‭16/9/2024 - Subcellular structures‬

‭Light microscope‬ ‭Electron Microscope‬

‭Wavelength of light is relatively long‬ ‭Wavelength of electron beam is a lot shorter‬

‭So resolution is only 0.2µm (200 nm)‬ ‭So resolution is 0.1nm‬

‭Electromagnets focus the electron beam‬

‭Magnification - how many times an object has been enlarged‬

‭-‬ ‭Controlled by the power of the lenses used‬
‭Resolution - the ability to distinguish between two different but adjacent objects‬
‭-‬ ‭Controlled by the wavelength‬

‭Benefits of electron microscope‬ ‭Limitations:‬

‭●‬ ‭High magnification‬ ‭●‬ ‭Cannot look at living cells‬

‭●‬ H
‭ igh resolution (due to shorter‬ ‭●‬ ‭Must be in a vacuum‬
‭wavelength of electrons)‬

‭●‬ ‭Must cut section/thin specimen‬

‭24/9/2024 - measuring cells‬

‭ ield of view on a microscope‬
F
‭Lowest magnification has the widest wild of view (so you can see the largest part of the slide‬
‭possible) and hence the highest magnification has the smallest field of view (So you can see a‬
‭small part of the image with a high resolution)‬

‭Total magnification = magnification of the objective lens * the magnification of the eyepiece‬

‭ eal size = Image size / Total MagnifactionElectorn microscopes uses an electron beam‬
R
‭instead of light, the electron beam has a very short wavelength compared to light so it has a‬
‭higher resolving power‬
‭27/9/2024 - Cell fractionation‬
‭1.‬ ‭Before fractionation place cells in a cold, buffered isotonic solution‬
‭a.‬ ‭Cold - reduces enzyme activity that could damage the organelles‬
‭b.‬ ‭Buffered - to maintain constant pH and prevent protein damage‬
‭c.‬ ‭Isotonic - to prevent cell organelles bursting or shrinking by osmosis‬
‭2.‬ ‭Homogenisation‬
‭a.‬ ‭Cells are broken up by a homogeniser (blender) to release the organelles‬
‭3.‬ ‭Filtration‬
‭a.‬ ‭The blended tissue is filtered through a sieve to remove insoluble material e.g.‬
‭cell walls, large pieces of unhomogenised tissue, connective tissue‬
‭4.‬ ‭Ultracentrifugation‬
‭a.‬ ‭The filtrate is placed in a centrifuge and spun at 1000*g for 10 min‬
‭b.‬ ‭This pellets nuclei, which can be resuspended‬
‭c.‬ ‭The fluid at the top (supernatant) is removed and spun at 10,000*g for 30 mins‬
‭d.‬ ‭This pellets mitochondria and chloroplasts, which can be resuspended‬
‭e.‬ ‭The supernatant is removed and spun at 100,000*g for 1 hour‬
‭f.‬ ‭This pellet ER, golgi and other membrane fragments which can be resuspended‬
‭g.‬ ‭The supernatant is removed and spun at 300,000*g for 3 hours‬
‭h.‬ ‭This pellets ribosomes, which can be resuspended‬
‭i.‬ ‭The supernatant is now organelle free‬

‭ otal magnification = eyepiece magnification x objective lens magnification‬

T
‭Image size = magnification x real size‬
‭Distinctify objects by measuring them‬

‭30/9/2024 - Structure of Eukaryotic cells‬

‭General Eukaryotic cell features‬
‭Common Features of cells‬
‭●‬ ‭Provides indirect evidence for evolution‬
‭●‬ ‭All cells arise from other cells, via binary fission in prokaryotic cells and by mitosis and‬
‭meiosis in eukaryotic cells‬
‭●‬ ‭All cells have a cell-surface membrane, and in addition all eukaryotic cells have‬
‭internal membranes (for compartmentalisation and so are more complicated and‬
‭therefore more evolved so come after prokaryotic cells)‬

‭Eukaryotic cell‬
‭●‬ ‭You must be made up of cells to be living‬
‭●‬ ‭Most genetic material is contained within the nucleus‬
 ‭‬ T
● ‭ he remaining portion of the cell interior is filled with cytoplasm‬
‭●‬ ‭The cell is enveloped in a plasma membrane‬

