Nanofluids Historical Perspective - 022338

Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 325 (2024) 103112
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Advances in Colloid and Interface Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cis
Historical Perspective
The promise of nanofluids: A bibliometric journey through advanced heat

transfer fluids in heat exchanger tubes
Hamza Babar a, *, Hongwei Wu a, Wenbin Zhang b, Tayyab Raza Shah c, Daniel McCluskey a,
Chao Zhou c
a
School of Physics, Engineering and Computer Science, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, United Kingdom
b
School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Clifton Lane, Nottingham NG11 8NS, United Kingdom
c
College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Thermal management is a critical challenge in advanced systems such as electric vehicles (EVs), electronic
Nanofluids components, and photoelectric modules. Thermal alleviation is carried out through the cooling systems in which
Heat exchanger tubes the coolant and the heat exchangers are the key components. The study examines recent literature on nanofluids
Thermal management
and heat exchanger tubes along with state-of-the-art concepts being tested for heat transfer intensification. The
Heat transfer intensification
Cooling systems
performance of nanofluids in several common heat transfer tubes’ geometries/configurations and the effec
tiveness of novel heat transfer augmentation mechanisms are presented. Promising results have been reported,
showing improved heat transfer parameters with the use of nanofluids and intensification mechanisms like
turbulators, fins, grooves, and variations in temperature and flow velocity. These mechanisms enhance disper
sion stability, achieve a more uniform temperature distribution, and reduce the boundary layer thickness,
resulting in lower tube wall temperatures. Moreover, introducing flow pulsations and magnetic effects further
enhances particle mobility and heat exchange. However, there are limitations, such as increased frictional losses
and pressure drop due to magnetic effects. The combination of nanofluids, novel heat exchanger tube geometries,
and turbulators holds great promise for highly efficient cooling systems in the future. The study also presents a
bibliometric analysis that offers valuable insights into the impact and visibility of research in the integration of
nanofluids into heat transfer systems. These insights aid in identifying emerging trends and advancing the field
towards more efficient and compact systems, paving the way for future advancements.
1. Introduction are mixtures of base fluid with metallic or non-metallic nano sized
particles typically having a size <100 nm in at least one dimension. The
Nobody can dispute the fact that as the industrial sector expands, uniformly suspended particles enable them to exhibit improved thermal
there is a growing demand for small and lightweight devices with properties, which can lead to more efficient heat transfer in the heat
improved capabilities. It is a fact that, achieving sustainable growth exchanger.
requires prioritizing the efficient production, conversion, and con The concept of nanofluids was first proposed by Choi [1] in the mid-
sumption of energy. Heat transfer devices are the essential part of almost 1990s, the study suggested that suspending nanoparticles in a base fluid
all devices that consume or generate energy used in various industrial could enhance heat transfer properties. Later on, Choi and Eastman [2]
and commercial sectors. Researchers are focused on making these de suspended various metallic particles in different fluids and found that
vices more compact while also exploring advanced thermal coolants each study resulted in an improvement in performance. It was found that
with enhanced thermal characteristics that can transfer heat more nanofluids had significantly higher thermal conductivity than the base
effectively like ionic liquids, nanofluids, superfluid helium, graphene- fluid, stimulating interest in their potential applications. The early
based coolants, phase change material, etc. Nanoparticles suspended research in the field of nanofluids focused on developing methods for
fluids are one of the promising candidates grabbing the attention of synthesizing stable nanoparticle suspensions and characterizing their
researchers because of their improved thermal properties. Nanofluids thermal and rheological properties. In this effort, Zhu et al. [3]
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Babar).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2024.103112
Received in revised form 21 December 2023;
Available online 16 February 2024
0001-8686/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
H. Babar et al. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 325 (2024) 103112
introduced the chemical method for preparing the ethylene glycol (EG) with the existing fluid, the nanofluid showcased a notable improvement
based copper nanofluid while Choi and Eastman [2] proposed the in heating/cooling efficiency, leading to reported electricity savings of
vapour deposition technique to prepare the nanofluid in one step inside 14.1% and fuel savings of 7.8%, as reported by the vendor. Werner
a chamber. A substantial amount of research has been carried out since Finley, a company functioned in India, has developed a nanofluid named
the early 2000s on the synthesis, characterization, and application of Nanofluid-99, asserting that their heat-transferring fluid can contribute
nanofluids. The focus was to understand the mechanisms behind the to a minimum electricity savings of 20%. Beyond its potential for energy
enhanced properties of nanofluids and develop methods to optimize conservation, this nanofluid offers the additional benefits of being
their performance for specific applications. Xuan and Roetzel [4] pro corrosion-resistant and providing protection against freezing. Collec
posed the correlations to predict the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) of tively, these companies represent a global movement towards harness
nanofluids treating the fluid as a single phase and multiphase solid- ing the potential of nanofluids, demonstrating their efficacy in
liquid. In 2004, Eastman et al. [5] compiled a comprehensive study on optimizing thermal processes and heralding a new era in heating and
the thermal characteristics of nanofluids summarizing the numerous cooling system efficiency.
heat transfer mechanisms. The authors came to the conclusion that more In recent years, nanofluids have also been found to be very effective
investigation would be required in the upcoming years to fully in other applications, such as antimicrobial activity [9], improved
comprehend the transfer of heat at the atomic level. The study shed a lubrication [10], and desalination [11]. However, some challenges have
light on the impact of several factors, such as particle size, surface prevented their widespread commercial adoption. One major issue is
morphology, agglomeration, and fluid temperature, on the thermal nanoparticle aggregation and sedimentation over time, which compro
transport capacity of nanofluids. On the basis of a considerable number mises stability [12]. Market uncertainties, unclear health implications,
of studies, it was concluded that the particle size, surface treatment, and high production costs, and potential environmental impacts contribute
temperature significantly affected the thermal characteristics, while the to the hesitancy of companies to invest in nanofluid production. Addi
formation of particles clusters is undesirable. tionally, the high maintenance expenses and corrosion issues of
Researchers also explored various types of materials and started nanofluid-based systems, coupled with uncertainties in thermophysical
investigating the impact of parameters like shape, size, concentration, properties and complex system performance predictions, further
etc. on their thermal and rheological properties. Over the next decade, complicate widespread adoption [13]. Despite extensive research efforts
the study of nanofluids continued to gain even more attention, partic since 2000, stability remains a significant hurdle to the commerciali
ularly in applications such as heat exchangers, energy storage, thermal zation of nanofluids, posing alarming and persistent challenges for in
management of electronics, and biomedical equipment. Researchers vestigators. However, it’s essential to note that stability is not the sole
focused their efforts on exploring the potential of nanofluids in these barrier; other issues further impede the widespread adoption of nano
areas, recognizing their promising prospects and the impact they could fluids in various applications.
have on enhancing performance and efficiency [6,7]. Heat transfer in heat exchangers using nanofluids has become an
After 2010, the focus of the investigation starts shifting gradually area of active research due to the potential benefits offered by these
towards more practical applications, such as developing nanofluid- fluids. The suspension of nanometer-sized particles in working fluid
based compact heat transfer devices, enhancing heat transfer in solar could potentially act as a “heat bridge” between the coolant and the heat
thermal systems, and improving the efficiency of power generation and exchanger surface, supporting more effective heat transmission. Another
industrial processes [8]. This transition has paved the way for in way that nanofluids can enhance heat exchanger performance is by
novations in nanofluid technology, with companies worldwide actively increasing the convective HTC. The fluid can experience turbulent flow
engaging in the development and deployment of these advanced fluids because of the nanoscale particles, resulting in an increase in heat
to address pressing challenges in various industries. A Korean company transfer from the fluid to the heat exchanger surface. At the nanoscale,
named Zalman introduced nanofluids as a cooling agent in two of their the particles introduce additional complexity to the fluid dynamics. As
products, the Reserator 3 Max and Reserator 3 Max Dual. There is they move through the fluid, these nanoparticles disrupt the normal flow
another company named Ice Dragon Cooling supplying nanofluids to patterns, creating localized turbulence. This turbulence, in turn, in
several industrial sectors for use in diverse applications. Hydromx, a tensifies the mixing and interaction between the fluid and the heat
USA-based company with global reach, specializes in commercializing exchanger surface [14,15]. Moreover, the turbulent flow induced by
nanofluids for heating and cooling applications. Their revolutionary nanoscale particles helps in breaking down thermal boundary layers that
heat transfer nanofluid, powered by Nano-Thermo™ technology, ac may develop on the heat exchanger surface. This breakdown further
celerates heat transfer through suspended nano-particles. This results in improves the overall heat transfer efficiency by preventing the forma
significant energy savings and cost efficiency for clients. In this effort, tion of stagnant fluid layers that could impede the transfer of thermal
Synano is working to bring this nanofluid innovation to market to meet energy. While nanofluids can significantly improve heat transfer rates, it
the considerable cooling challenges faced in data centres and other is important to note the trade-off with pumping power. Optimizing this
electronics thermal management applications. Synano claims they are balance is essential for practical and energy-efficient applications.
developing nanofluids that have a thermal conductivity value >20% According to the stats of the Scopus database, there has been a
higher than the base fluid, without a substantial increase in viscosity. growing interest regarding the utilization of nanofluids in heat ex
Their nanofluids technology seeks to maintain the favourable flow changers. A considerable number of studies have been undertaken to
properties of the base fluid while significantly boosting its heat transfer delve into the potential advantages and limitations of nanofluids in
capabilities. An Italian company TCT Nanotech has developed a nano greater depth, approaching the subject from various perspectives. These
fluid product called HTF Compact that contains copper oxide nano investigations intend to gain a comprehensive understanding of nano
particles suspended in a fluid with corrosion inhibitors. Characterized by fluids and their suitability for enhancing heat exchanger performance. In
nanoparticles measuring 3-7 nm, this nanofluid is specifically crafted to this regard, significant progress has been made in this field, encom
enhance the efficiency of HVAC/R systems when introduced into passing a deeper understanding of the mechanisms responsible for
established closed water loops such as chilled water or hot water loops. enhanced heat transfer, the formulation of new nanofluids, optimization
Notably, this nanofluid presents an opportunity to reduce or eliminate of flow parameters, utilization of advanced manufacturing techniques,
the need for antifreeze glycols, substances that typically hinder heat and efforts towards scale-up and commercialization. The presented
transfer, resulting in a further enhancement of overall efficiency. A study aims to provide critical insights into the current state of knowl
demonstration of the fluid took place at a Pfizer research facility in New edge about the use of nanofluids in heat exchangers and identify areas
York, where it was integrated into the glycol-based heat recovery loop, for further study. Notable, a comprehensive bibliometric analysis has
chilled water loop, and hot water loop. Remarkably, at a 5% mix ratio been conducted to discern emerging research trends, identify primary
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contributors, and pinpoint areas that demand further exploration within

this field.
2. Bibliometric analysis
A method of evaluating scientific output known as bibliometry in

