gold leaf electroscope:

A simple apparatus (instrument) to detect charge on a body is the
gold leaf electroscope. It consists of a vertical metal rod housed in a
box with two thin gold leaves attached to its bottom end. When a
charged object touches the metal knob at the top of the metal rod,
charge flows on to the leaves and they diverge. The degree of
divergence is an indicator of the amount of charge.

Point charge:
The charged bodies whose size is very small compared to the distance between them are
called point charges.

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Conductors and Insulators:
The substances through which electric charges can flow easily are called conductors.
They contain large number of free electrons to move inside the substance which makes
them good conductor of electricity. Metals, human and animal bodies and earth are
conductors.
The substances through which electric charges cannot flow easily are called insulators.
In the atom of such substances electrons of the outer shell are tightly bound to the
nucleus. Due to the absence of free electrons, these substances offer high resistance to
the flow of electricity through them. Glass, diamond, plastic and wood are insulators.
When we bring a charged body in contact with the earth, all the access charge on the body
disappears by causing a momentary current to pass to the ground through the connecting
conductor. The process of sharing the charges with the earth is called grounding or
earthing. Earthing provides a safety measure for Electrical circuits and appliances. A
thick metal plate is buried deep into the earth used for the purpose of earthing.

Methods of charging:
The process of supplying the electric charge (electrons) to an object or losing the electric
charge (electrons) from an object is called charging. An uncharged object can be charged
in different ways.
1. Charging by conduction
The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing it in contact with another
charged object is called charging by conduction.
2. Charging by induction
The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing another charged object near to
it, but not touching it, is called charging by induction.
3. Charging by friction
The process of charging in which an object is rubbed over another object, so that electrons
get transferred from one object to another is called charging by friction.

Basic properties of electric charges:

1. Charge is additive.
Additivity of electric charge means that the total charge of a system is the algebraic sum
of all the individual charges located at different points inside the system.
If a system contains charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 𝑞𝑛 , then its total charge is 𝑞 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 ∙∙∙
∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ +𝑞𝑛
2. Charge is conserved.
The law of conservation of charges states that the total charge of an isolated system
remains constant. The electric charges can neither be created nor destroyed, they can only
be transferred from one body to another.
Example: A neutron turns into a proton and an electron. The proton and electron created
have equal and opposite charges and the total charge is zero before and after the creation.
3. Charge is quantized.
The quantization of electric charge means that the total charge of a body is always an
integral multiple of a basic unit of charge denoted by 𝑒.
𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒
where 𝑛 is any positive or negative integer.

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Note:
1) The basic unit of charge is 𝑒 i.e charge on an electron (negatively charged) or proton
(positively charged) carries. 𝑒 = 1.602192 × 10−19 coulomb.
2) The smallest unit of charge that can be added or removed from a body is
𝑒 = 1.602192 × 10−19 𝐶
3) The quantisation of charge was first suggested by Faraday and experimentally
demonstrated by Millikan.

Coulomb’s law:
Coulomb’s law states that, the electrostatic force between two stationary point charges in
vacuum is directly proportional to the product of their magnitudes and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Consider two stationary point charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 held at ‘𝑟’ distance apart in vacuum.
According to Coulomb’s law
|𝑞1 ||𝑞2 | |𝑞1 ||𝑞2 |
𝐹∝ (𝑜𝑟) 𝐹 = 𝑘
𝑟2 𝑟2
where k is constant of proportionality and is called electrostatic force constant.
When the charges are situated in free space (air / vacuum), then in SI units, the value of
1
‘k’ is given by 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2 where 𝜀0 is absolute permittivity of free space. The
0
value of 𝜀0 in SI units is 𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁 −1 𝑚−2 .
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Therefore, 𝐹 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟2
Now we can define, one coulomb (1C) of charge is that charge which when placed at rest
in vacuum at a distance of 1 m from an equal and similar stationary charge repels it with
a force of 9 × 109 𝑁.

Dielectric constant:
The electrostatic force between two stationary point charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 separated by a
distance 𝑟 in vacuum is given by
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟 = ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
The electrostatic force between two stationary point charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 separated by a
distance 𝑟 in a dielectric medium other than air is given by
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹𝑚𝑒𝑑 = ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ (2)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2
𝜀𝑟 is called relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the given medium.
From equation (1) and (2)
𝑭𝒂𝒊𝒓
= 𝜺𝒓 = 𝒌
𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅
Dielectric constant (𝒌) or relative permittivity 𝜺𝒓 of a medium is defined as the ratio of force
between two charges separated by a certain distance in air to the force between same two
charges separated by same distance in that medium.