‭Plasma Membrane‬
‭Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins‬

‭Functions‬
‭●‬ ‭selective transport and cell-to-cell recognition (due to the specific proteins embedded)‬
‭●‬ ‭Separates the cell form the external environment‬

‭Davson and danielli’s model‬

‭●‬ ‭Discovered that the cell membrane is made of both phospholipids and proteins‬

‭Nucleus‬
‭General Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Usually spherical‬
‭●‬ ‭Contains genetic material of the cell‬

‭Nuclear envelope‬
‭●‬ ‭Double membrane surrounding the nucleus‬
‭●‬ ‭Outer membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum of cells‬
‭●‬ ‭If perforated with nuclear pores‬
‭○‬ ‭Controls entry/exit of materials in/out of the nucleus‬

‭Nuclear pores‬
‭●‬ ‭Allows large molecules to leave the nucleus‬
‭●‬ ‭Typically around 3000 pores in each nucleus‬
‭●‬ ‭DNA is too large to fit through the pores so it must transcribed as RNA‬

‭Nucleoplasm‬
‭●‬ ‭Granular, jelly like material‬
‭○‬ ‭Makes up bulk of nucleus‬
‭○‬ ‭Where chemical reactions occur‬

‭Chromosomes‬
‭●‬ ‭Consists of protein-bound linear DNA‬
 ‭●‬ ‭It is composed of chromatin (a complex of DNA and proteins)‬

‭Nucleolus‬
‭●‬ ‭Small dark staining spherical region within the nucleoplasm (as stains dye the DNA)‬
‭●‬ ‭Specialised function: produces and assembles the cell's ribosome‬
‭●‬ ‭Where ribosomal RNA genes are transcribed‬
‭●‬ ‭Does not contain chromosome and is able to shuttle ribosome and ribosomal RNAs‬
‭○‬ ‭Contains the genetic material of the cell in the form of DNA and chromosomes‬
‭○‬ ‭Controls protein synthesis for the ribosomes‬

‭Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER)‬

‭Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Bound to the nuclear envelope‬
‭●‬ ‭Made up of cisternae‬
‭●‬ ‭Covered in ribosomes‬

‭Function‬
‭●‬ ‭Folds and packages proteins and sends them to the golgi apparatus, it also produces‬
‭membrane proteins and synthesises phospholipids for its own membrane‬

‭Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sER)‬

‭Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Long network of tubules also made of cisternae with an internal lumen enclosed by a‬
‭phospholipid membrane, similar to the entire cell‬
‭●‬ ‭Its membrane is devoid of ribosomes‬
‭●‬ ‭It forms after both the nucleus and the rER‬

‭Function‬
‭●‬ ‭It is responsible for lipid synthesis creatine g molecules like cholesterol and steroids‬
‭and hormones‬
‭●‬ ‭Carbohydrate metabolism‬
‭●‬ ‭Completes Detoxification of drugs and poisons‬

‭Golgi Apparatus (The Golgi)‬

‭Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Formed from fluid filled membrane bound flattened stacks/ sheets of cisternae‬
‭●‬ ‭Golgi vesicles are commonly seen around The Golgi‬
‭●‬ ‭It has a cis face (near ER that receives vesicles) and a trans face (directed towards‬
‭membrane and sends out vesicles)‬
‭Function‬
‭●‬ ‭Forms Lysosomes‬
‭●‬ ‭Transports, modifies (e.g attaching oligosaccharides to polypeptides forming‬
‭glycoproteins) and stores lipids and proteins (including secretary enzymes)‬
‭●‬ ‭Secrete carbohydrates, lipids and proteins in vesicles or lysosomes‬
‭Vesicles‬
‭structure‬
‭●‬ ‭round organelles with no clear internal structure‬
‭functions‬
‭●‬ ‭Transport proteins and lipids from the endoplasmic reticulum into the lumen of the golgi‬
‭apparatus where they fuse with its membrane via endocytosis‬