volves the use of mathematical and statistical methods [16]. In this
study, the Scopus database was used as it contains a wider range of
publications in the field of engineering compared to Web of Science, to
facilitate the research process [17,18]. The bibliometric analysis is
performed to evaluate the impact and productivity of research, spot
trends and patterns in research output, and identify research gaps for
potential new areas of investigation. Additionally, it would also be
helpful to provide valuable information for funding agencies, academic
institutions, researchers seeking collaborations, and those looking to
inform future research directions. The methodology adopted to conduct
this study involves searching the Scopus database using the query string
“(TITLE-ABS-KEY(“heat exchanger“) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY(‘nano
fluid’)”. The data collection was conducted in May 2023, from the in
vention of nanofluid to 2022. The search returned 1940 documents, Fig. 2. Number of publications over time (Scopus database).
which included a variety of publication types such as original articles,
books, review studies, conference papers, book chapters, conference of publications. The years 2021 and 2022 exhibit the highest number of
reviews, errata, letters, and editorials. publications, with 308 and 370 documents, respectively.
The evaluation of the publications involved utilizing bibliometric This data suggests a growing interest and research activity in the
analysis methodologies found in the relevant literature [18–20]. These field, particularly in recent years. The substantial increase in publica
methodologies suggested categorizing the publications based on various tions from 2012 onwards indicates an accelerating research trend and
criteria such as publication type, language, yearly distribution, country emphasizes the importance and relevance of the topic. However, it is
and institution distribution per year, subject area, authors, journals, and important to note that this analysis is limited to the Scopus database,
keywords utilized. The analysis of correlations between authors and and other factors, such as the extent and inclusiveness of the database,
keywords was conducted using VOSviewer, a program designed for may influence the results. Fig. 3 represents the distribution of publica
visualizing and constructing bibliometric networks. VOSviewer is a tions based on their types. This analysis provides insights into the
powerful tool for presenting comprehensive bibliometric maps in a user- diverse types of publications which often serve distinct purposes and
friendly and comprehensible manner [21]. Fig. 1 illustrates the contribute to the overall scholarly discourse. The majority of publica
sequential process undertaken to carry out a bibliometric study. tions were in the form of articles, while conference papers and reviews
Fig. 2 depicts the quantitative visualization of the research trend also constituted a significant portion.
based on the year of publication, as determined by the data obtained Fig. 4(a) sheds light on the research productivity of the institutions
from Scopus. The graph also presents the annual count of experimental based on the number of publications associated with each. Several in
studies and numerical or theoretical studies. It is crucial to highlight that stitutions are renowned for their research contributions, here we
statistics for experimental and numerical studies were collected by mentioned the top ten. Universiti Malaya has the highest number of
filtering results with the terms “experimental” and “numerical or theo publications followed closely by Islamic Azad University and King
retical,” respectively. The substantial surge in publications related to Abdulaziz University. Performing such an analysis helps researchers
nanofluids in heat exchangers was first observed after 2008. This may be identify areas where research on a particular topic is highly stimulated,
due to a number of factors, including the increasing availability of high- as well as areas where a certain stagnation or limited activity can be
performance computing resources, formulation of new nanofluids, the observed. Fig. 4(b) highlights the involvement of various funding bodies
development of innovative nanofluid synthesis methods, and realization in supporting research endeavours. This analysis indicates the financial
of the potential benefits of nanofluids for heat exchanger applications. support provided by these funding bodies for research activities. The
Analyzing the data, the first study was published in 1996, just after involvement of these funding bodies underscores their commitment to
the invention of nanofluids in 1995, the number of documents increased promoting scientific research and development in their respective re
steadily from 1996 to 2022, with some fluctuations along the way. It is gions. The data of these funding bodies helps researchers by providing
noted that, the number of publications remained comparatively low valuable information on available funding sources and guiding them in
from 1996 to 2011, ranging from 1 to 78 documents per year. However, aligning their research proposals with the funding priorities, increasing
starting from 2012, there has been a noticeable increase in the number their chances of securing financial support for their work.
Fig. 1. Stages of methodology for conducting a bibliometric study.
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Fig. 3. Type of documents.
Fig. 4. Stats of the top ten institutes and funding bodies.
Fig. 5(a) depicts the distribution of research publications across research and the collective efforts towards advancing knowledge and
different countries. The data indicates that research efforts are being applications in this domain.
made by several countries across the globe. India emerges as the leading Fig. 6 illustrates the distribution of research publications across
country with 525 publications, followed by Iran (450), China (214), various subject areas, highlighting the multidisciplinary nature of the
Saudi Arabia (167), and the United States (159). The stats provide field. Engineering emerges as the leading subject area with 1026 pub
valuable insights into the research productivity of various countries and lications, followed by Physics and Astronomy with 811, and Chemical
highlight their contributions to the scholarly landscape. It underscores Engineering with 765. Next to it, there are a significant number of
the global nature of research and the commitment of researchers documents in the field of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science
worldwide to advancing knowledge and innovation in their respective further emphasizing the pivotal role in the development and charac
fields. terization of nanofluids. The analysis proved the diverse range of subject
Fig. 5(b) provides insights into the relationship between countries areas involved in research related to the topic, highlighting the signifi
publishing on the topic, revealing a strong interconnectedness among cance of interdisciplinary collaboration and the potential for cross-
them. It is noteworthy that countries with significant contributions are pollination of ideas and methodologies across multiple fields.
not only conducting research in the field but also engaging in global The list of leading journals producing research on the subject is
collaborations to effectively leverage nanofluids for enhancing heat illustrated visually in Fig. 7(a), which also reflects the multidisciplinary
exchanger performance. This highlights the collaborative nature of nature of the field. According to the stats, the research related to the
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Fig. 5. Global dissemination of published research and the interconnectedness of countries engaged in collaborative scientific efforts.
Fig. 6. Distribution of publications across different subject areas.
topic is being published across a wide range of high-impact journals with articles. Earlier-stage researchers can use this information to identify the
a strong emphasis on thermal and fluid sciences. The “International leading publications in the field and target their research for publication
Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, which has been classified as in the most impactful and relevant journals.
a Q1 journal by SJR (Scimago Journal & Country Rank), holds the record To gain a deeper understanding of the relationship between the
for the highest number of publications with a total of 92 articles, fol scientific content and the discussed bibliometric trends, a network
lowed closely by “Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry“ with 89 analysis of keywords was conducted. Fig. 8 illustrates the relationships
publications. Other notable journals include “International Journal of and frequency of different keywords within the subject under investi
Heat and Mass Transfer“ (59), “Case Studies in Thermal Engineering“ gation. The most frequent keyword in the literature on nanofluids is
(40), and “International Journal of Thermal Sciences” (37). Addition “nanofluid,” occurring in 698 publications. The keywords “heat trans
ally, these top ten journals represent 36.33% of all the published doc fer” (291), “nanofluids” (284), “heat exchanger” (238), and “heat
uments and 2.12% of all the published sources. Fig. 7(b) presents an transfer enhancement” (135) are also frequently used by the authors.
overlay visualization created using VOSviewer. The size of each circle Interestingly, “hybrid nanofluid” (113) appears to be a significant
corresponds to the number of documents published in that particular keyword, indicating the growing interest in combining different types of
journal, while the colour coding distinguishes the publication year of the nanoparticles in nanofluids to achieve enhanced thermal properties.
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Fig. 7. Number of publications in various journals around the world.
Fig. 8. Co-occurrence and interconnection of keywords.
Other important keywords include “pressure drop” (112), “thermal indicating its significant impact in the field. The results suggest a high
conductivity” (107), “Nusselt number” (103), “entropy generation” interest in the topic of nanofluids and their applications in heat ex
(84), and “heat transfer coefficient” (80). The use of numerical simula changers within the thermal sciences and engineering community.
tions is evident from the appearance of “CFD”, “finite element method”, These journals serve as reputable sources of research in the study of
and “artificial neural network” as keywords. The keywords like nanofluids’ role in heat exchangers, as evidenced by the substantial
“experimental study”, “experimental”, and “correlation” suggest the number of citations they have received. The analysis of journal citations
significance of experimental studies. The importance of thermal prop can be important for readers as it provides insights into the influence and
erties of nanoparticles is also evident from the keywords “thermal impact of different journals in a specific field of research, such as the role
resistance” and “thermal conductivity”. In summary, the analysis dem of nanofluids in heat exchangers. By examining the number of citations
onstrates the emphasis on the fundamental understanding and practical received by journals, readers can gauge the level of recognition and
applications of nanofluids in heat transfer systems. trustworthiness associated with these journals. Highly cited journals
Fig. 9(a) presents a comprehensive overview of the most cited often indicate that their published papers have been widely referenced
sources in the field. The top-ranked journal is the International Journal and acknowledged by the research community, suggesting their rele
of Heat and Mass Transfer, with a substantial citation count of 9158, vance and quality.
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Fig. 9. Co-citation stats for a diverse range of journals and countries.
The country-wise citations received by papers on the role of nano Fig. 10 presents the co-citation statistics of the top fifteen authors in
fluids in heat exchangers reveal interesting patterns, graphically illus the field of nanofluids in heat exchangers, based on the Scopus database.
trated in Fig. 9(b). Iran emerges as the leading country with 19,752 The co-citation analysis provides insights into the influential authors
citations, followed by India with 13,562 citations. The United States and within the research community. The presence of multiple authors from
China also have significant citation counts, with 10,135 and 7776 cita various institutions suggests collaborative research efforts and the ex
tions respectively. Thailand, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan also change of ideas within the scientific community. Their research output
demonstrate notable citation impact in this research area. contributes to advancing knowledge and understanding in the field, and
These findings suggest that countries in the Middle East and Asia, their expertise can be valuable for researchers seeking authoritative
particularly Iran, India, and China, have been actively contributing to references or collaboration opportunities. SUS Choi emerges as the most
and receiving recognition in the field of nanofluids in heat exchangers. highly cited author, known for introducing the concept of nanofluids
The presence of these countries highlights their significant research ef and has conducted pioneering research in this area. His research has
forts and contributions to advancing knowledge and innovation in this focused on enhancing thermal conductivity and understanding the
domain. It is worth noting that the list includes countries from different behaviour of nanofluids. Furthermore, he has collaborated on studies
continents, indicating the global nature of research in this field. The data investigating the effects of various parameters on nanofluid thermal
can be used to identify potential collaborators or research partners in conductivity and the role of interfacial layers in enhancing thermal
specific regions and can also inform policymakers and funding agencies conductivity. Choi’s research has contributed to the development of
about the countries that have made significant contributions to the field, fundamental understanding and application of nanofluids in heat
which may influence decisions related to funding and resource transfer, establishing him as a key figure in the field.
allocation. Somchai Wongwises is the second one on the list, a researcher from
Fig. 10. Co-citation matrices of the top 15 investigators around the world.
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the Department of Mechanical Engineering at King Mongkut’s Univer Choi to introduce the concept of nanofluids. He has worked extensively
sity of Technology Thonburi, has made significant contributions to the at the Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois, United States. Eastman
field of nanofluids and related areas. He has authored numerous articles and Choi have collaborated on several research articles exploring the
that centre around the utilization of nanofluids in diverse domains such thermal properties and applications of nanofluids. Their seminal paper,
as solar energy, improving heat transfer, and enhancing heat ex published in 1995 [1] introduced the concept of using nanoparticles to
changers. Wongwises’ research has covered a wide range of topics, improve the thermal properties of fluids. This work opened up new
including the thermal conductivity and viscosity measurements of possibilities for enhancing heat transfer in various industrial processes
nanofluids, heat transfer characteristics, and the effects of nanofluids on and thermal management applications. His expertise spans a wide range
evaporation rates and boiling heat transfer. He has conducted experi of materials science and engineering areas, and his contributions have
mental studies, critical reviews, and modelling investigations to explore been widely cited by the scientific community.
the behaviour and potential applications of nanofluids. Wongwises has Masoud Afrand is a researcher known for his work on heat ex
conducted extensive research on heat transfer enhancement using changers and nanofluids. He leads a highly active research group that
nanofluids in heat exchangers. They have investigated the effects of has made significant contributions to the field. Afrand has investigated
different parameters, such as nanoparticle size, tube roughness, and how various hybrid nanofluids behave rheologically and their impact on
thermophysical properties, on heat transfer efficiency and pressure heat transfer. His work sheds light on the benefits and challenges of
drop. Wongwises’ work also includes reviews of the current state of utilizing nanofluid potential in heat transfer systems. In multiple studies,
knowledge in areas such as flow and heat transfer characteristics in he investigated the effect of temperature, nanoparticle concentration,
curved tubes, entropy generation in nanofluid flow, and electro and volume fraction on the viscosity and flow characteristics of nano
hydrodynamic enhancement of heat transfer. Ranked third on the list, fluids. These findings can help in designing more efficient heat ex
Saidur Rahman is a prolific author in the field of renewable and sus changers by considering the fluid dynamics and flow properties of
tainable energy. Their research group has published numerous articles nanofluids. Afrand’s research also involves the development of corre
and reviews on a wide range of topics, including nanofluids, biomass lations and models for predicting the thermal and rheological properties
fuel, solar energy, wind energy, energy savings strategies, and electrical of nanofluids. By establishing these correlations, engineers can estimate
motors. Their work covers various aspects of energy research, including the heat transfer and fluid flow characteristics of nanofluids without
applications, challenges, policy, analysis, and technology development. extensive experimentation, facilitating the design and optimization of
Saidur Rahman’s research on nanofluids explores their applications and heat exchanger systems. However, given the diverse nature of nano
challenges, as well as their stability properties and characterization. fluids and the various influencing factors, such as preparation tech
Nanofluid-based coolants in automotive car radiators and the use of niques, particle characteristics, base fluid properties, and stability, it is
nanofluids as absorbers in direct solar collectors have also been inves important to note that the correlations developed by Afrand’s group may
tigated in their studies. not universally apply. In a more nuanced approach, it is suggested that
Next on the list is Mohsen Sheikholeslami, a highly accomplished employing a consistent preparation method and using the same particles
author in the field of heat transfer and nanofluid dynamics. Sheikho could enhance the reliability of these correlations when predicting
leslami’s research explores the impact of thermal radiation, magnetic properties.
fields, Lorentz forces, and porous media on nanofluid flow and heat The work of Ali J. Chamkha encompasses various aspects of heat
transfer. Their research group developed innovative computational ap transfer, including natural convection, mixed convection, and forced
proaches and numerical simulations to analyze the behaviour of nano convection in different fluid media and geometries. Chamkha has made
fluids and their application in diverse systems. His studies have contributions to the field of magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) and its ap
examined the influence of magnetic fields on forced convection, natural plications to heat transfer [28–30]. Chamkha’s work extends to the
convection, and free convection heat transfer in different geometries. modelling and simulation of heat transfer processes in porous media,
In addition to nanofluids, Sheikholeslami has also investigated the offering valuable insights into their ubiquitous presence in nature and
behaviour of ferrofluids, convective heat transfer in semi-annulus en wide-ranging engineering applications. He has studied the MHD flow of
closures, and the use of innovative heat transfer enhancement methods. fluids in the presence of magnetic fields, heat generation/absorption,
Their research has provided valuable insights into the mechanisms and chemical reactions. His research has elucidated the mechanisms of
governing heat transfer and fluid flow, and has practical implications for heat transfer in porous media, including conduction, convection,
designing efficient and sustainable energy systems. boundary layer formation, and phase change, and has led to the devel
Wei Yu is an accomplished author affiliated with Shanghai Second opment of improved analytical and numerical methods for analyzing
Polytechnic University, specializing in the field of advanced thermal these processes [31–33].
materials, especially graphene-based thermal interface materials, The group of investigators, including Davood Toghraie, Sarit Kumar
silicone-based thermal greases with graphene additives, phase change Das, Yulong Ding, Omid Mahian, Ioan Pop, and Arash Karimipour, along
materials, thermal gels, cooling films, and various types of nanofluids with the broader research community worldwide, are diligently working
[22–27]. Professor Yu has also explored the influence of nitrogen doping towards the comprehensive integration of nanofluids in heat ex
on the thermal conductivity of carbon nanotubes, shedding light on the changers. Their collective efforts aim to enhance the efficiency and
intricate relationship between doping, defects, and phonon scattering. compactness of heat transfer systems.
Additionally, he has investigated modified graphene papers with alka The bibliometric analysis conducted on the research efforts in the
line earth metal ions, showcasing substantial improvements in thermal field of integrating nanofluids in heat exchange systems has yielded
conductivities through ion chelating mechanisms. Collaborating with several significant advantages. The analysis helps in assessing the
Xie and other colleagues, Yu has published numerous articles focusing impact and visibility of research in this domain, aiding in the evaluation
on the preparation, stability mechanisms, and applications of nano and recognition of the contributions made by researchers. In addition,
fluids. Yu and the team have studied the influence of various nano such kind of analysis can aid policymakers and industry stakeholders in
particles, including TiO2, SnO2, MgO, diamond, and Ag/MWNT understanding the impact and potential applications of nanofluid-based
composites, on thermal transport and heat transfer performances. heat transfer systems, leading to informed decision-making and invest
Additionally, Yu extends beyond nanofluids to include the synthesis and ment strategies. It would be valuable for the identification of emerging
characterization of different nanomaterials, such as copper colloids, trends and potential areas for further exploration. Ultimately, the study
heterostructured nanofibers, and nanocomposites for photocatalytic acts as a catalyst for advancing the integration of nanofluids in heat
applications. transfer systems, leading to enhanced efficiency and compactness, and
Jeffrey A. Eastman is a materials scientist who worked alongside SUS paving the way for further advancements in the field.
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3. Heat transfer in heat exchangers conventional fluids. This progress is particularly significant in the
context of heat exchange devices, where the intricacies of geometrical
The efficiency of heat transfer in heat exchange devices is predom designs and manufacturing challenges have contributed to increased
inantly influenced by factors such as the choice of coolant or working costs. To enhance the performance of heat exchangers and effectively
fluid, the geometric configuration, and the material composition of the navigate the intricacies of their designs, it becomes imperative to adopt
heat exchangers [34]. Researchers have explored and tested a diverse a synergistic approach that combines forced convection heat transfer
array of both traditional and contemporary thermal fluids, as well as mechanisms with advanced thermal fluids like nanofluids, ionic liquids,
different heat exchanger channel geometries, intending to identify superfluid helium, phase change material, graphene-based coolants, etc.
optimal configurations for various applications. However, to improve The use of these thermal coolants, particularly in conjunction with
heat transfer, various approaches can be adopted. These techniques have forced convection, not only streamlines the cooling process but also
been classified as passive and active methods [35,36]. Passive tech underscores a commitment to pushing the boundaries of thermal man
niques in heat exchangers refer to methods that enhance heat transfer agement systems. This integrated approach addresses the dual chal
without the need for external energy input and typically involve struc lenges of intricate design complexities and the need for efficient heat
tural modifications, specific material selections, or the exploitation of transfer. As investigators and manufactures continue to explore and
natural phenomena to facilitate the heat exchange process. Passive implement such synergistic solutions, the potential for innovation in
techniques might not be adequate for high-heat generating systems or in heat exchanger technologies becomes increasingly promising.
high-temperature environments but can be effective in certain applica The effectiveness of heat transfer devices is intricately influenced by
tions. The passive method mainly focuses on the geometry of the heat several key factors, as illustrated in Fig. 11. It is crucial to give metic
exchangers and the material of heat exchanger pipes and fins since the ulous consideration to the flow channel, geometry, and effective surface
efficacy of the working fluids is not that impressive. area during the design of these devices. These elements play a vital role
Active methods of heat transfer involve the deliberate application of in optimizing the heat transfer process. Another essential aspect that
external energy to enhance the efficiency of heat exchange processes. requires careful attention is the thermal and rheological characteristics
Unlike passive methods that rely on inherent properties or natural of the flowing fluid. Properties like heat capacity, conductivity, and
phenomena, active techniques provide a proactive approach to heat viscosity of the fluid have a substantial impact on the overall efficiency
transfer improvement. In these systems, a cooling agent, typically air or of heat transfer. Hence, a thorough understanding of both the structural
liquid, is actively circulated to remove heat from the source. This and fluid-related factors is indispensable for the effective design and
method is advantageous in terms of flow control, allowing for custom performance of heat transfer devices.
ized flow modifications based on the system’s requirements. For
instance, the utilization of a magnetic field is particularly effective in 4. Nanofluid
controlling ferrofluid [37]. Other active methods include the imple
mentation of pulsating flow, the vibration of heat transfer surfaces, and Nanofluids exhibit enhanced thermal properties compared to tradi
the application of an electric field, among others. Historically, active tional thermal fluids, a distinction attributed to heightened thermal
methods predominantly relied on water and air as primary coolants in conductivity resulting from the colloidal suspension of metallic particles
heat transfer devices. However, the intrinsic thermal transportation and within the base fluid. The spectrum of nanofluids encompasses simple,
flow characteristics exhibited by these conventional fluids often fall ionic, magnetic, hybrid, and organic nanofluids, each contributing
short of meeting the intricate demands posed by contemporary thermal unique attributes to the enhancement of thermal performance. The su
transport devices. Therefore, notable advancements have been made in perior thermal characteristics of nanofluids are intricately linked to the
improving the geometry of heat exchanging sections and the develop properties of nanoparticles employed in their formulation. These
ment of modern thermal fluids. These advancements aim to overcome nanoparticles play a pivotal role in determining the overall effectiveness
the challenges associated with temperature control and ensure optimal of nanofluids. Fig. 12 illustrates the diverse types of nanoparticles uti
performance of the devices. lized in preparing nanofluids, encapsulating a range of materials that
Scientists from various research laboratories have dedicated years to contribute to the improved thermal properties. In the continuous
advancing the field of thermal fluids, with a focus on developing highly exploration of this field, significant strides have been made in under
efficient solutions. Among the cutting-edge developments in thermo standing and harnessing the full potential of nanofluids. Researchers
fluids, nanofluids have emerged as a remarkable innovation, showcasing have delved into novel synthesis techniques, optimizing nanoparticle
exceptional thermal transportation properties surpassing those of properties and exploring innovative applications. Advanced studies
Fig. 11. Key factors affecting heat transfer efficiency in nanofluid based heat transfer devices.
9
Fig. 12. Nanoparticles used in nanofluids’ preparation.
have focused on tailoring nanofluid compositions to specific thermal Fig. 13 provides a graphical illustration of these two techniques used for
requirements, paving the way for customized solutions in diverse in nanofluid preparation. In the single-step method, the nanoparticle syn
dustrial and technological domains [38–40]. Moreover, ongoing thesis and nanofluid production are carried out simultaneously using the
research endeavours aim to unravel the intricate interplay between hotwire method. In the two-step synthesis approach, the generation of
nanoparticle characteristics and their influence on nanofluid perfor nanoparticles involves initial processes employing diverse mechanical
mance. This deeper understanding opens avenues for the precision en methods for nano-powder production. Subsequently, the nanofluid is
gineering of nanofluids, allowing for the creation of tailored thermal prepared through the implementation of suspension creation tech
solutions that address specific challenges in heat transfer and thermal niques. This methodical two-step procedure allows for the precise con
management. trol and customization of both the nanoparticle and fluid phases,
The preparation of nanofluids is achieved by two different methods thereby enhancing the overall versatility and applicability of the syn
named single-step and two-step methods. These methods are catego thesized materials.
rized based on the number of stages involved in the preparation process. A single-step approach involves the production of particles and
10
Fig. 13. Illustration of Nanofluid Preparation Methods (a) Single-step approach and (b) Two-step approach.
nanofluid in a single step, rather than requiring multiple steps or nanoparticle sedimentation. Transitioning from the considerations of
different processing stages. In this method, the nanoparticles are pro nanoparticle characteristics, it is essential to explore the broader
duced in a chamber under extreme pressure and heat, and the resulting mechanisms that govern heat transfer within nanofluids. Heat transfer in
suspension is subsequently cooled to produce the nanofluid. The two- nanofluids is primarily governed by three mechanisms: conduction,
step process, which requires the separate production and dispersion of convection, and radiation. Understanding the mechanisms of heat
nanoparticles, is more popular since it can provide a more stable solu transfer in nanofluids is crucial for various applications, including
tion but is also more expensive [41,42]. For small-scale manufacturing, thermal management in electronics, energy conversion systems, and
the one-step technique is favoured; however, the two-step method is advanced cooling technologies [43].
preferred for industrial or bulk production of nanofluids.
• Conduction is the process by which heat is transferred between
particles directly. Conduction occurs in nanofluids not just between
4.1. Mechanism of heat transfer in nanofluids the nanoparticles but also between the nanoparticles and the sur
rounding fluid.
Heat transfer in nanofluids refers to the process by which thermal • Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid. In
energy is transferred within a suspension of nanoparticles in a base fluid. nanofluids, heat can be transferred by convection when the nano
These nanoscale suspensions exhibit unique thermophysical properties particles suspended in the fluid are in motion, either due to natural
that can significantly impact heat transfer mechanisms. The addition of convection (e.g., due to differences in density caused by temperature
nanoparticles to the base fluid alters its thermophysical properties. Some gradients) or due to forced convection (e.g. when the fluid is pumped
of the important characteristics of nanoparticles that play a decisive role through a system).
in the overall performance of the nanofluids include the particle size, • The transport of heat by electromagnetic waves is known as radia
shape, thermal conductivity of nanofluids, and intermolecular attrac tion. Radiation can happen in nanofluids between the nanoparticles
tion/clustering effect. and the environment.
The size and morphology of nanoparticles within a nanofluid play a
pivotal role in shaping the efficiency of convection heat transfer, as the The heat transfer dynamics exhibit variations between stationary
available surface area for thermal transport is intricately tied to these and flowing nanofluids. In the case of stationary nanofluids, the pre
two critical factors. Notably, the rate of heat transfer is significantly dominant mode of heat transfer revolves around conduction. However,
influenced by the size and shape of the nanoparticles. Additionally, the in the context of moving nanofluids, the interplay of conduction, con
formation of clusters, driven by intermolecular attractive forces, con vection, and additional transport phenomena introduces a more intri
tributes to an amplification of heat transfer mechanisms. It is crucial to cate and dynamic heat transfer mechanism. The literature describes
acknowledge, however, that while this cluster formation enhances heat several mechanisms involved in conduction heat transfer within
transfer, it concurrently introduces the potential challenge of
11
nanofluids, including nanoparticle Brownian motion, nanoparticle refers to the transport of heat by nanoparticles through the base fluid via
clustering, nano-layering effect, nonlocal effect, thermophoretic effect, ballistic phonon transport, while the nonlocal effect refers to the
ballistic transport, and near-field radiation [44], illustrated in Fig. 14. nonlocal nature of heat transport by nanoparticles due to their small
The overall heat transfer coefficient rises as a result of the collisions size. These effects can lead to an enhancement in HTC of the nanofluid
between the fluid molecules and the randomly moving nanoparticles [48].
caused by their thermal motion. This effect, referred to as “enhanced In a nanofluid, the nanoparticles can act as “hot spots” that emit near
Brownian motion,” can improve the nanofluid’s overall heat transfer field radiation due to their small size and high surface-to-volume ratio.
performance. Near field radiation, sometimes referred to as near field thermal radia
In addition to enhanced Brownian motion, another mechanism by tion, is the electromagnetic radiation that can be exchanged between
which nanofluids can enhance heat transfer is through the formation of two bodies when they are in close proximity. The absorption of this
nanoparticle clusters. When nanoparticles are suspended in a fluid, they radiation by the base fluid or another nanoparticle can enhance the heat
may aggregate or cluster together due to various factors such as van der transfer coefficient.
Waals forces, Coulombic forces, or hydration forces. The formation of Chen et al. [49] investigated the thermal radiation characteristics of
these clusters can affect the heat transfer properties of the nanofluid. nanofluids with nanoparticle aggregation theoretically and experimen
Murshed et al. [45] examined the impact of nanoparticle clustering on tally. To conduct the study, titanium dioxide/silver plasmonic nano
the thermal conductivity of aqueous nanofluids containing TiO2 and fluids were prepared in distilled water, and their spectrum transmittance
Al2O3 nanoparticles. According to the findings, the cluster size grows was assessed with different levels of aggregation. According to the
along with nanoparticle concentration, which reduces the augmentation findings, nanoparticle aggregation has a substantial impact on the
of the thermal conductivity of the nanofluids. thermal radiation characteristics of nanofluids in the long wavelength
In nanofluids, nano-layering effect is the propensity of nanoparticles band.
to gather at the interface between a fluid and a solid surface, such as the A variety of factors such as the size and concentration of the nano
wall of a heat exchanger. The gradual aggregation of nanoparticles at the particles, the kind of base fluid, and the system temperature, determine
fluid-solid interface can lead to the formation of a thin layer of nano how much thermal transportation mechanisms affect a nanofluid’s
particles on the solid surface, which can enhance the heat transfer per ability to transfer heat. In order to exploit nanofluids for heat transfer
formance of the nanofluid or in some cases it can impact adversely. As applications to their maximum potential, it is crucial to properly take
time progresses, this layer becomes increasingly thicker, further influ into account these parameters.
encing the heat transfer process. However, in the moving nanofluids, the cause of heat transfer is the
Thermophoretic effect is a phenomenon that occurs when particles convection heat transfer mechanism. Convection heat transfer, a crucial
suspended in a fluid are transported by temperature gradients due to a mechanism in fluid dynamics, is governed by several key factors that
temperature-dependent diffusivity. The thermophoretic effect can lead significantly impact the efficiency of heat exchange within a fluid me
to the separation or concentration of nanoparticles in certain regions of dium. These critical elements include the effective surface area, flow
the fluid. Mehdi Bahiraei [46] studied the impact of thermophoresis on rate, and channel geometry. An increase in surface area increases the
the distribution of nanoparticles in a TiO2-water nanofluid flowing heat transfer performance of the system. The increase in surface area can
through a circular tube. It was found that thermophoresis has a signif be achieved by increasing nanoparticles size, promoting cluster forma
icant effect on the distribution of particles in basefluid, and as the par tion, and increasing the number of nanoparticles, if the size of the
ticle size increases, the non-uniformity of the concentration distribution nanoparticles is small in magnitude. Flowrate of the nanofluid increases
also increases. The results also revealed that thermophoresis increases the heat transfer rate due to increasing intermolecular interaction and
the concentration distribution’s non-uniformity, with the effect being particle interaction with the channel’s surface. Importantly, increasing
most pronounced at higher mean concentrations. The study conducted the flow rate not only leads to a higher thermal transportation rate but
by Malvandi et al. [47] on concentric vertical annulus employing Al2O3- also amplifies the turbulence within the fluid. Channel coefficient ge
water nanofluids observed that the thermophoretic force pushed the ometry also plays a critical role in heat transfer augmentation in nano
particles towards the adiabatic wall, leading to an increase in nano fluids since the surface and geometry of the channel have a direct impact
particle concentration near the adiabatic wall and a decrease near the on convective heat transfer.
heated wall.
The ballistic transport effect and the nonlocal effect are phenomena
influenced by the size of nanoparticles. The ballistic transport effect
Fig. 14. Conduction-based Heat Transfer Mechanisms in Nanofluids.
12
4.2. Thermal transportation characteristics of nanofluids importance in the stability and flow characteristics of nanofluids. The
rise in publications may signify efforts to address challenges related to
The distinctive molecular chain behaviour of nanofluids urged the viscosity in practical applications. While density publications have not
investigators to study this advanced class of coolants as a potential seen as rapid an increase as thermal conductivity and viscosity, there is a
substitute for traditional fluids in heat exchangers, as they have poten consistent upward trend. The growing interest in density suggests a
tial applications in various fields. The objective is to attain the highest recognition of its impact on buoyancy and specific heat in nanofluids.
possible thermal conductivity at the smallest possible concentration of Heat capacity, though the least studied property, has witnessed a
nanoparticles. It notes that conventional fluids such as water and min gradual rise in publications. The increasing attention to heat capacity
eral oils have poor thermal characteristics, and that the use of nano indicates a growing awareness of its significance in influencing thermal
particles suspended in these fluids has shown promise in improving energy storage and heat transfer rates in nanofluids. A comparative
thermal properties. The significance of these advancements is further analysis across properties reveals that thermal conductivity consistently
underscored by the comprehensive presentation of key nanofluid char receives the highest number of publications, followed by viscosity,
acteristics in Fig. 15, shedding light on the evolving trends and interests density, and heat capacity. This order aligns with the perceived impor
in nanofluid research over time. Fig. 16 shows the number of publica tance of these properties in various applications, such as heat transfer
tions over time for different properties of nanofluids, based on the and energy conversion.
Scopus database. The data was obtained by searching with the keyword
“nanofluid” and then filtering the results by the property of interest. 4.2.1. Thermal conductivity of nanofluids
The publications on thermal conductivity have shown remarkable Nanofluids, colloidal suspensions of nanoparticles in base fluids,
growth over the years. The numbers have increased significantly, have emerged as a promising frontier in the realm of thermal conduc
reflecting the importance of understanding and optimizing thermal tivity enhancement [50]. The manipulation of nanoscale materials
conductivity in nanofluids. This could be attributed to the crucial role within fluids has led to significant improvements in thermal properties,
thermal conductivity plays in enhancing heat transfer efficiency. Closely sparking intense research across various scientific disciplines. Due to
followed to thermal conductivity, the number of publications on vis their small size, nanoparticles experience significant Brownian motion,
cosity has steadily increased, indicating a growing recognition of its which leads to enhanced mixing and improved heat transfer
Fig. 15. Nanofluid characteristics.
13
Fig. 16. Evolution of published studies over time investigating key thermophysical properties of nanofluids (Scopus database).
characteristics. The motion of nanoparticles creates more interactions