Note:
1) For air or vacuum, 𝜀𝑟 = 1, for any other medium 𝜀𝑟 > 1 and for metals 𝜀𝑟 = ∞ .
2) 𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 ; 𝜀 is called absolute permittivity.
3) The ratio of the absolute permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of free space is
called relative permittivity (𝜀𝑟 ) or dielectric constant (𝑘) of the medium
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Coulomb’s law in vector form:
Consider two like charges, 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 separated by distance ‘𝑟21 ’ in vacuum as shown in
figure. These two charges repel each other.

Let 𝐹⃗21 be the force on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞1 and it is given by

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹⃗21 = 2 𝑟̂21
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟21
where 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are the point charges, 𝑟21 is the distance of separation between the charges
and 𝑟̂21 is a unit vector directed from 𝑞1 to 𝑞2 .
Similarly, 𝐹⃗12 be the force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞2 and it is given by
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹⃗12 = 2 𝑟̂12
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12
where 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are the point charges, 𝑟12 is the distance of separation between the charges
𝑟̂12 be the unit vector pointing from 𝑞2 to 𝑞1

As 𝑟̂12 = −𝑟̂21 therefore 𝐹⃗21 = −𝐹⃗12, this means that the two charges exert equal and opposite
force on each other. Thus, Coulomb’s law agrees with the Newton’s third law.

If 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are of same sign (either both positive or

negative) ; 𝑞1 𝑞2 > 0, 𝐹⃗21 is along 𝑟̂21 , which denotes
repulsion for like charges.

If 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are of opposite sign (one is positive and

other is negative) ; 𝑞1 𝑞2 < 0, 𝐹⃗21 is along −𝑟̂21, which
denotes attraction for like charges.

Forces between multiple charges (Principle of superposition):

Force on any charge due to a number of other charges
is the vector sum of all the forces on that charge due
to the other charges taken one at a time. The
individual forces are unaffected due to the presence
of other charges. This is termed as the principle of
superposition.
Consider a system of three charges, 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 as
shown in figure. According to the principle of
superposition, force on charge 𝑞1 due to two other
charges 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 is the vector sum of the forces due
to each one of these charges.

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Let force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞2 is denoted by 𝐹⃗12 and is given by
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹⃗12 = 2 𝑟̂12
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12
In the same way, force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞3 is denoted by 𝐹⃗13 and is given by
1 𝑞1 𝑞3
𝐹⃗13 = 2 𝑟̂13
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟13
Thus, the total force 𝐹1 on 𝑞1 due to the two charges 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 is given as
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 1 𝑞1 𝑞3
𝐹⃗1 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗13 = 2 𝑟̂
1 2 + 2 𝑟̂13
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟13
In the system of charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ 𝑞𝑛 , the total force on 𝑞1 due to remaining charges
is then given by
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞1 𝑞𝑛
𝐹⃗1 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗13 + ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ +𝐹⃗1𝑛 = [ 2 𝑟̂12 + 2 𝑟̂13 + ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ + 2 𝑟̂1𝑛 ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟1𝑛
𝑛
𝑞1 𝑞𝑖
∴ 𝐹⃗1 = ∑ 2 𝑟̂1𝑖
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1𝑖
𝑖=2

Electric field (or electric intensity / electric field strength) ⃗𝑬

⃗⃗ :
The electric field or electric field strength or electric field intensity (𝐸⃗⃗ ) at a point can be
defined as the force experienced by a unit positive test charge placed at that point without
disturbing the position of source charge.
The charge 𝑄, which is producing the electric field is called a source charge and the charge
𝑞, which tests the effect of a source charge is called a test charge. The force of exertion
between source charge and test charge is given by
1 𝑄𝑞
𝐹⃗ = 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝐹⃗ 1 𝑄
∴ = 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑟̂
𝑞 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
If 𝑞 is negligibly small, then force 𝐹⃗ is small. But the ratio 𝐹⃗ /𝑞 is finite and defines the
electric field as
𝐹⃗
𝐸⃗⃗ = lim ( )
𝑞→0 𝑞

The electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ is a vector quantity whose direction is same as that of the force 𝐹⃗
exerted on a unit positive test charge.
SI unit of electric field is newton per coulomb (𝑁𝐶 −1 ) or volt per metre ( 𝑉𝑚−1 )
Electric field due to a charge 𝑄 (𝑄 > 0)and −𝑄 (𝑄 < 0) is shown in the following figure.