‭Lysosomes‬

‭Formation and structure‬

‭●‬ ‭Lysosomes are formed when vesicles carrying hydrolytic (lysosomal) enzymes‬
‭●‬ ‭Therefore the internal fluid is acidic as it is the optimal pH for hydrolytic enzymes‬
‭●‬ ‭They are round organelles with no clear internal structure‬

‭Function‬
‭●‬ ‭They can hydrolyse material in vacuoles (entering via endocytosis), e.g in phagocytosis‬
‭●‬ ‭They can transfer enzymes outside of the cell via exocytosis‬
‭●‬ ‭They recycle useful chemicals by breaking down worn out or damaged cell organelles‬
‭●‬ ‭Autolysis is the complete breakdown of cells after they have died‬

‭Peroxisomes‬
‭Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Membrane-bound organelles that transfer hydrogen and produce hydrogen peroxide as‬
‭a by-product‬

‭Function‬
‭●‬ ‭May detoxify alcohol in the liver‬
‭●‬ ‭Or break down fatty acids to be used as fuel for the mitochondria‬

‭Ribosomes‬
‭Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Can be found within the cytoplasm or on the rER‬
‭●‬ ‭Composed of 2 sub-units called large and small ribosomal subunit‬
‭●‬ ‭Ribosomes can account for up to 25% of the dry mass of a cell‬
 ‭●‬ ‭There are Two different types of ribosomes:‬
‭○‬ ‭70s - found in prokaryotic cells‬
‭○‬ ‭80s - found in eukaryotic cells‬

‭Function‬
‭●‬ ‭Synthesise proteins‬
‭●‬ ‭Small ribosomal sub-units read the mRNA‬
‭●‬ ‭Large ribosomal sub-units form polypeptide chains of amino acids‬
‭●‬ ‭Both of these contain ribosomal RNA and proteins.‬

‭There are Two different types of ribosomes‬

‭1.‬ ‭70s - found in prokaryotic cells‬
‭2.‬ ‭80s - found in eukaryotic cells‬

‭Mitochondria‬
‭structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Approximately the size of bacteria cells (large)‬
‭●‬ ‭And so can be seen by a light microscope‬
‭●‬ ‭They all have smooth outer membranes and folded inner membranes‬
‭●‬ ‭Contains its own DNA and ribosomes, which codes for its own proteins‬
‭●‬ ‭Consists of a double membrane separated by an intermembrane space‬
‭●‬ ‭The inner membrane is folded and called cristae, more dense and numerous cristae‬
‭indicate a higher metabolic rate‬

‭function‬
‭●‬ ‭Uses oxygen to release energy in the form of ATP from sugars, fats and other materials‬
‭(Aerobic respiration)‬

‭Fun facts‬
‭●‬ ‭Mitochondria where most likely originally a prokaryotic cell that was engulfed and not‬
‭ingested by another cell forming a symbiotic relationship with that cell (mitochondria‬
‭has its own ribosomes and DNA)‬
‭●‬ ‭Is composed only of DNA from the mother (can be used to trace ancestry and human‬
‭migration patterns)‬

‭Cytoplasm‬
‭Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Fluid-like substance‬
‭●‬ ‭Mainly composed of water, enzymes, salts and various organelles, as well as other‬
‭organic and inorganic substances‬
 ‭●‬ C ‭ ytoplasm contains a network of threads and microtubules that help the cell maintain its‬
‭shape and form‬
‭●‬ ‭The cytoplasm also contains organelles (non-membranous organelles)‬

‭function‬
‭●‬ ‭Where most of the cells metabolism occurs‬

‭Cytoskeleton‬
‭Microtubules‬
‭●‬ ‭Microtubules diverge from the centrosome which is located near the nucleus‬
‭●‬ ‭Are associated with “motor” proteins, actin filaments associate with myosin and‬
‭microtubules associate with kinesins, or dynein‬
‭○‬ ‭Maintain cell shape‬
‭○‬ ‭Move chromosomes and organelles‬

‭Centrioles, cilia and flagella‬

‭●‬ ‭Consist of microtubules‬
‭●‬ ‭A pair of centrioles is called a centrosome‬
‭●‬ ‭Centrioles are always found in pairs and only exist in animal cells and only exist in‬
‭eukaryotes‬
‭○‬ ‭cilia and flagella help with cell motility( mobility of cells)‬
‭○‬ ‭Centrioles play an important part in cell division forming spindle fibres that‬
‭separate chromosomes into different poles of the cell‬