between the particles and the fluid molecules, increasing the energy
transfer and promoting thermal conductivity. Their viability as
advanced heat transfer fluids could revolutionize cooling solutions for
microelectronics, lasers, and data centres to manage escalating thermal
loads [51]. Additionally, nanofluid-based technologies present oppor
tunities to radically improve the efficiency of industrial heat exchangers
and energy systems for significant energy savings and reduced emissions
[52].
Several critical parameters exert significant influence on the thermal
conductivity of nanofluids, encompassing base fluid properties, nano
fluid temperature, fluid flow rate, nanoparticle concentration, Brownian
motion of nanoparticles, and nanoparticle size. The choice of base fluid
emerges as a pivotal determinant, showcasing a substantial impact on
thermal conductivity. Distinct base fluids exhibit varying degrees of
thermal conductivity enhancement, attributed to chemical interactions
and inherent competence. Timofeeva et al. [53] conducted a study on
the thermal conductivity of water-based and ethylene glycol/water-
based (50:50) silicon carbide (SiC) nanofluids. The findings revealed
that at the same particle concentrations and sizes, the addition of
nanoparticles to ethylene glycol/water resulted in 4-5% higher thermal
conductivity enhancements than in water, as illustrated in Fig. 17. Fig. 17. Effect of base fluid on thermal conductivity of the nanofluid [53].
In navigating the intricate realm of coolants for various applications,
there’s a considerable body of research dedicated to the ethylene glycol affects the thermal conductivity of the fluid. Increasing the particle
as a base fluid, despite the fact that water exhibits nearly double the loading means more number of nanoparticles, which in turn, enhances
thermal conductivity. Water, a reliable and widespread coolant, un the thermal conductivity of the nanofluids. Moreover, as the nano
doubtedly carries its thermal weight, but possesses certain limitations, particle concentration increases, there is greater molecular interaction,
including a low boiling point and a high freezing point. In contrast, which further contributes to the improvement of thermal conductivity.
ethylene glycol, as a liquid coolant, offers a higher boiling point and a The effect of concentration on nanofluid thermal conductivity has been
lower freezing point than water, making it a more suitable option for presented in Fig. 18.
applications requiring a broader temperature range. This makes The impact of particle size on nanofluids’ thermal conductivity is
ethylene glycol better suited for applications needing to operate below multifaceted, with conflicting findings. The study conducted by
water’s freezing point or above its boiling point. The high boiling point Ambreen and Kim [55] analyzed the impact of particle size on the
allows ethylene glycol to remove more heat before turning into a gas, thermal properties of nanofluids. It was found that while the thermal
while the low freezing point prevents it from solidifying at low tem conductivity generally increases with decreasing particle size, the effect
peratures where water would freeze. is not consistent across all nanofluids. Additionally, the magnitude of the
Particles loading is another important parameter that significantly enhancement also depends on the volume fraction and size distribution
14
of the increased nanoparticle mobility and interaction brought on by the

