CHAPTE

R
1 ELECTROSTATICS
Electromagnetism is the study of electricity and magnetism. That is, it is a
combination of electric and magnetic phenomena. The study of
electromagnetism begins with an understanding of the nature of electric
charges. In this chapter, we shall begin with the meaning and types of
electric charge and also discuss the electric force between charged
particles. The study of electric charges at rest or charges that are slowly
moving is called Electrostatics or static electricity.

-----------------------------------Learning Goals
---------------------
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
i. Describe the concept of electric charge and how materials acquire an
electric charge.
ii. Describe the basic structure of the atom and explain the types of
electric charges.
iii. Explain the basic properties of electric force.
iv. Explain Coulomb’s law and its application to various charge
distribution.
v. Solve simple calculations using Coulomb’s law.
vi. Describe and apply the principle of superposition of electric forces
for multiple source charges.
__________________________________________
1.1 Electric Charge
Most particles have a property called electric charge and are thus affected
by electric forces (just as objects that have mass are affected by
gravitational forces). Objects can acquire an electric charge or become
charged, if they are rubbed with certain other objects. For example,
i) Rubbing amber with wool
ii) Rubbing ebonite rod with fur
iii) Rubbing a glass rod with silk
iv) Dusting your shoes on a nylon carpet
v) Moving or rubbing a comb through a dry hair
vi) Rubbing a ball pen on a dry hair
These objects (amber, ebonite rod, glass rod etc.) which has been so
charged, then has the ability to attract or repel other objects and they are
said to be electrified or electrically charged.
Note: The word electric or electricity comes from a Greek word elektron
which means amber (the first object to exhibit such property).
Electric charge can therefore be defined as an intrinsic property of the
fundamental particles of an object that causes it to attract or repel other
objects.
The SI unit of charge is Coulombs (C). Commonly used sub units are the
micro coulombs (1 μC=10−6 C ¿ and nano coulombs (1 nC=10−9 C).

Types of Electric Charge

Experiments (particularly those carried out by Benjamin Franklin) have
shown that there are only two types of charges, namely:
i) a positive charge and
ii) a negative charge.
Every charged object therefore acquires one of this two types of charges and
the basic law of electrostatics states that “Like (or similar) charges repel
each other, while unlike (or dissimilar) charges attract each other”. That is,
two positive charges or two negative charges would repel each other while a
positive and a negative charge would attract each other.
For this reason, two charged glass rods (which has each acquired a positive
charge) would repel each other, likewise two charged ebonite rods (which
has each acquired a negative charge). Conversely, a charged glass rod
(positively charged) and a charged ebonite rod (negatively charged) would
attract each other.
To better understand electric charges and how an object gains an electric
charge (that is, the sources of charges), we must first study the structure of
the atom.

1.2 Atomic Structure

Basically, an atom is made up of three particles:
i) A negatively charged electron
ii) A positively charged proton
iii) An uncharged (or electrically neutral) neutron.
The following points should be noted about the atom.
1) The proton and the neutron together make up a small dense core called
the nucleus which is surrounded by the electrons as shown in figure 1.1.
The electron takes most of the atom’s volume.
 Figure 1.1: Atomic structure
2) The negatively charged electrons are held within the atom by the
attractive electric force on them from the positively charged protons.
3) The protons and the neutrons are held together by a strong attractive
force called the Nuclear Force, which overcomes the expected repulsion
of the protons.
4) The protons and the neutrons have nearly equal masses and are about
2000 times more massive than the electrons. Hence, the nucleus
(containing the proton and the neutron) contains about 99.9% of the
atom’s mass.
5) The charge of the proton and electron are equal in magnitude but with
opposite sign while the neutron has no charge.
6) In a neutral atom (uncharged atom), the number of protons equals the
number of electrons and the algebraic sum of all the charges is zero.
7) When an atom loses one or more electron it becomes positively charged
(a positive ion) because it now has more positive charges than negative
charges. Similarly, an atom becomes negatively charged when it gains
one or more electrons. It is this loss and gain of electrons that determines
the charge of an atom and an object in general.
The gain or loss of electrons from an atom is called ionization and the
resulting atom is called an ion.

1.3 Properties of Electric Charge

1) Like charges repel each other while unlike charges attract each other.
2) The magnitude of the charge is independent of the type: In other words,
the smallest possible positive charge (to four significant figures) is +1.602
×1 0 C , and the smallest possible negative charge is −1.602 × 1 0 C ;
these values are exactly equal. This is simply how the laws of physics in
−19 −19

our universe turned out.