‭Microfilaments‬
‭●‬ ‭Maintain cell shape‬
‭●‬ ‭Help Changes in cell shape‬
‭●‬ ‭Help with cell motility‬
‭●‬ ‭Help with muscle contractions‬

‭Intermediate filaments‬
‭●‬ ‭Very small 8 to 10 nm in diameter‬
‭●‬ ‭They are more stable than microtubules or actin filaments and only (de-)polymerise‬
‭relatively slowly in interphase cells‬
‭●‬ ‭They have no associated motor protons‬
‭○‬ ‭Act as the cellular scaffold of the cells‬
‭○‬ ‭Help maintain cell-cell connectivity, as well as the structural integrity of the cell‬
‭itself‬
‭○‬ ‭Can help transmit forces between cells, such as in smooth muscle‬
‭○‬ ‭Anchor nucleus‬
‭Extracellular Matrix (ECM) in Animal Cells‬
‭Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Consists of collagen, fibronectin and proteoglycan complexes‬
‭●‬ ‭Communicates through mechanical and chemical signalling‬

‭Function‬
‭●‬ ‭Regulates cell behaviour‬

‭Flagella and cilia‬

‭Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Flagella air whip-like-tail structures‬
‭●‬ ‭whereas cilia are fine motile hair‬
‭●‬ ‭Proper orientation of cilia via the centriole is critical for establishing left-right symmetry‬
‭during mammalian development‬

‭Microvilli‬
‭Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Finger-like projections of cytoplasm to maximise surface area for absorption‬

‭Bacteria Cell walls‬

‭structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Bacterial cell walls are made form a polymer called peptidoglycan and commonly murein‬
‭(a glycoprotein)‬
‭●‬ ‭peptidoglycan is only in bacteria whereas murein can be found in other cells (like fungi)‬

‭Fun Fact‬
‭●‬ ‭Antibiotics only affect bacteria as human cells don't have peptidoglycan‬

‭Plant, fungal, and algae cell walls‬

‭Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Plant cell walls consist of cellulose embedded in matrix, whilst algae cell walls consist‬
‭of cellulose and/or glycoproteins, and fungi cell walls consist of chitin (a mixture of‬
‭nitrogen polysaccharides)‬

‭General Structure‬
 ‭‬ C
● ‭ onsists of many polysaccharides‬
‭●‬ ‭Contain cellulose microfibrils (fine fibre-like strands that strengthen the cell wall)‬
‭●‬ ‭Contains three layers‬
‭○‬ ‭The middle lamella (LM), the primary cell wall (PCW), and the secondary cell wall‬
‭(SCW)‬
‭●‬ ‭The LM marks the boundary between adjacent cell walls and holds adjacent cells‬
‭together‬

‭Plasmodesmata‬
‭Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Channels that connect adjacent plant cells‬
‭Function‬
‭●‬ ‭Allows cell to cell movement of cytoplasm‬

‭Chloroplasts‬
‭Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Tiny green organelles found in plants and some algae‬
‭●‬ ‭Very big for organelles‬
‭●‬ ‭They have a double membrane‬
‭●‬ ‭Inside they have sacs called thylakoids‬

‭function‬
‭●‬ ‭Chloroplasts are where photosynthesis occurs (which absorbs solar energy and converts‬
‭it into chemical energy which can be used by the cell and transported)‬

‭Fun fact‬
‭●‬ ‭Like Mitochondria, chloroplast where also most likely originally a prokaryotic cell that‬
‭was engulfed and not ingested by another cell forming a symbiotic relationship with that‬
‭cell (chloroplast has its own ribosomes and DNA)‬

‭Vacuoles‬

‭Structure‬
‭●‬ ‭Fluid filled sac surrounded by single membrane called a tonoplast‬
‭●‬ ‭A plant vacuole contains a solution of mineral salts,sugars, amino acids, wastes and‬
‭pigments‬