temperature increase. This trend has been observed in a different type of
nanofluids, including those containing metal or oxide nanoparticles
suspended in water, oil, or other base fluids. The rate at which the
thermal conductivity increases with temperature can depend on a
number of factors like the morphological and thermal properties of the
particles and thermal and rheological behaviour of fluid. Sundar et al.
[57] investigated the influence of temperature on the thermal conduc
tivity of Fe3O4/water + EG nanofluid was investigated. The researchers
observed that as the temperature of the nanofluid increased, there was a
corresponding enhancement in its thermal conductivity. Kole and Day
[58] conducted a study on the thermal conductivity of lubricating oil-
based copper oxide (CuO) nanofluid at various fluid temperatures.
Their results indicated a significant augmentation of 10% and 12% in
thermal conductivity at temperatures of 30 ◦ C and 80 ◦ C, respectively,
specifically for a nanofluid with a volume fraction of 2.5%.
The thermal conductivity of certain nanofluids can exhibit a
maximum value at a specific temperature, beyond which it starts to
decline, a phenomenon referred to as thermal conductivity saturation.
This behaviour is commonly attributed to nanoparticle aggregation at
elevated temperatures, leading to a reduction in their effectiveness as
thermal conductors.
Fig. 18. Effect of nanoparticle concentration on thermal conductivity of the
The shape of nanoparticles also has a significant effect on thermo
nanofluid (Harandi et al. [54]).
physical characteristics. Various nanoparticle shapes, such as spherical,
triangular, rod-like, plate-like, and others, exhibit distinct thermal and
of the particles. A large part of the literature reported higher thermal transport properties [59], as shown in Fig. 20. Tailoring the nanoparticle
conductivity with smaller particles and others with larger particles. shape can provide opportunities for optimizing nanofluid performance
The cost also needs to be considered while selecting the particles for in various applications, including cooling systems, energy storage, and
a particular application. Nanoparticles with sizes smaller than 50 nm heat exchangers.
tend to be relatively more expensive. Therefore, the cost implications Nine et al. [60] investigated the thermal conductivity of Al2O3-
should be carefully considered alongside other factors when deciding on MWCNT hybrid nanofluid prepared with different weight concentra
the particle size for a given application. In this regard, Alirezaie et al. tions ranging from 1% to 6%. The findings showed that compared to
[56] conducted a study on ethylene glycol based nanofluids consisting those with spherical nanoparticles, nanofluids with cylindrical nano
various sized nanoparticles of iron (Fe) and magnesium oxide (MgO). particles showed a larger improvement in thermal conductivity.
The findings indicated that particles with smaller sizes delivered better Spherical nanoparticles are commonly used in many nanofluid appli
thermal conductivity values with a penalty of higher production costs, cations due to their favourable thermophysical properties.
resulting in a lower price-performance ratio. It was concluded that the Timofeeva et al. [61] explored the influence of particle shape on the
trade-off between increased thermal conductivity and higher cost must thermophysical properties of alumina nanofluids. The samples were
be carefully considered when deciding which particle size to use in prepared in an equal percentage of water and EG suspending alumina
different applications. The effect of nanoparticle size on the thermal nanoparticles with different shapes, including bricks, platelets, blades,
conductivity of a nanofluid is shown in Fig. 19. cylindrical, and plates-like structures, Fig. 21. The thermal conductivity
The nanofluid has a higher effective thermal conductivity as a result measurements of the nanofluids revealed that particle shape
Fig. 19. Effect of nanoparticle size on thermal conductivity of nanofluid [56].
15
Fig. 20. Shapes of nanoparticles and shape factor value [59].
Importantly, it has been observed in various studies that the