Note:
Electric field is a conservative field. i.e work done in moving a charge in this field is
independent of the path.

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Electric field due to a system of charges:
Consider a system of charges with position vectors relative to some origin 𝑂. Electric field
at a point due to a system of charges is the vector sum of the electric field at the point due
to individual charges.
Electric field 𝐸⃗⃗1 at 𝑃 due to 𝑞1 at a distance 𝑟1𝑃 is given by
1 𝑞1
𝐸⃗⃗1 = 2 𝑟̂1𝑃
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1𝑃
where 𝑟̂1𝑃 is a unit vector in the direction from 𝑞1 to 𝑃.
Similarly, electric field 𝐸⃗⃗2 at 𝑃 due to 𝑞2 at a distance 𝑟2𝑃 is given by
1 𝑞2
𝐸⃗⃗2 = 2 𝑟̂2𝑃
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2𝑃
where 𝑟̂2𝑃 is a unit vector in the direction from 𝑞2 to 𝑃.
Similar expressions hold good for fields 𝐸⃗⃗3 , 𝐸⃗⃗4 ,∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙, 𝐸⃗⃗𝑛 due to charges 𝑞3 , 𝑞4 ,∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙, 𝑞𝑛
By using principle of superposition, the resultant electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ at point 𝑃 due to system
of charges is given by
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗1 + 𝐸⃗⃗2 + ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ + 𝐸⃗⃗𝑛
1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2 1 𝑞𝑛
∴ 𝐸⃗⃗ = 2 𝑟̂1𝑃 + 2 𝑟̂2𝑃 + ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ + 2 𝑟̂𝑛𝑃
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1𝑃 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2𝑃 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑛𝑃
𝑛
1 𝑞𝑖
∴ 𝐸⃗⃗ = ∑ 2 𝑟̂𝑖𝑃
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑖𝑃
𝑖=1
Note:
1) Electrcostatic force = Charge × Electric field
2) Electric field decreases as distance increases and vice versa.

Physical significance of electric field:

Electric field characterises the electrical environment surrounding a system of charges. It
is defined at every point and may vary from point to point. Accelerated motion of charge
produces electromagnetic waves propagating with speed of light and causes force on other
charge. Time dependent electric and magnetic field are associated with transport of energy.

Electric field lines or Electric lines of force:

Electric field lines can be a big help for visualising electric fields and making them seem
more real. An electric field line is an imaginary line or curve drawn through a region of
space so that its tangent at any point is in the direction of the electric field vector at that
point.
The English scientist Michael Faraday first introduced the concept of field lines. He called
them lines of force, but the term field lines is preferable.
Note:
Electric field is strong near the charge, so the density of field lines is more near the charge
and the lines are closer.

Properties of electric field lines:

1. Electric field lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges. If there is a
single charge, they may start or end at infinity.
2. In a charge free region, electric field lines can be taken to be continuous curves without
any breaks.
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3. Two field lines can never cross each other.
4. Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops. This follows from the conservative
nature of electric field.
Note:
1) If a field line is a curve then the tangent drawn at any point gives the direction of electric
field at that point.
2) The field lines are crowded where electric field is stronger and are spaced apart where
it is weak.
3) They never enter a conductor or electric field inside a charged conductor is always zero.
4) Electric field lines are normal to the surface of a charged conductor.

Field lines due to some simple charge configurations is shown in the following figure.
1) Positive point charge 2) Negative point charge

3) Two equal positive point charges 4) An electric dipole

Electric dipole:
An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite point charges separated by a small
distance.
The line joining the two charges is the dipole axis. The mid-point of locations of −𝑞 and
+𝑞 is called the centre of the dipole.

The total charge of the electric dipole is obviously zero.

Distance between charges in a dipole is called dipole length (2𝑎).

Electric dipole moment (𝒑

⃗⃗):
The strength of an electric dipole is measured in terms of dipole moment (𝑝⃗). The dipole
moment of an electric dipole is a vector whose magnitude is equal to the product of the
magnitude of either charge and the distance between them. The direction of dipole moment
is along the dipole axis from the negative charge to the positive charge.
i.e 𝒑 ⃗⃗) or |𝒑
⃗⃗ = 𝒒(𝟐𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 𝒒(𝟐𝒂)
where 2𝑎 is the distance between two charges.