‭function‬
‭●‬ ‭Vacuole helps support plants by making the cells turgid.‬
 ‭‬ V
● ‭ acuoles contain sugars and amino acids which serve as temporary food stores.‬
‭●‬ ‭Vacualose also contain pigments which colour petals and help attract pollinating insects‬
‭●‬ ‭Increases cell size without increasing cytoplasm‬

‭4/10/2024 - Structure of viruses‬

‭Classification of viruses‬
‭●‬ ‭The disease they cause‬
‭●‬ ‭The tissue they target‬
‭●‬ ‭The vector by which they are transmitted‬
‭●‬ ‭The nucleic acid‬
‭●‬ ‭Their size‬
‭●‬ ‭Their morphology‬

‭General virus replication‬

‭●‬ ‭Virus only attack specific cell surface receptors,(so they usually only infect one species)‬
‭●‬ ‭When a virus infects a cell it injects its own nucleic acid into the cell‬
‭●‬ ‭The genetic material of the virus replicates assembling many virus particles‬
‭●‬ ‭The replicating virus disrupt the cells metabolism, stealing the hosts cell nutrients‬
‭●‬ ‭Eventually the cells is destroyed the virus particles release and infect new cells‬

‭Virus structure‬
‭●‬ ‭VIruses are acellular, non-living particles.‬
‭●‬ ‭They are smaller than bacteria from 20-300 nm. They contain nucleic acids, either‬
‭DNA or RNA‬

‭Structure of Prokaryotic cells‬

‭14/10/2024 - Cell division and the cell cycle‬
‭Cell Division‬
‭●‬ A ‭ ll cells have the ability to divide but most cells lose this ability (stem cells keep this‬
‭property)‬
‭●‬ ‭Specialised cells often only go through the cell cycle once‬

‭In eukaryotic cells there are two types of cell division‬

‭●‬ ‭Mitosis - produces identical cells (body cells)‬
‭●‬ ‭Meiosis produces non-identical cells (gametes)‬

‭Function of mitosis‬
‭●‬ ‭Tissue and organism growth‬
 ‭‬
● ‭ eplacement of lost cells‬
R
‭●‬ ‭Repair of damaged tissues‬
‭●‬ ‭Asexual reproduction‬
‭●‬ ‭Formation of clones of T and B lymphocytes‬
‭●‬ ‭Cells abnormally divide uncontrollably to form tumours‬

‭DNA Structure‬
‭ hromatin‬
C
‭DNA when it is not wound up tightly as a chromosome‬

‭ hromosome‬
C
‭compact X or L-shaped form of chromatin formed during cell division that consist of 2 sister‬
‭chromatids that are joined at the centromere (Sister chromatids code for the same trait but they‬
‭code for it differently)‬

‭ hromatids‬
C
‭the two identical arms of an x-shaped chromosome, if the chromosomes are x shaped, the‬
‭chromatids will contain a‬‭𝑝‬ ‭and a‬‭𝑞‬ ‭arms, the‬‭𝑞‬ ‭arm is at the bottom and longer than the‬‭𝑝‬ ‭arm,‬
‭because p stand for petit‬

‭ entromere‬
C
‭point at which chromatids are joined, the kinetochore wraps around the centromere‬

‭ omologous chromosomes‬
h
‭two chromosomes originating from each parent containing the same genes but different alleles‬

‭ entrosomes‬
C
‭Consist of 2 centrioles, form spindle fibres‬

‭ ister chromatids are on the same chromosome, they code for the same trait but they code for it‬
S
‭differently‬

‭Nonsister chromatids are on different chromatids they do not code for the same trait‬