observed thermal conductivity values from experimental studies have
exhibited discrepancies when compared to the predicted values derived
from conventional theoretical models [62–64]. The divergence between
experimental and theoretical predictions underscores the complexity of
thermal transport phenomena, urging researchers to reassess existing
models and explore additional factors that may influence heat transfer.
The realization that conventional theoretical frameworks may not fully
capture the intricacies of the thermal behaviour in certain conditions has
spurred a reevaluation of the governing principles. Researchers are
scrutinizing factors such as nanoscale effects, interfacial interactions,
and the impact of particle size distribution, recognizing that these in
tricacies may play pivotal roles in influencing thermal conductivity.
The comprehensive body of literature pertaining to various nano
fluid types underscores a notable lack of uniformity in outcomes. This
inconsistency is evident not only across distinct nanofluid categories but
also within the same nanofluid composition. Establishing reliable and
consistent values for thermal conductivity becomes a formidable task in
light of these variations. Numerous factors contribute to this disparity,
including diverse preparation techniques, stability of nanofluids, parti
cle characteristics, properties of the base fluid, uncertainties in equip
Fig. 21. Nanoparticle shape effect on thermal conductivity of nanofluids [61]. ment, and the presence of measurement errors. Surfactants, pH levels,
and Brownian motion introduce other variables that impact the results.
significantly affects the enhancement in thermal conductivity. The re These multifaceted influences collectively underscore the complexity
sults showed that nanofluids containing blades-shaped nanoparticles inherent in obtaining accurate and consistent thermal conductivity data
exhibited the highest thermal conductivity enhancement compared to for nanofluids. Proposed models based on Brownian motion, liquid
the others. The findings from this study highlight the importance of layering, ballistic phonon transport, and nanoparticle clustering aim to
considering particle shape when selecting nanofluids for thermal explain experimental observations but a unified theory remains elusive.
systems. As nanofluids bridge across disciplines of colloid science, materials
16
engineering, physics, and nanotechnology, developing a universal structural constraints on transitional and rotational Brownian motions.
model for thermal conductivity prediction remains an open quest in the The study recommended the use of spherical particles or spheroids with
field. lower aspect ratios. Additionally, the research demonstrated a notable
31% reduction in the viscosity of alumina nanofluids by adjusting the pH
4.2.2. Viscosity of nanofluids of the nanofluid suspension, attributed to the alteration of surface
Viscosity plays a crucial role in the flow characteristics of fluids, charge on nanoparticles, influencing particle-particle interactions and
which is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. It significantly impacts agglomeration dynamics. Jeong et al. [68] investigated the viscosity of
various aspects such as pumping power, pressure drop in laminar flow, ZnO nanofluids containing different nanoparticle shapes, including
and convective heat transfer. The practical utilization of nanofluids in nearly rectangular and spherical particles, at various volumetric con
thermal management systems relies on striking a balance between their centrations. They found that the viscosity significantly increased with
high thermal conductivity and the low viscosity associated with factors increasing particle concentration, from 5.3% to 68.6% for the nearly
such as nanoparticle type, loading, shape, size, and fluid temperature. rectangular particles and 5.9% to 59.0% for the spherical particles as the
The rheology of nanofluids is essential in understanding their flow concentration varied from 0.5 vol% to 5.0 vol%. Notably, the viscosity of
behaviour and its impact on pressure drop in flow systems like heat the nanofluid with the nearly rectangular shape particles was higher by
exchangers [65]. Accurately determining the rheological behaviour in 7.7% compared to the nanofluid with the spherical particles. To validate
volves examining the relationship between shear rate and shear stress, their findings, the experimental viscosity data was compared with pre
that is viscosity. Newtonian fluids demonstrate a direct and consistent dictions from multiple models. The Batchelor [69] and Brinkman [70]
correlation between shear stress and shear rate, exhibiting a constant models were observed to underestimate the results, while the Timofeeva
apparent viscosity. In contrast, for non-Newtonian fluids shear stress model tended to over-predict. In contrast, the Chen model [71], which
and shear rate did not correlate linearly. considers particle aggregation, demonstrated favourable agreement
Studies on nanofluid viscosity reveal that these fluids can exhibit with mean deviations falling within the range of 1.7–2.2%.
both Newtonian and non-Newtonian flow behaviour depending on Zhou et al. [72] conducted a comprehensive experimental analysis of
various factors and conditions. Factors such as base fluid properties, the viscosity of several common surfactant solutions under varying
nanoparticle concentration, temperature, shear stress, shear rate, as well conditions. They found that the non-ionic surfactant PVP showed a rapid
as the type and size of nanoparticles, influence the rheological charac increase in viscosity at low concentrations, with the zero-shear viscosity
teristics. These factors influenced the viscosity significantly. at 4 wt% being about twice that of water. In contrast, the viscosity of the
ionic surfactants SDS and SDBS did not increase substantially except at
• Size and shape of the nanoparticles: Smaller and more spherical higher concentrations where larger micelles formed. The viscosity of all
nanoparticles tend to have a lower effect on the viscosity of the surfactant solutions decreased markedly with increasing temperature,
nanofluid compared to larger and more irregularly shaped especially for PVP where it dropped by 50% from 20 ◦ C to 50 ◦ C. At
nanoparticles. higher temperatures, the viscosity of PVP approached closer to that of
• Concentration of the nanoparticles: As the concentration of nano the ionic surfactants and water. It was concluded that using PVP sur
particles increases, the viscosity of the nanofluid generally increases. factant at higher temperatures results in more stable nanoparticle sus
• Type of base fluid: Different types of base fluids can have different pensions while also yielding lower fluid viscosity. Li et al. [73]
viscosities and can affect the overall viscosity of the nanofluid. investigated the viscosity of Cu-H2O nanofluids, comparing formula
• Surface properties of the nanoparticles: The surface properties of the tions prepared with and without the dispersant SDBS. Their findings
nanoparticles, such as their surface charge and surface roughness, underscored temperature and SDBS concentration as pivotal factors
can affect the way they interact with the base fluid and thus affect the influencing nanofluid viscosity. In contrast, the impact of Cu nano
viscosity of the nanofluid. particle mass fraction was observed to be less prominent within the
• Temperature: The viscosity of a nanofluid generally decreases with explored experimental range. Specifically, the apparent viscosity
increasing temperature. exhibited a decrease with rising temperature and a slight increase with
• Shear rate: The viscosity of a nanofluid can also be affected by the higher SDBS dispersant concentrations. Moreover, viscosity remained
shear rate, or the rate at which the fluid is deformed due to an largely unchanged with varying Cu mass fractions from 0.04% to 0.16%.
applied force. The viscosity of nanofluid tends to decrease with an At higher nanoparticle loadings beyond this range, viscosity would be
increase in shear rate. expected to increase more substantially. Mahbubul et al. [74] noted a
• Preparation method: The viscosity of nanofluids is not solely dictated significant decrease in the viscosity of alumina-water nanofluid as the
by their composition but is also significantly influenced by the temperature increased from 10 ◦ C to 50 ◦ C. This phenomenon was
methods employed during the preparation process. Various prepa attributed to the weakening of interparticle adhesion forces at elevated
ration techniques such as laser ablation, vapour deposition, me temperatures. Additionally, the researchers observed a reduction in
chanical stirring, submerged arc method, and ultrasonication play a nanofluid viscosity with longer ultrasonication duration during the
crucial role in shaping the rheological properties of nanofluids, preparation process. The decrease was particularly rapid during the
thereby adding an additional layer of complexity to the under initial hour of ultrasonication, slowing down with extended ultra
standing of their viscosity behaviour. sonication periods. Interestingly, at lower temperatures, a longer
ultrasonication time was required to achieve the minimum viscosity
Li et al. [66] were among the pioneers in exploring the transport level compared to higher temperatures. These viscosity reductions over
properties of nanofluids. Their investigation revealed that viscosity was ultrasonication duration were linked to improved nanoparticle disper
influenced not only by volume concentration but also by the size of sion and the breakdown of agglomerates, leading to a decrease in flow
nanoparticles. The surge in research on convective heat transfer resistance. Tiwari et al. [75] studied the impact of different surfactants,
involving nanofluids prompted numerous studies focusing on viscosity. sonication times, and temperatures on the viscosity of hybrid nanofluids
In the early stages, Pozhar [67] made theoretical and simulation efforts made of CeO2 and MWCNT nanoparticles dispersed in various base
to predict the viscosity of nanofluids. Timofeeva et al. [61] studied the fluids like water, silicone oil, ethylene glycol, and Therminol VP-I. The
impact of nanoparticle shape on the viscosity of ethylene glycol/water findings revealed a nuanced impact of different surfactants, sonication
based alumina nanofluids. It was observed that the rheological behav times, and temperatures on nanofluid viscosity. It was noted that vis
iour was significantly influenced by the shape and aspect ratio of the cosity initially decreased with increasing sonication time, reaching an
nanoparticles. Specifically, higher viscosity was observed for agglom optimal duration that varied for each base fluid, followed by a gradual
erated and elongated particles at the same volume fraction, attributed to increase thereafter. Furthermore, viscosity exhibited a linear increase
17
with higher nanoparticle concentrations but underwent a significant ( )