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Dipole moment is a vector quantity and it’s SI unit is coulomb – metre (𝐶 − 𝑚).

Electric field at an axial point of a dipole:

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges – 𝑞 and +𝑞 separated by a small distance
2𝑎 in free space. Let ‘𝑃’ be a point on the axial line of the dipole at a distance ‘𝑟’ from the
centre of the dipole.

It is required to calculate electric field intensity at ‘𝑃’ due to the dipole.

Let 𝐸+𝑞 be the electric field intensity at ‘𝑃’ due to +𝑞 charge and 𝐸−𝑞 be the electric field
intensity at ‘𝑃’ due to −𝑞 charge. Then
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗+𝑞 = 𝑝̂ ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗−𝑞 = (−𝑝̂ ) ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ (2)
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
Therefore, resultant electric field intensity at point ‘𝑃’ is given by
1 𝑞 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = [ − ] 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
𝑞 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2 − (𝑟 − 𝑎)2
𝐸⃗⃗ = [ ] 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2
𝑞 [4𝑎𝑟]
𝐸⃗⃗ = [ 2 ] 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2
1 (𝑞 × 2𝑎)2𝑟
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2
where 𝑝̂ is the unit vector along the dipole axis from −𝑞 to +𝑞.
2𝑝𝑟
∴ 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2
[𝐵𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒, 𝑝⃗ = 𝑞 × 2𝑎 = 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡]
If dipole is too short, i.e 𝑟 >> 𝑎 , then
𝟏 𝟐𝒑 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑬 ̂
𝒑
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟑

Electric field at an equatorial point of a dipole:

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges +𝑞 and −𝑞
separated by a small distance 2𝑎 in free space. Let ‘𝑃’ be a
point on the equatorial line of the dipole at a distance ‘𝑟’ from
the centre of the dipole axis.
It is required to calculate electric field intensity at ‘𝑃’ due to
the dipole.
The magnitude of the electric field at 𝑃 due to the charges +𝑞
and −𝑞 are given by
1 𝑞
𝐸+𝑞 = ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎2 )
2

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 1 𝑞
𝐸−𝑞 = ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ (2)
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎2 )
2

The directions of 𝐸⃗⃗+𝑞 and 𝐸⃗⃗−𝑞 are shown. The vertical components of 𝐸⃗⃗+𝑞 and 𝐸⃗⃗−𝑞
perpendicular to dipole axis cancel away. The horizontal components of 𝐸⃗⃗+𝑞 and 𝐸⃗⃗−𝑞 along
the dipole axis add up.
The resultant electric field at 𝑃 is
𝐸⃗⃗ = (𝐸+𝑞 cos 𝜃 + 𝐸−𝑞 cos 𝜃)(−𝑝̂ )
−𝑝̂ because, resultant electric field intensity is opposite to dipole moment 𝑝⃗.
𝐸⃗⃗ = −(𝐸+𝑞 + 𝐸−𝑞 ) cos 𝜃 (𝑝̂ )
1 𝑞 𝑎
𝐸⃗⃗ = −2 ( 2 2
)( 1 ) (𝑝̂ )
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎 ) (𝑟 2 2
+𝑎 2)
𝑎 𝑎
[∵ cos 𝜃 = = 1]
√𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 (𝑟 2 + 2
𝑎 )2

1 𝑞 × 2𝑎
𝐸⃗⃗ = − 3
(𝑝̂ )
4𝜋𝜀0
(𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )2
1 𝑝⃗
𝐸⃗⃗ = − 3
(𝑝̂ )
4𝜋𝜀0 2
(𝑟 + 𝑎2 )2
(Because, 𝑝⃗ = 𝑞 × 2𝑎)

If the dipole is short, i.e 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎, then

𝟏 𝒑 ⃗⃗
⃗𝑬
⃗⃗ = − ̂
𝒑
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟑
The negative sign indicates that the direction of 𝐸⃗⃗ is anti-parallel to the direction of 𝑝⃗

Torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field:

An electric dipole placed in a uniform external electric field experiences a torque.
Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment 𝑝⃗ (2𝑎 × 𝑞) in a uniform external electric field
𝐸⃗⃗ as shown in the figure.
Force on charge 𝑞 due to electric field is
𝐹⃗𝑞 = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗
Force on charge −𝑞 due to electric field is
𝐹⃗−𝑞 = −𝑞𝐸⃗⃗
The charges are separated by a distance 2𝑎 the forces act at different points resulting in a
torque (𝜏) on the dipole.
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
∴ 𝜏 = 𝑞𝐸 × 2𝑎 sin 𝜃
∴ 𝜏 = (2𝑎 × 𝑞) 𝐸 sin 𝜃
∴ 𝜏⃗ = 𝑝⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗
(or) torque, 𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃
Note:
1) SI unit of torque is 𝑁𝑚.
2) The direction of torque is normal to the plane of the paper and outwards.

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3) When axis of dipole is perpendicular to electric field, maximum torque acts on the
dipole. i.e when 𝜃 = 900 then 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑝𝐸
4) When axis of dipole is parallel to electric field, minimum torque acts on the dipole. i.e
when 𝜃 = 00 then 𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0. The dipole is said to be in stable equilibrium.
5) When axis of dipole is anti-parallel to electric field, minimum torque acts on the dipole.
i.e when 𝜃 = 1800 then 𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0. The dipole is said to be in unstable equilibrium.
6) If dipole is kept in a non-uniform electric field, then it experiences both net force and
torque.
Continuous charge distribution:
1) Linear charge distribution:
It is a charge distribution along a one − dimensional curve or line in space.
The linear charge density at any point on the line can be defined as the charge
per unit length of the line at that point.
Δ𝑄
𝜆=
Δ𝐿
where Δ𝐿 is a small line element of wire and Δ𝑄 is the charge contained in that line
element. The SI unit of 𝜆 is 𝐶/𝑚 or 𝐶𝑚−1.
2) Surface charge distribution:
It is a charge distribution spread over a 𝑡𝑤𝑜 − 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
surface in space.
The surface charge density at any point on this surface is
defined as charge per unit area at that point.
Δ𝑄
𝜎=
Δ𝑆
where Δ𝑆 is surface area of the element and Δ𝑄 is charge distributed over the surface. The
SI unit of 𝜎 is 𝐶/𝑚2 or 𝐶𝑚−2.
3) Volume charge distribution:
It is a charge distribution spread over a three-dimensional volume
or region in space.
The Volume charge density at any point in the volume is defined
as the charge per unit volume at that point.
Δ𝑄
𝜌=
Δ𝑉
where Δ𝑄 is the charge included in the small volume element Δ𝑉.
The SI unit of 𝜌 is 𝐶/𝑚3 or 𝐶𝑚−3.
Area vector:
The vector associated with every area element of a closed surface
is taken to be in the outward direction and drawn normal.

An area vector ∆𝑆⃗ at a point on a closed surface can be written as

∆𝑆⃗ = |∆𝑆| 𝑛̂
where ∆𝑆 is magnitude of area vector and 𝑛̂ is a unit vector in the
outward direction drawn normal at that point.

Electric flux:
Electric flux over a given surface is the total number of electric field lines passing through
that surface.

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Consider a surface of area Δ𝑆 and suppose a uniform electric field
𝐸⃗⃗ exists in the space. Then we define electric flux as
Δ𝜙 = 𝐸 Δ𝑆 cos 𝜃
𝚫𝝓 = ⃗𝑬 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗. ∆𝑺
where 𝜃 is the angle between electric field and area vector.
Electric flux is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −1 or 𝑉𝑚.

Note:
1) When 𝜃 = 00 , Δ𝜙 = 𝐸 Δ𝑆 i.e electric flux is maximum when the plane of the surface is
normal to the direction of electric field.
2) When 𝜃 = 900 , Δ𝜙 = 0 i.e electric flux is zero when the plane of the surface is parallel to
the direction of electric field.
3) Outward flux is taken as positive and inward flux is taken as negative with respect to
a closed surface.

Gauss law:
Gauss law states that, “the total electric flux passing through a closed surface is equal

1
to times the net charge enclosed by that closed surface”.
𝜀0
If 𝑞 is the total charge enclosed by the closed surface, then the total electric flux through
𝟏
the surface is 𝝓 = 𝜺 (𝒒), where 𝜀0 is permittivity of free space.
𝟎
The imaginary closed surface considered for the application of Gauss’s law is called the
Gaussian surface. This surface can be of any size and shape.