‭The Cell Cycle‬

‭‬ T
● ‭ he cell first undergo interphase‬
‭●‬ ‭It then undergoes mitosis‬
‭●‬ ‭And finally undergoes cytokinesis‬
‭Interphase‬
‭●‬ ‭Most of the cell spends its time in interphase‬
‭●‬ ‭It can be divided into three discrete phases‬
‭○‬ ‭Gap stage 1 (‬‭𝐺‬‭1‭)‬ - The cell functions normally‬‭and protein and organelles‬
‭ ynthesis occurs such that the cells doubles in size, so both daughter cells wool‬
s
‭be able to function the same as the parent cells‬
‭○‬ ‭Synthesis stage (‬‭𝑆‭)‬ - DNA is replicated via semi-conservative‬‭replication which‬
‭produces 2 identical copies of each chromosome‬
‭ ‬ ‭gap stage 2 (‬‭𝐺‬‭2‭)‬ - more growth occurs and proteins‬‭(especially ones used in‬
○
‭mitosis) are rapidly synthesise in preparation for mitosis‬
‭Mitosis‬
‭●‬ ‭Moves through 4 stages‬‭pmat‬‭called Prophase,metaphase,‬‭Anaphase and telophase‬
‭●‬ ‭Prophase‬
‭○‬ ‭Chromatins coil and condense forming chromosomes (that can be seen with a‬
‭light microscope)‬
‭○‬ ‭The 2 Centrosomes (replicated in gap stage 2) move to opposite ends of the cell‬
‭○‬ ‭Spindle fibres begin to emerge from the centrioles‬
‭○‬ ‭The nuclear envelope breaks down (into vesicles)‬
‭●‬ ‭Metaphase‬
‭○‬ ‭Centrosomes reach opposite poles‬
‭○‬ ‭Centromere regions become aligned at the cell’s equator, equidistant from the 2‬
‭centrosomes‬
‭○‬ ‭the spindle fibres that emerged from the centrioles connect to the kinetochore‬
‭wrapped around the centromere‬
‭●‬ ‭Anaphase‬
‭○‬ ‭The centromere from each chromosome separates‬
‭○‬ ‭The spindle fibres shorten‬
 ‭○‬ S ‭ o the single sister chromatids (now called chromosomes) move towards a pole‬
‭(opposite to the other sister chromatid)‬
‭ ‬ ‭Telophase‬
●
‭○‬ ‭Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and disperse‬
‭○‬ ‭The nuclear envelope reforms around the 2 sets of chromosomes‬
‭○‬ ‭And finally the spindle fibres break down‬

‭Cytokinesis‬
‭●‬ ‭It is the division of the cytoplasm of the cell‬
‭●‬ ‭It starts during anaphase and ends at the same time as telophase‬

‭15/10/2024 - Failure of cell cycle control‬

‭Formations of tumours (abnormal masses)‬
‭Checkpoints‬
‭●‬ ‭There are 3 checkpoints in the cell cycle‬
‭●‬ ‭The first happens near the end of‬ ‭𝐺‬‭1‭,‬ the second‬‭between‬‭𝐺‬‭2‬ ‭and mitosis and the third‬
‭ uring metaphase‬
d
‭‬
● ‭The checkpoints ensure that the previous phase has been completed properly‬
‭●‬ ‭if the cell fails the checkpoint they will repeat the previous phase‬
‭●‬ ‭if the cell keeps failing to repeat the phase the cell will die,‬
‭●‬ ‭And if the cells don't die they will become tumours‬

‭There are two types of tumours‬

‭●‬ ‭Benign tumours which are slow growing and do not metastasis‬
‭●‬ ‭Malignant tumours or cancer which are fast growing and able to metastasise, they can‬
‭metastasise via the blood (which lets them move very far) or the lymph system (which‬
‭lets them move significantly less)‬

‭Life cycle of tumours‬

‭●‬ ‭Normal epithelial cells sit against the basal lamina‬
‭●‬ ‭If the checkpoints fail in an epithelial cell it will divide uncontrollably and become a‬
‭tumour in the epithelium‬
‭●‬ ‭If the cells become invasive and enter the capillary by breaking basal lamina it is a‬
‭malignant tumour and if it stays on the basal lamina it is a benign tumour‬
‭●‬ ‭the rogue epithelial cells will travel through the bloodstream or lymph vessels and end‬
‭up adhering to a blood vessel wall‬
‭●‬ ‭They escape from the blood or lymph vessels and form micrometastasis in other parts of‬
‭the body‬
‭●‬ ‭Which can grow and form full-blown metastasis (secondary tumours)‬