decrease as temperatures rose from 55 ◦ C to 80 ◦ C. Among the tested μnf = 1 + 2.5φnp μbf (1)
base fluids, the nanofluid formulated with deionized water demon Here, μnf represents the viscosity predicted by the Einstein model, μbf
strated the least viscosity enhancement. The study also developed a is the viscosity of the base fluid, and φ denotes the volume fraction of
correlation to predict the viscosity of the CeO2-MWCNT/water hybrid particles. It’s crucial to note that the model’s accuracy diminishes at
nanofluid, considering temperature and nanoparticle concentration. The higher concentrations due to its inherent simplifications. Consequently,
optimized nanofluid, composed of CeO2-MWCNT in deionized water advancements and modifications have been made to address these
with the Benzalkonium chloride (BAC) surfactant, demonstrated long- limitations and enhance the model’s applicability in a broader range of
term stability and minimal viscosity enhancement, making it suitable concentration regimes.
for heat transfer applications. He et al. [76] found that the TiO2 nano Following Einstein’s pioneering work, subsequent researchers have
fluids exhibited shear thinning behaviour, with the shear viscosity endeavoured to refine and extend the model through various amend
decreasing rapidly with increasing shear rate until reaching around 100 ments. One notable enhancement was put forth by Brinkman in 1952
s-1, above which the viscosity approached a constant value. The constant [70], expanding the applicability of the Einstein model to slightly higher
viscosity was found to increase with both increasing particle concen volume fractions, up to 4%. Brinkman’s modification is expressed
tration and increasing particle size. At a given particle size, the increase through Eq. (2).
of viscosity with concentration was highly non-linear, deviating signif
icantly from the Einstein equation prediction for dilute suspensions. This μbf
μnf = ( )2.5 (2)
indicates strong particle interactions in the nanofluids. Compared to 1 − φnp
particle size, particle concentration had a more significant effect on
Taking into account the Brownian motion within an isotropic sus
viscosity. The reasons for the non-linear concentration dependence were
pension of rigid spherical particles and recognizing the impact of par
unclear, but the authors hypothesized that different nanofluid structures
ticle interactions, Batchelor in 1967 [69] proposed a model that goes
at varying concentrations could play a role. The authors recommend
beyond the simplifications of earlier formulations, Eq. (3).
directing readers to recent comprehensive review studies that specif
( )
ically delve into the intricate aspects of nanofluid viscosity [77–81]. μnf = 1 + 2.5φnp + 6.5φnp 2 μbf (3)
These reviews offer an in-depth exploration and analysis of the latest
findings and advancements in the field, providing valuable insights into In addition to the aforementioned correlations, several models have
the complex behaviour of nanofluids. Engaging with these studies is been proposed that diverge from the approach of enhancing the Einstein
highly recommended for those seeking a thorough understanding of the model. These alternative models employ different methodologies or take
current state of research on nanofluid viscosity. into account additional influencing factors [87–89]. Each model brings
The measurement of viscosity can be done through two approaches: its unique strengths and applicability, addressing specific challenges or
experimental measurement and the use of classical or empirical models. phenomena. The emergence of nanofluids has led to the development of
Experimentally it is measured using the viscometers or rheometers numerous empirical models also, often represented as simple mathe
which have been extensively reported in various studies [82–84]. matical correlations derived from fitting experimental data. A current
Alternately, there are several models that have been developed to pre trend gaining significant attention involves utilizing artificial intelli
dict the viscosity of nanofluids there is currently no universally accepted gence such as artificial neural networks for constructing models that
model available that can precisely estimate the viscosity of nanofluids. predict various properties. In light of these advancements, the authors
Researchers commonly used the classical or empirical models based on propose an integration of the latest tools to formulate a comprehensive
their experimental data [85]. These models need to be verified as their model capable of accommodating diverse nanofluids. The development
accuracy can vary depending on the specific conditions of the nanofluid of such a general model is envisioned as a substantial contribution to the
and the assumptions made in the model. The Einstein model [86], a field, offering a valuable tool for predicting viscosity across a broad
seminal and pioneering approach, stands out as a classic in the field and spectrum of nanofluid compositions and applications. This pursuit aligns
holds the distinction of being extensively cited and modified. Despite its with the evolving methodologies in nanofluid research, paving the way
widespread use, the applicability of the Einstein model is constrained to for enhanced predictive capabilities and insights.
low concentrations, specifically below 2 vol%. This limitation arises
from the model’s foundation on the assumption of hard-sphere particles, 4.2.3. Density
neglecting particle interactions. The expression for the Einstein model is The density of nanofluids plays a significant role in influencing
given by Eq. (1). various heat-transferring properties, including the pumping power,
Fig. 22. The selection criterion of heat exchanger tubes.
18
Fig. 23. Geometries of heat exchanger tubes.
Fig. 24. Number of publications on flat tube heat exchangers from 2000 to 2022 (Scopus database).
frictional factor, Reynolds number, and stability. It is considered one of looked at how temperature change affected the density of prepared
the most crucial thermophysical properties in this regard. The density of samples using an Anton Paar digital density meter with a temperature
a nanofluid depends on the density of the base fluid and the concen control bath. The outcomes demonstrated good agreement with the Pak
tration and size of the suspended nanoparticles. The model developed by and Cho model. In a study conducted by Ganeshkumar et al. [92], the
Pak and Cho [90] is most commonly employed to estimate the value of impact of adding MWCNT in a W/EG basefluid on density was investi
density, Eq. (4). This model considered the effect of particle concen gated by adopting the flask method and the results were compared with
tration, density, and the density of basefluid. The model has been Eq. (1). The results indicated that the nanofluid density rose propor
employed in numerous investigations and found to be effective at pre tionally with the volume concentration of MWCNT. It was observed that
dicting values within acceptable error bounds. the experimentally measured data and the values predicted by the
( ) equation exhibited a good agreement with the values predicted using the
ρnf = φnp ρnp + 1 − φnp ρbf (4)
equation, particularly at lower particle concentrations. However, for
Vajjha et al. [91] conducted a study to investigate the density of nanofluid containing 1.5 wt% MWCNT, the density was overpredicted
different nanofluids, including alumina (Al2O3), zinc oxide (ZnO), and by the equation. The density of nanofluids generally increases with
antimony‑tin oxide (Sb2O5:SnO2) in a water:EG (60:40) base fluid. They increasing nanoparticle concentration, although the specific effect can
19
vary depending on the type of nanoparticles and the base fluid. Nano traditional binary models, particularly for non-spherical particles. These
fluids exhibit anomalous density behaviour, where the addition of results offer valuable insights into how the choice of base fluid and the
nanoparticles can either increase or decrease the fluid’s density design of nanoparticle shapes can be leveraged to fine-tune nanofluid
compared to the base fluid. This characteristic opens up possibilities for density through interfacial effects. Karimi and Yousefi [94] devised a
applications in heat transfer and cooling systems, where higher density sophisticated hybrid model that integrates a back-propagation neural
nanofluids can improve efficiency, as well as in buoyancy-related in network (BPN) with a genetic algorithm (GA) to predict the density of
dustries, where lower density nanofluids can enhance vessel perfor four distinct nanofluids. This prediction is contingent on variables such
mance. The study of nanofluids’ density behaviour remains a vibrant as temperature, nanoparticle volume fraction, base fluid density, and the
research field with the potential to revolutionize diverse industries and density ratio between the base fluid and nanoparticles. The model un
lead to disruptive technological advancements. derwent training using experimental density data derived from nano
Abbasi et al. [93] conducted molecular dynamics simulations to fluids containing ZnO, Al2O3, Sb2O5/SnO2, and CuO nanoparticles
investigate how particle shape and the type of base fluid impact the suspended in water/ethylene glycol mixtures within the temperature
density of nanofluids, taking into consideration the formation of an range of 273-323 K, with volume fractions reaching up to 10%. During
interfacial nanolayer around nanoparticles. Their findings revealed that testing, the hybrid model exhibited remarkable accuracy, showcasing an
liquid argon formed a thicker nanolayer around silver nanoparticles impressive mean absolute relative error of merely 0.13% and a corre
(1.3 nm) compared to water (0.9 nm), attributing this difference to lation coefficient of 0.999 when compared to experimental values.
stronger silver‑argon interactions and increased fluctuation freedom of Comparative assessments against radial base function neural network
argon atoms. Analysis of various nanoparticle shapes indicated that and Pak-Cho models underscored the superiority of the BPN-GA
planar particles exhibited the highest nanolayer density due to their approach, yielding error reductions of 64% and 95%, respectively.
expansive surface area, while nanorods with higher aspect ratios also This substantiated the higher precision of the BPN-GA model across all
contributed to increased nanolayer density. Furthermore, the density of studied nanofluids. The researchers concluded that this hybrid model
nanofluids containing planar and spherical nanoparticles was observed reliably predicts nanofluid density, effectively capturing the impact of
to decrease with an increase in particle diameter. Utilizing an innovative temperature fluctuations and nanoparticle loading.
ternary mixture model that accounted for the nanolayer led to signifi It is worth noting that there is limited data available in the literature
cantly improved predictions of nanofluid density compared to regarding the measurement of nanofluid density, particularly for base
Fig. 25. Studies published on nanofluid utilization in flat tube heat exchangers (a) country wise, (b) keyword network visualization, (c) subject/areas, and (d)
document type.
20
fluids containing ethylene glycol/water. Measuring the density of nanoparticle aggregation or settling leads to a diminished effect on heat
nanofluids poses challenges due to the influence of nanoparticles on the capacity.
fluid’s viscosity, which can hinder the accuracy of traditional mea ( )
Cp,nf = φnp Cp,np + 1 − φnp Cp,bf (5)
surement methods like hydrometers and pycnometers that rely on vis
cosity, while also affecting surface tension and other physical properties. ( ( ) )
Additionally, precise control of temperature and pressure is crucial φnp ρnp Cp,np + 1 − φnp ρbf Cp,bf
Cp,nf = (6)
when measuring nanofluid density, considering their potential influ ρnf
ence, while the accuracy of density models could also be influenced by As anticipated the factors, such as the base fluid, the type and size of
nanoparticle size, shape, concentration, base fluid type, and tempera the nanoparticles, morphology, and concentration of the nanoparticles
ture. Nevertheless, to undertake a thorough examination and analysis of have a notable effect on the heat capacity of nanofluid. The impact of
the most recent discoveries and progressions in the field, offering nanoscale particles on the heat capacity of nanofluids remains incon
valuable perspectives on the influence of diverse factors on the density clusive, with some studies indicating enhancement, reduction, or no
of nanofluids, the authors seek to bring the readers’ attention to the change, posing challenges in accurately predicting and designing sys
recent review studies that specifically concentrate on the density of tems utilizing these fluids. The study conducted by Yarmand et al. [99]
nanofluids [95–97]. on ethylene glycol based activated carbon-graphene nanofluid observed
an enhancement in heat capacity with temperature and particle con
4.2.4. Heat capacity centration. Robertis et al. [100] employed the modulated temperature
The specific heat (Cp) is also a significant property that greatly in differential scanning calorimetry (MTDSC) technique to determine the
fluences the heat transfer rate of nanofluids. The heat capacity of a specific heat of nanofluids. The obtained results demonstrated a strong
nanofluid can be determined through calorimetry techniques, such as agreement between the measured specific heat values and the tabulated
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), by measuring the heat required values of the individual components of the nanofluid (copper and
to increase the nanofluid’s temperature by a specific amount. Two ethylene glycol). Interestingly, the inclusion of copper nanoparticles in
specific heat models have been used most commonly in studies to the base fluid was found to influence the crystallization and melting
determine the Cp of nanofluids. The first model, proposed by Pak and processes, resulting in a reduction of the specific heat values of the
Cho [90], is based on the volume concentration of nanoparticles, nanofluids across the entire temperature range investigated. However,
developed considering the formula for liquid-particle mixtures, Eq. (5). the collaborative efforts of different researchers in publishing review
The second model, presented by Xuan and Roetzel [4], incorporates a studies on the specific heat of nanofluids provide valuable resources for
heat equilibrium mechanism developed sometime after the first one, readers seeking a thorough understanding of this particular property
represented with Eq. (6). The widely used model of Xuan and Roetzel [4] [101–104].
considers both the heat capacity of individual particles and the heat
capacity of particles in the fluid and has been found to be generally
5. Promise of nanofluids in heat exchanger
accurate for a wide range of nanofluids. Zhou and Ni [98] examined the
specific heat of alumina-aqua nanofluid as a function of particle volume
Owing to the vast thermal transportation potential of nanofluids,
concentration using a DSC. Their experimental findings demonstrated a
they have been tested for several potential applications. Researchers
satisfactory agreement with the predicted values obtained from the
have extensively explored their potential in renewable energy applica
Xuan model. However, like other models, these models have their lim
tions and heat exchangers. In the quest for optimal performance,
itations and may not consistently deliver precise predictions for all
nanofluids have been tested in different types of heat exchanger tubes.
nanofluids. It is crucial to diligently validate the model using experi
These include flat tube heat exchangers, plate-type heat exchangers,
mental data to ensure accuracy and to recognize any potential limita
annular tube heat exchangers, and various other configurations. These
tions or uncertainties that may arise. The interaction between
diverse configurations have been investigated to harness the enhanced
nanoparticles and the base fluid plays a crucial role in determining the
heat transfer properties offered by nanofluids.
impact of nanoparticles on the heat capacity of nanofluids, as strong
attraction results in effective dispersion and a larger influence, while
5.1. Heat exchangers and heat exchangers’ tubes
Heat exchangers exhibit a broad spectrum of classifications, pri