Proof for Gauss’s Law:

Consider the total flux through a sphere of radius ‘𝑟’ which encloses a point charge 𝑞 at
its centre.
The flux through an area element ∆𝑆⃗ is
1 𝑞
∆𝜙 = 𝐸⃗⃗ . Δ𝑆⃗ = 𝑟̂ Δ𝑆⃗
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
The electric field and area vector Δ𝑆⃗ have the same direction, then
1 𝑞
∆𝜙 = Δ𝑆
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
The total flux through the sphere is obtained by adding up flux
through all the different area elements.
1 𝑞
𝜙= ∑ Δ𝑆
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑎𝑙𝑙 Δ𝑆
Since each area element of the sphere is at the same distance from 𝑟 from the charge.
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝜙= 2
∑ Δ𝑆 = 𝑆
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑎𝑙𝑙 Δ𝑆
where 𝑆 is the total surface area of the sphere, and 𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 . Thus
1 𝑞
𝜙= 2
× 4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝒒
∴𝝓=
𝜺𝟎

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Some important points regarding Gauss law:
1) Gauss law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its shape or size.
2) The surface that we choose for the application of Gauss law is called the Gaussian
surface.
3) The term 𝑞 on the right side of Gauss law includes the sum of all the charges enclosed
by the surface.
4) Gauss law is based on the Inverse Square dependence on distance contained in the
Coulomb's law.
5) Gauss’s law implies that, the total electric flux through a closed surface is zero if no
charge is enclosed by the surface.

Field due to infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire:

Consider an infinitely long thin wire with uniform linear charge
density 𝜆. It is desired to find electric field intensity at any point
‘𝑃’ at a perpendicular distance ‘𝑟’ from the axis of the wire.
Draw a circular cylinder of radius ‘𝑟’ and arbitrary length 𝑙, this
is called Gaussian surface. The total electric flux through the
Gaussian surface is the algebraic sum of fluxes due to two ends
and cylindrical part of the Gaussian surface.
Case 1)
For all points in the region I and II the angle between 𝐸 and area
vector is 90°. Therefore, the electric flux through them is zero.
𝜙𝐼 = 𝜙𝐼𝐼 = ∑ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 0 ………………. (1)
Case 2)
For all points in the region III, the angle between E and area vector is 0°.
Therefore, 𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼 = ∑ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 cos 0° = ∑ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠
𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝐸 ∑ 𝑑𝑠
= 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝑙) ………………. (2) [Surface area of the cylinder is 2𝜋 𝑟𝑙]
Therefore, total electric flux passing through the entire Gaussian surface is
𝜙 = 𝜙𝐼 + 𝜙𝐼𝐼 + 𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 0 + 0 + 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝑙)
∴ 𝜙 = 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝑙) …………….…. (3)
According to Gauss law,
𝑞 𝜆𝑙
𝜙 = 𝜀 = 𝜀 …………… (4) ( Because 𝑞 = 𝜆𝑙)
0 0
Substituting equation (3) in (4)
𝜆𝑙
𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 =
𝜀0
𝝀
𝑬=
𝟐𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
𝜆
In vector form, 𝐸⃗⃗ = 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑛̂, where 𝑛̂ is the radial unit vector in the plane normal to the wire
0

passing through that point. The direction of 𝐸⃗⃗ is radially outward if the line charge is
positive and radially inward if the line charge is negative.

Note:
If 𝜆 is negative,
𝜆
𝐸⃗⃗ = (−𝑛̂)
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
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Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet:
Consider an infinite plane sheet with surface
charge density 𝜎 as shown in figure. We can take
Gaussian surface to be a rectangular parallelepiped
of cross-sectional area 𝐴 as shown in figure. Only
two faces 1 and 2 will contribute flux.
The unit vector normal to surface 1 is in −𝑥
direction while the unit vector normal to surface 2
is in the +𝑥 direction. Therefore, flux 𝐸⃗⃗ . ∆𝑆⃗ through
both the surfaces are equal and added up.
Therefore, the net flux through the Gaussian surface is 2 𝐸𝐴.
By using Gauss law, we have
𝑞
𝜙 = = 2𝐸𝐴
𝜀0
But 𝑞 = 𝜎𝐴
𝜎𝐴 𝝈
∴ = 2 𝐸𝐴 ⇒ 𝑬 =
𝜀0 𝟐𝜺𝟎
Vectorially,
𝜎
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑛̂
2𝜀0
where 𝑛̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane and going away from it.
Note:
𝜎
𝐸⃗⃗ = (−𝑛̂) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝜎
2𝜀0

Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell:

Consider a thin spherical shell of radius 𝑅 and centre ‘𝑃’. Let +𝑞 be the charge on the
surface of the shell.
Case 1: Field outside the shell
Consider a point ‘P’ outside the shell at a distance ‘r’ from ‘O’.
Draw a sphere of radius ‘r’ through point ‘P’ with ‘O’ as its
center. This is considered as the Gaussian surface.
Clearly, the flux passing through the spherical shell will be
same as the flux passing through the Gaussian surface.
At every point on the Gaussian surface, angle between electric
field and area vector 𝑑𝑠 is zero. Therefore, electric flux passing
through the Gaussian surface is
𝜙 = ∑ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ∑ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃
= 𝐸 ∑ 𝑑𝑠
i.e 𝜙 = 𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 …………………………….. (1)
𝑞
According to gauss law, 𝜙 = 𝜀 ………………. (2)
0
From equation (1) and (2)
𝑞 𝟏 𝒒
𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜀 ⇒ 𝑬 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺
0 𝟎 𝒓𝟐

1 𝑞
In vector form, 𝐸⃗⃗ = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟̂
0 𝑟2
where 𝑟̂ is the unit vector at point P.

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Case 2: Field inside the shell
Consider a point ‘P’ inside the shell at a distance ‘r’ from ‘O’.
Draw a sphere of radius ‘r’ through point ‘P’ with ‘O’ as its
center. This is considered as the Gaussian surface.
The Gaussian surface encloses no charge. By using Gauss law,
∴ 𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 0
𝑖. 𝑒 𝐸 = 0
Therefore, the electric field inside the conductor is Zero.

Note:
1 𝑞
Electric field on the surface of a spherical shell is 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
, where 𝑅 is radius of the
0𝑅
spherical shell.

Variation of electric field for a charged conducting sphere with distance from its center is
as shown in figure.

𝑹=𝒓 𝒓

Five marks numerical problems:

1) Three charges each equal to +4𝑛𝐶 are placed at the three corners of a square of side 2
cm. Find the electric field at the fourth corner.
2) Two-point charges QA = 3µC and QB = -3µC are located 20 cm apart in vacuum.
a) What is the electric field at the midpoint O of the line AB joining the two charges?
b) If a negative test charge of magnitude 1.5 × 10−9 C is placed at this point, what is the
force experienced by the test charge?
3) Consider three charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 each equal to 𝑞 at the vertices of an equilateral
triangle of side 𝑙. What is the force on a charge 𝑄 (with the same sign as 𝑞) placed at
the centroid of the triangle?
4) Four-point charges 𝑞𝐴 = 2 𝜇𝐶, 𝑞𝐵 = −5 𝜇𝐶, 𝑞𝐶 = 2 𝜇𝐶, and 𝑞𝐷 = −5 𝜇𝐶 are located at the
corners of a square ABCD of side 10 𝑐𝑚. What is the force on a charge of 1 𝜇𝐶 placed at
the centre of the square?
5) Two charges ±10 𝜇𝐶 are placed 5.0 𝑚𝑚 apart. Determine the electric field at
a) a point P on the axis of the dipole 15 𝑐𝑚 away from its centre O on the side of the
positive charge.
b) a point Q, 15 𝑐𝑚 away from O on a line passing through O and normal to the axis of
the dipole.