3) Electric charge is conserved: This means that the total electric charge of
an isolated system remains unchanged. For example, when two bodies
are charged by rubbing, the number of electrons lost by one is the same
as the number of electrons gained by the other. In other words, during
any charging process, charge is not created nor destroyed, it is only
transferred from one object to another. This is known as the principle of
conservation of charge.
Furthermore, an isolated neutron is unstable and decays into a proton (p)
an electron (e) and a chargeless particle antineutrino ( v ¿ according to
the equation:
 n → p+ e+ v
Total charge before the decay is zero and total charge after the decay (+1
-1+ 0) is also zero in accordance with the principle of conservation of
charge.
4) Electric charge is Quantized: This means that the charge on any
macroscopic body is always either zero or an integer multiple of the
charge of the electron. That is,
q=± ne
q=charge onthe body ,
−19
e=electroncharge=1.602 ×1 0 C∧¿
n=charge quantum number , which can be positive , negative∨zero .
Quantization of charge simply means that charges can exist as whole
number multiples of e . That is, the value of q can only be
+e ,−e ,+2 e ,−2 e ,+3 e ,−3 e∧so on .

Where e=1.602 ×1 0−19 C and it is the natural or basic unit of electric charge.
The above is known as the principle of quantization of charge.

Worked Example 1.1

The charge on a particle is 2 ×10−4 C . Calculate the charge quantum number
given the charge of an electron is 1.602 ×1 0−19 C .

Solution
Recall , q=ne
−4
q 2 ×10 15
∴ n= = −19
=1.248 ×1 0
e 1.602 ×1 0

Worked Example 1.2

The atomic number of Carbon is 6. Calculate the total charge in coulombs on
one atom of a carbon molecule. (Take e=1.602 ×1 0−19 C ).

Solution
Number of protons=Number of electrons=6
That is , n=6
¿ q=ne
−19 −19
∴ q=6 ×1.602 ×1 0 =9.612× 10 C

1.4 Conductors and Insulators

A conductor is a material which allows electric charge to flow easily through
it from one region to another. Examples include most metals (copper
aluminum, brass etc.), the earth, the human body.
On the other hand, insulators are materials that do not allow electric charge
to flow through them easily. Examples include rubber, wood, plastic, glass,
wool, nylon air etc.
Some other materials whose conductivity is intermediate between good
conductors and insulators are called Semiconductors examples are silicon
and germanium.

Methods of Charging a Material

We can charge a material by any of the following processes:
1) Charging by Friction (or by rubbing): This gives charges of opposite sign
to the two uncharged bodies. For example, a glass rod rubbed with silk.
The glass rod becomes positively charged while the silk becomes
negatively charged.
2) Charging by Contact (Conduction): This happens when a charged body is
used to give a charge of the same sign to an uncharged body (a
conductor) through contact with each other.
3) Charging by Induction: This is the process of charging an uncharged
body by merely bringing a charged body close to it without them touching
each other. This process gives the uncharged body a charge of opposite
sign to that on the charged body. The steps involved are as follows:
a) Support the uncharged material on an insulating stand and bring a
negatively charged rod close to one end of the uncharged material.
This repels the negative charges in the material to the other end and
attracts the positive charges to the end with the charged rod
b) Using a conducting wire (or finger) to touch the end of the material
that has negative charge and connect the other end to the earth. This
causes electrons to flow to the earth.
c) Remove the connecting wire and the original negatively charged rod.
The material is then left with a net positive charge. It has thus been
charged positively by induction.
The above steps are shown in the diagram below:
 Figure 1.3: Charging positively by induction
Note:
i. By starting with a positively charged rod we can charge the material
negatively.
ii. The earth is a large conductor which can act as an infinite source of
extra electrons or sink of unwanted electrons.

1.4 Electric Force and Coulomb’s Law

An electric force (attractive or repulsive) usually exists between two
charged objects. Also, a charged body of either sign will exert an attractive
force on an uncharged body. For example, A charged plastic rod will attract
pieces of paper which has no net charge. Electric force is one of the
fundamental forces in nature. Another force in nature is the gravitational
force. One major difference between the electric force and the gravitational
force is that while the electric force can be both attractive and repulsive,
gravitational force is always attractive. Coulomb’s law describes the electric
force between charged objects.

Coulomb’s Law
This law states that “the magnitude of the electric force (attractive or
repulsive) between two point charges (q 1∧q 2 ¿ is directly proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them. That is,

F ∝ ¿ q1∨¿ q2∨ ¿2 ¿
r

F=k ¿ q 1∨¿ q 2∨ ¿2 ¿
r
Where k is a constant whose value is about 9.0 ×10 9 N . m2 C−2 .
1
k=
4 π ε0

ε 0 is another constant called the permitivity of free space∨ permittivity of vacuum. Its
numerical value is about 8.85×1 0−12 C2 / N . m2
1
∴ F= ¿ q ∨¿ q 2∨ ¿2 ¿
4 π ε0 1 r
For two bodies with charges q 1∧q 2, the force exerted by q 1 on q 2 is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to the force exerted by q 2 on q1(in
accordance with Newton’s 3rd law). The magnitude of the force is given by
Coulomb’s law while the direction is always along the line joining the two
forces. The force is repulsive if q 1∧q 2 have the same sign (both positive or
both negative) but attractive if they have opposite sign.
 Figure 1.3: Coulomb’s law

Worked Example 1.3

What is the magnitude and nature of the force exerted by a charge
q 1=−2.5 μC by another charge q 2=+1.5 μC , if they are separated by a distance
of 15.0 cm .