‭Cause of uncontrolled cell division and cancer‬

‭Cancers will suspend cell death‬
 ‭‬ C
● ‭ hromosomes are not copied completely when the cell replicates‬
‭●‬ ‭Telomeres are regions of repeated DNA found at the end of a chromosomes‬
‭●‬ ‭They act as a buffer when chromosomes are copied so none of the important DNA is‬
‭lost in the copying process‬
‭●‬ ‭When the telomeres are too short the checkpoint fail the cycle and the cell will‬
‭eventually die‬
‭●‬ ‭Cancers will pause this by two methods‬
‭○‬ ‭They will either artificially extend the length of the telomeres‬
‭○‬ ‭or mask the telomere damage from the checkpoints,‬
‭●‬ ‭this can cause mutations in the cell's chromosomes as the DNA is not getting copied‬
‭completely‬

‭Carcinogens can be linked to mutagenesis (production of a change in the DNA sequence)‬

‭●‬ ‭This correlation is particularly clear for:‬
‭○‬ ‭chemical carcinogens (which typically cause simple local changes in the‬
‭nucleotide sequence)‬
‭○‬ ‭radiation such as x-rays (which typically cause chromosome breaks and‬
‭translocations) or ultraviolet light (which causes specific DNA base alterations)‬

‭Other carcinogens include‬

‭●‬ ‭Smoking‬
‭●‬ ‭Diet‬
‭●‬ ‭Obesity‬
‭●‬ ‭Lack of physical activity‬
‭●‬ ‭Sunlight‬
‭●‬ ‭Viruses e.g HPV, EBV(mono)‬

‭Mutations‬
‭●‬ ‭The development of a cancer typically requires a substantial number of independent,‬
‭rare genetic and epigenetic (impact of the environment on your genes) accidents to‬
‭occur in the lineage that emanates from a single cell‬
‭●‬ ‭A single mutation will therefore not cause a cancer‬

‭Treatments for cancer‬

‭Surgery‬
‭●‬ ‭Physical Removal of the tumour‬

‭Radiotherapy‬
‭●‬ ‭Radiation damages the DNA of cells in the tumour‬

‭Chemotherapy‬
‭●‬ ‭Chemicals will block enzymes involved in DNA synthesis‬
‭○‬ ‭Which will Prevent DNA unwinding‬
 ‭●‬ ‭The chemical also Inhibit synthesis of new nucleotides‬
‭○‬ ‭Which will Prevent the development of the spindle (inhibition of metaphase in‬
‭mitosis)‬

‭Revision‬
‭Binary fission‬
‭●‬ ‭Replication of circular DNA‬
‭●‬ ‭Replication of plasmids‬
‭●‬ ‭Division of cytoplasm to produce daughter cells‬

‭ 2/11/2024 - Diffusion and facilitated‬

1
‭Diffusions‬
‭ he net movement of a substance down a concentration gradient‬
T
‭Caused by random movement of particles due to kinetic energy‬
‭Does not require any energy (other than heat) so is a passive progress‬
‭particles never stop diffusing but they do eventually reach a dynamic equilibrium‬

‭ lasma membrane are partially permeable, this means that some substances can pass through‬
P
‭and others cannot‬

‭What can move through the membrane:‬

‭●‬ ‭Small non polar molecules -soluble in phospholipid bilayer, diffuse quickly without‬
‭needed for transport proteins‬
‭●‬ ‭Small polar molecules - require the use of transport proteins‬
‭●‬ ‭Large, nonpolar molecules - soluble in phospholipid bilayer, but its slower to diffuse‬
‭●‬ ‭Large, polar molecules - cannot pass through without aid‬

‭Factors affecting the rate of diffusion‬

‭●‬ ‭The surface area‬
‭●‬ ‭Concentration gradient‬
‭●‬ ‭The distance involved‬
‭●‬ ‭temperature‬

‭Alveoli are optimised for by having extremely thin walls but with a larger surface area‬

‭Fick’s law:‬
‭𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒‬‭‭𝑎
‬ 𝑟𝑒𝑎‬‭‬‭𝑥‭‬‭𝑐‬ 𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛‬‭‬‭‭𝑑
‬ 𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒‬
‭𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒‬‭‬‭𝑜𝑓‬‭‭𝑑
‬ 𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛‬ = ‭𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ‬‭‬‭𝑜𝑓‬‭‭𝑑 ‬ 𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛‬‭‬‭𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ‬
(‭𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔‬‭‬‭𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒‬‭‬‭𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠‬‭‬‭𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡‬)