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6) A system has two charges 𝑞𝐴 = 2.5 × 10−7 𝐶 and 𝑞𝐵 = −2.5 × 10−7 𝐶 located at points
𝐴: (0, 0, – 15 𝑐𝑚) and 𝐵: (0,0, +15 𝑐𝑚), respectively. What are the total charge and electric
dipole moment of the system?
7) An electric dipole with dipole moment 4 × 10−9 𝐶 − 𝑚 is aligned at 30° with the direction
of a uniform electric field of magnitude 5 × 104 𝑁𝐶 −1 .
Calculate the magnitude of the torque acting on the dipole.
8) Consider a uniform electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ = 3 × 103 𝑖̂ 𝑁/𝐶.
a) What is the flux of this field through a square of 10 𝑐𝑚 on a side whose plane is
parallel to the yz plane?
b) What is the flux through the same square if the normal to its plane makes a 60°
angle with the x-axis?
9) An electric field is uniform, and in the positive x direction for positive x, and uniform
with the same magnitude but in the negative x direction for negative x. It is given that
𝐸⃗⃗ = 200 𝑖̂ 𝑁/𝐶 for 𝑥 > 0 and 𝐸⃗⃗ = −200 𝑖̂ 𝑁/𝐶 for 𝑥 < 0. A right circular cylinder of length
20 𝑐𝑚 and radius 5 𝑐𝑚 has its centre at the origin and its axis along the x-axis so that
one face is at 𝑥 = +10 𝑐𝑚 and the other is at 𝑥 = – 10 𝑐𝑚 as shown in the figure.
a) What is the net outward flux through each flat face?
b) What is the flux through the side of the cylinder?
c) What is the net outward flux through the cylinder?
d) What is the net charge inside the cylinder?
10) The electrostatic force on a metal sphere of charge 0.4 𝜇𝐶 due to another identical metal
sphere of charge −0.8 𝜇𝐶 in air is 0.2 𝑁. Find the distance between the two spheres and
also the force between the same two spheres when they are brought in contact and
then replaced in their initial positions.
11) Two small charged spheres having charges 2 × 10−7 𝐶 and 3 × 10−7 𝐶 are placed 3 𝑐𝑚
apart in vacuum. Find the electrostatic force between them. Find the new force when
the distance between them is doubled and the vacuum is replaced by another medium
having dielectric constant 1.5.
12) A charged spherical conductor has a surface charge density of 0.7 𝐶𝑚−2. When its
charge is increased by 0.44 𝐶, the charge density increases by 0.14 𝐶𝑚−2. Find the initial
charge on the spherical conductor and also the radius of the sphere.
13) An electron falls through a distance of 1.5 𝑐𝑚 in a uniform electric field of magnitude
2.0 × 104 𝑁𝐶 −1 . The direction of the field is reversed keeping its magnitude unchanged
and a proton falls through the same distance. Compute the time of fall in each case.
Contrast the situation with that of ‘free fall under gravity’.
14) Two particles A and B having charges 8.0 × 10−6 𝐶 and −2.0 × 10−6 𝐶 respectively are
held fixed with separation of 20 cm. Where a third charged particle should be placed
so that it does not experience a net electric force?
15) Two insulating small spheres are rubbed against each other and placed 1 cm apart. If
they attract each other with a force of 0.1 N, how many electrons were transferred from
one sphere to the other during rubbing?
16) Four equal charges 2.0 × 10−6 𝐶 each are fixed at the four corners of a square of side 5
cm. Find the coulomb force experienced by one of the charges due to the rest three.
17) Two identical metal spheres having equal and similar charges repel each other with a
force of 103 N when they are placed 10 cm apart in a medium of dielectric constant 5.
Determine the charge on each sphere.

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18) Three identical charges each having a value 1.0 × 10−8 𝐶 are placed at the corners of an
equilateral triangle of side 20 cm. Find the electric field at the centre of the triangle.
19) If a body gives out 109 electrons every second, how much time is required to get a total
charge of 1C from it?
20) Two equally charged identical metal spheres A and B repel each other with a force of
2.0 × 10−5 𝑁. A third identical uncharged sphere C is touched to A, then placed at the
midpoint between A and B. Calculate the net electrostatic force on C.
21) Two identical charges, 𝑄 each are kept at a distance 𝑟 from each other. A third charge
𝑞 is placed on the line joining the above two charges such that all the three charges
are in equilibrium. What is the magnitude, sign and position of the charge?
22) Two pith balls of mass 10mg each are suspended by two threads from the same
support are charged identically. They move apart by 0.08 m and threads makes an
angle 600 with each other. Find the charge on each pith ball.
23) Two identically oppositely charged metallic spheres placed 0.5 m apart attract each
other with a force of 0.108 N. When they are connected to each other by a copper wire
for a short while they begin to repel with a force of 0.036 N. Calculate the initial charges
on the spheres.
24) Two positively charged particles each of mass 1.7 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 carrying a charge of
1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 are kept at a certain distance in air. If each charge experiences a repulsive
force equal to its weight find the distance of separation between the charges.
25) Two large thin metal plates are parallel and close to each other. On their inner faces,
the plates have surface charge densities of opposite signs and of magnitude
17.0 × 10−22 𝐶/𝑚2 . What is electric field 𝐸⃗⃗
a) in the outer region of the first plate
b) in the outer region of the second plate
c) between the plates?

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