Solution
1
F= ¿ q ∨¿ q2∨ ¿2 ¿
4 π ε0 1 r
1 9 2 −2
=9.0× 10 N . m C
4 π ε0

¿ q 1∨¿ 2.5 μC=2.5× 10 C , ¿ q 2∨¿ 1.5 μC=1.5 × 10 C∧r=15.0 cm=0.015 m

−6 −6

9 −6 −6
9.0× 10 ×2.5 ×10 × 1.5× 10
∴ F= 2
=150 N
0.015
The force is attractive since q 1∧q 2have opposite sign.

Superposition of Electric Forces

Although, we have used coulomb’s law to describe the interaction between
two charged particles, it can also be applied to any number of charges. In
such a situation, the total force acting on a particular charge is the vector
sum of the forces exerted individually by the other charges. This is known as
the principle of superposition of forces.
Furthermore, if the medium between any two point charges is not a vacuum,
we can modify coulomb’s law to become:
1
∴ F= ¿ q ∨¿ q 2∨ ¿2 ¿
4 π εm 1 r
Where ε m is the permitivity of the medium .

ε m=ε r ε 0 .

ε r is called relative permitivity ∨dielectric of the medium.

Note: Unless otherwise stated, we assume free space between any two point
charges.

Worked Example 1.4

Calculate the total force exerted on a charge q 3=+5.0 nC by two charges
q 1=+1.0 nC and q 2=−3.0 nC , if q 1∧q 2 are at distances 2.0 cm∧4.0 cm respectively
from q 3.

Solution
Let the force and distance of q 1 on q 3 be F 1∧r 1 respectively.
1
¿ q1∨¿ q 3∨ ¿2 =112 × 10 N (repulsive)¿
−6
F 1=
4 π ε0 r1

Similarly, let the force and distance of q 2 on q3 be F 2∧r 2 respectively.

1
¿ q2∨¿ q 3∨ ¿2 =84 ×10 N (attractive)¿
−6
F 2=
4 π ε0 r2

Therefore, the resultant force F R =F1−F 2=28 ×10 N

−6

The force is repulsive and in the same direction as F 1, since F 1 has a larger
magnitude.

Worked Example 1.5

Given three (3) charges:
q 1=−2.00 μC at ( 0 , 0 ) m, q2 =+4.00 μC at ( 0 , 0.1 ) m∧q3=−3.00 μC at ( 0.15 , 0 ) m. Find the
magnitude of the total electric force on q 1and the angle this force makes
with the positive x-axis.

Solution
The sketch for the question is shown in figure 1.4.

q 2=4.00 μC
+¿

0.1 m
F 2 ,1
F 3 ,1
−¿ −¿
q 1=2.00 μC q 3=3.00 μC
0.15 m

Figure 1.4: Sketch for Worked Example 1.5

 1
Let F 2 ,1= ¿ q ∨¿ q2∨ ¿2 be the force of q 2 on q1 .This force is attractive as shown ¿
4 π ε0 1 r1

By substituting, F 2 ,1=7.2 N
1
Similarly , Let F3 , 1= ¿ q ∨¿ q 3∨ ¿2 be the force of q 3 on q 1 . This force is repulsive ¿
4 π ε0 1 r2

Also, by substituting, we find that F 3 ,1=2.4 N

The resultant force is shown in the diagram below.

FR F 2 ,1=7.2 N

F 3 ,1=2.4 N

Magnitude of the force is given by

2 2 2 2 2
F R =F 3 ,1 + F 2 ,1 =2.4 +7.2 =57.6

∴ F R= √ 57.6=7.6 N

To get the direction of F R , we use

opp 2.4
tanθ= = =0.33
adj 7.2
0
θ=18
Therefore, the net force is 7.6 N in a direction 1 80 to the line joiningq 2∧q 1 and
makes an angle of 1 080with the positive x−axis .

Worked Example 1.6

Two small spheres are placed 30 cm apart and have equal but opposite
charges. If they experience an attractive force of 2.30 ×10−22 N , calculate the
charge and hence number of excess electrons present on each sphere.