marily categorized by the direction of working fluids and the mechanism
governing heat transfer. In terms of fluid direction, heat exchangers are
grouped into parallel flow, where fluids move in the same direction;
counterflow, featuring opposite fluid movement; and cross-flow con
figurations. Each design offers distinct advantages depending on the
thermal system’s requirements. Simultaneously, heat exchangers are
classified based on their heat transfer mechanism, with regenerative
models storing and recovering heat, recuperative units transferring heat
directly between fluids, and evaporative systems utilizing phase change
for heat transfer. This dual classification provides a comprehensive
understanding of heat exchanger diversity.
Beyond fluid direction and heat transfer mechanisms, heat ex
changers can be further differentiated into finned and un-finned types,
showcasing the impact of fin structures on heat transfer efficiency.
Specific functions also give rise to distinct heat exchanger categories,
such as condensers, evaporators, and boilers, each serving unique roles
within thermal systems. Flow patterns introduce the distinction between
single-pass and multi-pass heat exchangers, while structural designs
Fig. 26. Heat transfer rate repeatability assessments three days after the initial include variations like shell and tube configurations. This multifaceted
testing [106]. classification system enables engineers to select the most fitting heat
21
Table 1
H. Babar et al.
Major findings of some of the recent studies on nanofluid testing in flat tube heat exchangers.
Reference Study type Nanoparticles Particle Size Basefluid Concentration Tube Geometry Tube material Major Findings
Tested / Roughness
Al2O3 44 nm At a Reynolds number of 2000 and with a 10 vol%

concentration of Al2O3 nanoparticles, there was a
notable 94% improvement in heat transfer rate
Vajjha et al. Ethylene glycol 0-10 vol% Al2O3, Automotive radiator flat
Numerical – compared to the base fluid. Furthermore, a 6 vol%
[109] CuO – and water mixture 0-6 vol% CuO tube
CuO nanofluid composition exhibited an 89%
increase in heat transfer rate when compared to the
base fluid.
The heat transfer coefficient experienced notable
improvement, reaching 45% for Al2O3 nanofluid
Flat tube (height 3 mm,
Elsebay et al. 1%, 3%, 5%, and and 38% for CuO nanofluid. It was revealed that
Numerical Al2O3 and CuO – Water width 9 mm, length 345 –
[110] 7 vol% utilizing Al2O3 nanofluid can reduce radiator tube
mm)
length by up to 11.7% and CuO nanofluid can
reduce tube length by up to 9.8%.
Flat tube with aspect ratio of 0.15 showed the best
heat transfer enhancement compared to circular
Yahya and Flat tube with aspect ratios tube. Addition of porous insert further improved
Numerical Al2O3 – Water 1%, 2 vol% Copper
Saghir [111] from 0.15 to 1 heat transfer. Nanofluids with 1% and 2% Al2O3 by
volume enhanced heat transfer by about 5% and
12% respectively compared to basefluid.
The utilization of a 0.5% concentration of Al2O3
nanofluid resulted in a maximum 9.5% increase in
heat transfer compared to the base fluid. The
nanofluid demonstrated an improvement in
Automobile radiator with effectiveness by up to 10.4%, and the performance
Erdogan et al. Ethylene glycol:
Experimental Al2O3 13 nm (average) 0.5 vol% louvred fins; hydraulic Aluminum index saw an increase of up to 19.4%. Moreover,
[112] Water (50:50)
diameter 1.923 mm there was a 9.7% rise in entropy generation change
22
on the coolant side with nanofluid, whereas it

decreased on the air side. Notably, irreversibility
was reduced by up to 68% when using nanofluid
compared to the base fluid.
The friction factor diminishes with rising Reynolds
Flat Tube
Average size of 44 number and volume concentration, while the
Ahmed et al. 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3 (18 × 19.6 × 295 mm);
Experimental TiO2 nm, ranging from Deionized water Aluminum effectiveness of the radiator is heightened by 47%
[113] vol% Hydraulic diameter 3.35
30 to 60 nm with 0.2% TiO2 nanofluid compared to
mm
concentrations of 0.1%, 0.3%, and pure water.
A 54.56% improvement in heat transfer is noted
with a 0.3% volume concentration under constant

heat flux. Additionally, an effectiveness of 0.9 is
Glycerin-based
attained with a 0.3% concentration at Reynolds
Sundari et al. commercial 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3
Experimental Al2O3 <40 nm Flat Tube – number (Re) of 1500. The heat transfer coefficient
[114] engine coolant vol%
rises with escalating Reynolds number and
(G13)
nanoparticle concentration, showcasing the
potential of glycerin-based nanofluid to enhance
automobile radiator performance.
Al2O3 10 nm Al2O3 at a 0.3 vol% concentration achieves a
Flat Tube –
maximum heat transfer enhancement of 24.21%,
Toyota Corolla 2006 model
Said et al. Ethylene glycol: 0.05% and 0.3 while the friction factor decreases with higher
Experimental radiator with tube width 35 Aluminum
[115] TiO2 5 nm Water (50:50) vol% volume fractions. Notably, alumina-based
mm, tube height 1 mm, 36
nanofluids demonstrate superior performance
tubes
compared to titanium-based nanofluids.
Flat Tube – At a fixed flow rate, coolant outlet temperature
Bejjam et al. Ethylene glycol: 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2 Tube length 31.5 cm, decreases with increasing particle concentration. In
Numerical Al2O3 – Aluminum
[116] Water (50:50) vol% thickness 0.5 cm, height 3 comparison to pure water, a nanofluid-based
cm, width 20 cm radiator exhibits a 10.64% increase in Nusselt
(continued on next page)
Table 1 (continued )
H. Babar et al.
Tested / Roughness
number and a 3.82% increase in the heat transfer

coefficient
A remarkable heat transfer enhancement of up to
Outer diameter -
45% was noticed with f-MWCNT nanofluid in
Jadar et al. 20 nm, Inner
Experimental f-MWCNT Deionized water 0.1 wt% Flat Tube Aluminum comparison to deionized water. Furthermore, the
[117] diameter - 16 nm,
radiator outlet temperature is consistently lower
Length - 20 μm
for the nanofluid than for water across all flow rates
A maximum thermal conductivity enhancement of
29% was achieved with a 0.5 vol% loading of GnP.
Additionally, a 51% improvement in convective
Thickness - 5–10 heat transfer coefficient (CHTC) was observed with
Selvam et al. Ethylene glycol:
Experimental Graphene nanoplatelets nm, Diameter - 15 0.1–0.5 vol% Flat Tube Aluminum 0.5 vol% GnP at a 45 ◦ C inlet temperature. The
[118] Water (30:70)
μm CHTC increased with nanoplatelet loading, inlet
temperature, and mass flow rate, while pressure
drop increased with nanoplatelets loading but
decreased at higher inlet temperatures.
The concurrent utilization of coils and a 0.08%
nanofluid resulted in a 5% higher enhancement
Flat Tube Aluminum compared to the use of coils alone. The Nusselt
Goudarzi and 0.08%, 0.5%, 1
Experimental Al2O3 40 nm Ethylene glycol (tube dimensions 24 × 1.5 tube and number exhibited an increase with rising Al2O3
Jamali [119] vol%
mm) – coil wire inserts copper coil concentration and cooling fan speed, the presence
of nanoparticles led to a higher friction factor for
nanofluids compared to the base fluid.
The percentage increase in heat transfer rate within
the tested concentration range ranged from 5.59%
to 29.83%. The heat transfer rate demonstrated an
Ethylene glycol:
Rai et al. [120] Experimental MgO 0.1–0.2 vol% Flat Tube Aluminum upward trend with increasing mass flow rate of the
23
–
Water (60:40)
nanofluid, reaching a maximum of 1035.04 J/s at
an inlet temperature of 55 ◦ C and a nanoparticle
concentration of 0.2%.
SiC 40 nm Aluminum A substantial enhancement in thermal
conductivity, reaching up to 32.01%, was observed
with a 0.4 vol% SiC-MWCNTs nanofluid. These
nanofluids exhibited Newtonian behaviour, with
Flat Tube (hydraulic
Li et al. [121] Experimental Ethylene glycol 0.04–0.4 vol% viscosity increasing with nanoparticle loading but
MWCNT 20 nm diameter 3.63 mm)
decreasing with temperature; furthermore, the
convective heat transfer coefficient was 26% higher
for the 0.4 vol% nanofluid compared to pure

ethylene glycol.
The radiator’s heat transfer rate demonstrated
improvements of up to 6.9% experimentally and
Choi et al. Experimental / Ethylene glycol: Round Tube hydraulic 5.6% theoretically when utilizing nanofluid under
Al2O3 40-50 nm 1.43 vol% Stainless Steel
[122] Theoretical Water (1:1) diameter 3 mm) a fixed Reynolds number. Remarkably, the
nanofluid exhibited long-term suspension stability,
persisting for over 7 months.
The highest observed increase in the overall heat
transfer coefficient was 11.094%, achieved with
Flat Tube (thickness: 0.0002 0.3% Ag-doped TiO2 at a 2% concentration. The
Soylu et al. Experimental / TiO2 doped with Ag and Ethylene glycol:
~10 nm 0.3–2 vol% m; length: 0.380 m; width: Aluminum heat transfer performance exhibited a positive
[123] Theoretical Cu Water (50:50)
0.018 m) correlation with the level of Ag doping and
concentration, while Cu doping did not enhance
heat transfer properties compared to pure TiO2.
Flat Tube (same perimeter CFD data and GMDH neural networks were
Safikhani et al.
Numerical Al2O3/water 20–100 nm Water 0–5 vol% but different internal height – employed to model the heat transfer coefficient and
[124]
2 mm to 10 mm) pressure drop, and multi-objective optimization
H. Babar et al.
Tested / Roughness
was conducted using the NSGA-II genetic

algorithm. The utilization of nanofluid resulted in a
reported increase in heat transfer.
Greater heat transfer enhancement was observed
with the use of twisted tapes compared to both
Safikhani et al. Flat tubes fitted with twisted nanofluids and flat tubes. The simultaneous
Numerical Al2O3/water 40 nm Water 0–3 vol% –
[125] tapes utilization of nanofluids, flat tubes, and twisted
tapes resulted in an average heat transfer increase
of 50%.
A maximum enhancement of 28.34% in overall
thermal performance was achieved with the
utilization of 0.8% Al2O3/SiCM. The improvement
Al2O3 doped with un- galvanized in heat transfer was attributed to the milling
Ethylene glycol:
Ramalingam milled silicon carbide SiCUM - 110 nm, 0.4% and 0.8 vol metallic, process, which reduced the size of SiC
Experimental Water (60:40, Flat Tube
et al. [126] (SiCUM), and milled SiCM - 24 nm % copper. nanoparticles, with the nanofluid exhibiting the
50:50, 60:40)
silicon carbide (SiCM) aluminum highest thermal conductivity at 0.8% Al2O3/SiCM;
however, higher heat loss was observed for the
milled nanofluid due to changes in nanoparticle
morphology.
At constant Reynolds number, heat transfer
coefficient increased with nanoparticle volume
concentration. In the entrance region, nanofluids
showed 10-20% higher heat transfer than
0.1%, 0.2%, 0.5 Multichannel-flat aluminum
Guo et al. [127] Experimental Al2O3 ~10 nm Deionized water Aluminum predictions. At Re = 1731, 0.5% Al2O3 nanofluid
vol% tube
had 11.1% higher heat transfer coefficient at
entrance. Pressure drop and friction factor
increased slightly (4.4% for 0.5% Al2O3) with
24
nanoparticle addition.
The heat transfer coefficient demonstrated an
increase with both nanoparticle concentration and
temperature, reaching a 14% improvement over
the base fluid at 0.5% volumetric concentration
Sharma et al. and 50 ◦ C. On the other hand, pressure drop
Numerical CuO 20 nm Water 0–0.5 vol% Flat Tube –
[128] exhibited a significant increase with nanoparticle
concentration, being 34.78% higher, while the
friction factor increased with nanoparticle
concentration but decreased with increasing
Reynolds number and temperature.