‭Factors that affect membrane permeability‬

 ‭●‬ ‭Heat‬
‭○‬ a ‭ s the membrane embedded proteins will change shape with high heat so holes‬
‭may appear in the membrane increasing permeability‬
‭○‬ ‭or transport membranes may not be able to do their job‬
‭○‬ ‭unsaturated phospholipids may become saturated as the heat could break the‬
‭double carbon bonds this could reduce the space between molecules and‬
‭reduce permeability‬
‭●‬ ‭pH‬
‭●‬ ‭Toxins‬
‭●‬ ‭Ethanol - a solvent for cholesterol‬
‭●‬ ‭Antibiotics (prokaryotes only)‬

‭ acilitated diffusion‬
F
‭Substances that are not soluble in the membrane can diffuse through the membrane switch‬
‭transport mechanisms‬

‭‬ M
● ‭ olecules move down the concentration gradient‬
‭●‬ ‭No ATP - so passive process‬
‭●‬ ‭Uses passive channel proteins within the plasma membranes to transport large‬
‭molecules or ions in/out of the cell‬
‭●‬ ‭Protein channels act as “ports” shielding the molecules from the cell membrane‬
‭●‬ ‭Specific for substance being transported‬

‭Trnaposrt mechanisms‬
‭●‬ ‭Protein channels‬
‭●‬ ‭Transport proteins‬

‭Protein channels‬
‭●‬ ‭Allows polar compound passage through the non-polar lipid portion of the membrane‬
‭●‬ ‭Selective - channel only open for a specific molecule‬
‭●‬ ‭Move very fast, as always open‬

‭Carrier proteins‬
‭●‬ ‭Specific molecule binds to carrier protein, protein shape changes and moves molecule‬
‭in/out of cell‬
‭●‬ ‭Carriers can only move finite amounts of molecules (1 at a time) once all in use no‬
‭increase in transport rate‬
‭○‬ ‭Example: glucose not being able to leave urine in kidneys‬

‭Osmosis‬
 ‭ smosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential‬
O
‭(dilute solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated solution), through a partially‬
‭permeable membrane.‬

‭Water potential describes the tendency of water to move out of a solution.‬

‭Osmosis can be quantified using water potential (𝛙, psi)‬

‭ ater always moves from a high water potential to low water potential‬
W
‭100% pure water has 𝛙 = 0, so all solutions have 𝛙<0, you cannot get 𝛙>0‬
‭The addition of solutes reduces water potential‬
‭It is measured in units of pressure‬

‭Waters net movement moves from a higher pressure to a lower pressure‬

‭Hypotonic‬ ‭Isotonic‬ ‭Hypertonic‬

‭Solute concentration outside cell‬ ‭lower‬ ‭same‬ ‭higher‬

‭Water potential outside cell‬ ‭Higher‬ ‭Same‬ ‭Lower‬

‭Net movement of water‬ ‭In to cell‬ ‭No net movement‬ ‭Out of cell‬

‭ smosis in animal cells‬

O
‭Under isotonic conditions, there is no net movement of water‬
‭In a hypotonic environment, water enters the cell, which may burst (lysis).‬
‭In a hypertonic environment, water leaves the cell, which shrivels(crenation)‬

‭ smosis in plant cells‬

O
‭Under isotonic conditions, there is no net movement of water‬
‭In a hypotonic envirenmonet‬

‭Process‬ ‭Influence of concentration‬ ‭Energy requirement‬ ‭ ype of particles moved across‬

T ‭Transport proteins‬
‭the plasma membrane‬

‭Simple diffusion‬ ‭Down a concentration gradient‬ ‭ assive process, only needs‬

P ‭ ipid-soluble, small, non-polar‬
L ‭none‬
‭kinetic energy of particles‬ ‭particles‬

‭Facilitated diffusion‬ ‭Down a concentration gradient‬ ‭ assive process, only needs‬

P I‭ons and medium sized particles‬ ‭Channel or carrier proteins‬
‭kinetic energy of particles‬ ‭that are insoluble in lipids‬