Solution

1 ¿ q 1|¿ q2|
2
1 q
F=
4 π ε0 2
=
4 π ε0 r2
( since q1=q2 )
r
2 2
q =F × 4 π ε 0 ×r

Solving for charge we have that q=4.8× 10−17 C

Also, recall that q=ne

−17
q 4.8 ×10
n= = =300
e 1.6 ×10−19
n=300 electrons

Worked Example 1.7

Calculate the magnitude of the force between two equal charge q=1.6 ×10−4 C
, if they are separated by a distance of 25cm in a liquid whose dielectric
constant is 92.

Solution
2 2
1 q 1 q 9
F= = =9.0 ×10 ׿ ¿
4 π εm r2 4 π ε0 εr r2

Chapter 1 Review Questions

1. Define electric charge and state the two types of charges

2. A neutral rubber rod (otherwise called an ebonite rod) is rubbed with
fur. After rubbing, what would be the charge on each of these objects?
Is it possible to transfer positive charges from one of them to the other?
Give reason(s) for your answer?
3. State the basic law of Electrostatics
4. Apart from electric force list two other fundamental forces in nature.
5. List two methods of charging an uncharged material.
6. State Coulomb’s Law and write the equation for two charged particles in
a medium that is not a vacuum.
7. Determine the electrostatic force between two equal charges of
magnitude 3 μC ,if they are separated by 4 cm
(Answer: 50.6 N )
8. (a) Find the magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction F e ,
between the electron and the proton. (b) Find the magnitude of the
gravitational force of attraction, F g, between the electron and the
proton, and then find the ratio F e/ F g. (Mass of electron, m e =9.11× 10 kg ,
−31

Mass of proton, m p=1.67 × 10 kg) (Answer:

−27

F e =¿ 8.2× 1 0 N , F g =3.6 ×1 0 N , F e / F g=2.3 × 10 )

−8 −47 39

9. Referring to worked example 1.4, what is the net force on (i) q 1 (ii) q 2
10. In the diagram below calculate the
magnitude of that force that (a)q 1 exertts on q 2 (b)q 2 exerts on q1
q 1=−4.0 μC (Answer: F 1=F2=0.054 N )
−¿

0.4 m

+¿
q 2=3.00 μC
0.3 m
CBT Practice Questions 1
1. In the atom, the protons and neutrons are held together by a strong
attractive force called (a) Lorentz force (b) Coulombic force (c) Atomic
force (d) Nuclear force
2. The magnitude of the electric force (attractive and repulsive) between
two point charges (q1 and q2) is directly proportional to the product of
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of their distance.
This law is (a) Gauss law (b) Coulombs Law (c) Kirchhoff’s Law (d)
Newton’s Law
3. The following materials are semi-conductors except (a) Copper
aluminum (b) Silicon (c) Germanium (d) Gallium arsenide
4. _____________can be defined as an intrinsic property of the
fundamental particles of an object that causes it to attract or repel
other objects (a) Atomic structure (b) Electrostatics (c) Electric force
(d) Electric charge
5. Which of the following is not a method of charging a material? (a)
Rubbing (b) Convection (c) Conduction (d) Induction
6. The law of physics describing the electrostatic interaction between
electrically charged particles is called (a) Kirchhoff Law (b) Gauss’
Law (c) Coulombs Law (d) Ohms Law
7. The study of stationary or slow-moving electric charges is called------
(a)Electrostatics (b)Electricity (c) Electromagnetism (d) magnetism
8. The process of charging an uncharged body by merely bringing a
charged body close to it without them touching each other is called (a)
Charging by Friction (b) Charging by conduction (c) Charging by
induction (d) Charging by rubbing
9. The force existing between two objects that are charged is
called----------- force (a) nuclear (b)electric (c)magnetic
(d)electromagnetic
10. Which of the following is correct? The electrical force between
two charged objects is---(a) inversely proportional to the product of
the charges(b) inversely proportional to the square of the separation
distance(c) directly proportional to the square of the separation
distance(d) equal to the square of the separation distance
11. What type of charge will exist between a charged glass rod and
a charged ebonite rod (a) repulsive (b) Attractive (c) Neutral (d)
inductive
12. Which principle states that charges exist as whole number
multiples the electron charge (a) Quantization of charge (b)
Conservation of charge (c) Integration of charge (d) Normalization of
charge
13. In coulomb’s law, the constant ε 0 is known as (a) Permittivity of
free space (b) Relative Permittivity (c) Absolute Permittivity (d)
Resultant Permittivity
14. Which of the following is incorrect about charges (a) Static
charges are produced by rubbing (b) An electroscope can detect
whether a body is charged or not (c) Like charges repel each other (d)
A glass rod becomes negatively charged wen rubbed with silk
15. Two charges of magnitude A=0.003 C and B=0.006 C are placed
at a distance of 1.5 m from one another. If B experiences a force of F B
from A and charge A experiences a force of F A from B, which of the
following equations is correct? (a) F A=F B (b) F A=3 F B (c) F A=2 F B (d)
2 F A =F B