MWCNT/water The MWCNT-water nanofluid exhibited the highest
–
Ag/water thermal conductivity enhancement, but its
MgO/water efficiency, as per the Mouromtseff criterion, was
<1, suggesting increased energy consumption. The
MgO-water nanofluid, on the other hand,
Alirezaie et al. Experimental / demonstrated the best price-performance ratio,
– Water 0–1 vol% heat exchanger analysis
[129] analysis study achieving a maximum efficiency of 15% and the
DWCNT/water highest efficiency-price index, as revealed by
economic analysis, indicating potential
justification for use in high-tech devices like
electronics cooling, while most applications may
not justify the high cost of nanofluids.
Cu-water nanofluids outperformed Al2O3-water
nanofluids in terms of cooling performance,
Sun and Liu
Experimental CuO; Al2O3 40 nm Deionized water 0.1–0.5 wt% CPU liquid cooling radiator – exhibiting a 1.1-2 times enhancement in heat
[130]
transfer coefficient compared to water, while
Al2O3-water nanofluids showed a 1.1-1.6 times
H. Babar et al.
Tested / Roughness
improvement. Despite an increase in friction factor

with nanoparticle concentration, the thermal
performance coefficient analysis indicated that the
heat transfer enhancement was more significant
than the increase in friction factor for both
nanofluids within the specified Reynolds number
range.
Contrarily, the results were not in favour of
nanofluids, as the heat transfer rate exhibited a 3-
17% reduction compared to distilled water across
Oliveira et al. Flat Tube (Tube dimensions
Experimental MWCNT – Distilled water 0.05–0.16 wt% Aluminum all test conditions. Furthermore, the reduction in
[131] width 13 mm; height 3 mm)
heat transfer rate became more pronounced with
increasing nanoparticle concentration, although
the effect was less notable at higher temperatures
The Nusselt number exhibited a 28.2% increase for
nanofluids at a 1 vol% concentration compared to
the base fluid. However, at concentrations above 1
Flat tube with an inner
Abdolbaqi et al. BioGlycol and vol% and a temperature of 30 ◦ C, the Nusselt
Experimental TiO2 50 nm 0.5–2 vol% hydraulic diameter of 12.5 Aluminum
[132] Water (20:80) number decreased, becoming 3% lower than the
mm and length of 1500 mm
base fluid at 2 vol%. The friction factor was 6.1%
and 14.3% higher than the base fluid at 1 vol% and
2 vol% concentrations, respectively.
CuO 60 nm The heat transfer coefficient exhibited an
Al2O3 20 nm asymptotic increase with nanoparticle
concentration, reaching up to 102.4%
Automotive radiator with 17
enhancement for CuO at 5% concentration. Both
Kumar et al. Ethylene glycol: parallel tubes of 15 mm
Numerical 0.05–5 vol% Steel the heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number
25
[133] Water (60:40) radius and 54 louvred fins

ZnO 35 nm displayed a linear increase with Reynolds number,
attached to tubes
correlations developed for Nusselt number and heat
transfer coefficient predictions showed average
deviations of 8.0% and 6.9%, respectively.
Increases in both heat transfer coefficient and
pressure drop were observed with higher
nanoparticle concentration and smaller
nanoparticle sizes, with more pronounced
Flat tube with height of enhancements at lower Reynolds numbers and
0.006 m, width of 0.01228 higher temperatures. While tube flattening
Zhao et al.
Numerical Al2O3 20-100 nm Water 1–6 vol% m, length of 0.5 m, and significantly improved heat transfer and pressure

–
[134]
hydraulic diameter of drop, nanoparticle concentration had a limited
0.0084 m effect on the relative performance between flat and
circular tubes, resulting in a maximum heat
transfer coefficient ratio of 1.236 and a maximum
pressure drop ratio of 1.918 at 6 vol% and a particle
size of 40 nm.
An increase in both heat transfer coefficient and
pressure drop was observed with higher
Flat tube with hydraulic nanoparticle concentration. Notably, a significant
Kaska et al. Numerical
Hybrid of AlN/Al2O3 30 nm Water 1–4 vol% diameter of 19 mm and – heat transfer enhancement of 28-50% was achieved
[135] (CFD)
length of 2 m for concentrations ranging from 1 to 3 vol%, and
while thermal efficiency was substantial within this
range, it decreased above 3 vol%.
A 30% increase in heat transfer was observed when
Flat tube with tube width of
Subhedar et al. Ethylene glycol: utilizing 0.2 vol% alumina nanofluid in comparison
Experimental Al2O3 20 nm 0.2–0.8 vol% 1.60 cm and –
[136] Water (50:50) to the base fluid. A new Nusselt number correlation
tube height 0.18 cm
was established for nanofluid under laminar flow,
H. Babar et al.
Tested / Roughness
demonstrating a ± 25% deviation, and the use of

0.2 vol% nanofluid enabled a remarkable 41.157%
reduction in radiator frontal area while
maintaining the same level of heat transfer.
The Nusselt number demonstrated an increase with
both nanoparticle concentration and Reynolds
Flat tube with a length of number, reaching a maximum value that was 18%
Hussein et al.
Numerical TiO2 < 100 nm Water 1–4 vol% 500 mm and hydraulic – higher than pure water at a 4% concentration.
[137]
diameter of 4.5 mm Interestingly, the inlet temperature had an
insignificant effect on the friction factor but led to
an increase in the Nusselt number.
Nanofluids exhibited a slightly earlier laminar-
turbulent transition compared to water. Notably,
the Nusselt number increased by up to 61% for a
0.01% nanofluid with 10 nm particles at a Reynolds
Zhang et al. 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 Flat tube with a hydraulic
Experimental TiO2 Water 0.005–1 vol% Aluminum number of 6100, and at a given particle size,
[138] nm diameter of 1.65 mm
nanofluids showed an optimal volume
concentration for heat transfer enhancement, while
the Nusselt number decreased with increasing
particle size at a given concentration.
Comparatively, cobalt oxide nanofluid exhibited
superior heat transfer performance in comparison
Water: Ethylene to alumina nanofluid. The addition of ethylene
Aluminum /
Co3O4 Al2O3 - 11-25 nm, glycol (0:100), Flat tube with a width 12.6 glycol resulted in a decrease in heat transfer
Elsaid [139] Experimental 0.02–0.2 vol% Roughness
Al2O3 Co3O4 - 8-21 nm (10:90), and mm and height of 2.7 mm performance when compared to using pure water,
0.0015 mm
(20:80) and the performance index was notably higher at
lower nanoparticle concentrations and Reynolds
26
numbers.
Al2O3 45 nm A 1% Al2O3 nanofluid demonstrated a significant
heat transfer enhancement of 13.2% compared to
the base fluid. New correlations for Nusselt number
Vajjha et al. Ethylene glycol:
Numerical 0–6 vol% Flat tube – and friction factor were developed specifically for
[140] CuO 29 nm Water (60:40)
nanofluids, and based on equal pumping power, 1-
3% Al2O3 and 1-2% CuO nanofluids exhibited
superior performance compared to the base fluid.
Both MWCNT-Fe3O4 and ND-Fe3O4 hybrid
nanofluids exhibited improved heat transfer
performance when compared to the base fluid

Huminic and MWCNT + Fe3O4, Flat tube with 2.56 mm (water). The reduction of entropy generation was
Huminic Numerical Nanodiamond (ND) + – Water 0–0.3 vol% height, 16.1544 mm width, – observed with increasing nanoparticle
[141] Fe3O4 500 mm length concentration and inlet temperature, and the
maximum heat transfer enhancement of 21.395%
was achieved with 0.3% MWCNT-Fe3O4 hybrid
nanofluids.
A notable heat transfer enhancement of up to 31%
was achieved with a 0.12% MgO nanofluid
0.06%, 0.09%, Flat tube with hydraulic compared to the base fluid (water). The heat
Ali et al. [142] Experimental MgO 20 nm Water Aluminum
and 0.12 vol% diameter 2.410574 mm transfer enhancement was more pronounced at
lower flow rates, while the inlet temperature had a
minor effect on the observed improvements.
Both heat transfer coefficient and heat flux exhibit
an increase with rising Reynolds number and
nanoparticle concentration, leading to elevated
Neves et al. 30 nm mean Flat tube with a hydraulic
Numerical Al2O3 and TiO2 Water 1–10 vol% – Nusselt number and wall shear stress. The heat
[143] diameter diameter of 4.68
transfer enhancement rises with nanoparticle
concentration, there is a slight decrease observed
with increasing Reynolds number.
exchanger type, considering the nuanced requirements of diverse ther gain attention around 2004, with the first recorded study [107]. Sub
mal applications. sequent years witnessed a gradual rise in the number of studies, reaching
A variety of heat exchanger tube shapes are employed in practical a peak in 2019 with 72 studies on flat tube heat exchangers while 7
applications, with the U-shape being the predominant and widely specifically on nanofluids. However, in recent years, there seems to be a
adopted configuration. Nevertheless, there is a significant surge in declining trend in the number of studies. In 2021, the number dropped
research efforts dedicated to the design and testing of innovative tube to 55 studies on flat tube heat exchangers, and in 2022, it further
shapes. This heightened focus on exploration and experimentation stems decreased to 52 studies.
from the crucial role these tubes play in facilitating the heat transfer The observed decline in the number of studies on flat tube heat ex
process between the hot fluid and the coolant. Researchers are actively changers, especially in recent years, may indeed be attributed to a shift
engaged in seeking novel configurations to enhance heat exchange ef in research focus towards investigating new and unique tube shapes. As
ficiency and address specific challenges associated with diverse thermal the field of heat exchanger technology advances, researchers continually
systems [105]. Within a thermal system, the pivotal factors governing seek innovative approaches and configurations to enhance heat transfer
the selection process are the type and sizing of the heat exchanger. efficiency, fluid dynamics, and overall performance. The exploration of
However, among these, the tubes through which the fluids traverse in new tube shapes represents a natural progression in research, as in
the heat exchanger emerge as elements of critical significance. Fig. 22 vestigators aim to overcome limitations, improve existing designs, and
outlines the key factors that underscore the importance of heat discover novel solutions. These efforts may include exploring uncon
exchanger tube selection. These factors encompass the properties of the ventional geometries, intricate arrangements, or alternative materials to
flowing fluid, the specific type and size of the heat exchanger, the ma achieve better heat exchange characteristics.
terial constituting the tubes, the geometric configuration of the tubes, The shift in research interest from flat tube heat exchangers to other
manufacturing costs, and the inherent design simplicity. configurations could be driven by several factors:
The geometric shape of heat exchanger tubes assumes paramount
importance, exerting a profound influence on the design and • Maturation of Flat Tube Technology: Flat tube heat exchanger
manufacturing processes, as well as the overall cost considerations. The technology may have reached a certain level of maturity, where the
intricate interplay of these factors underscores the need for a thoughtful incremental improvements become more challenging to achieve,
and comprehensive approach when evaluating and selecting heat prompting researchers to explore alternative avenues.
exchanger tubes. It is through such a holistic perspective that thermal • Emerging Technologies: Advances in manufacturing capabilities and
systems can be optimized for efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and seamless computational tools may enable researchers to explore and analyze
integration within diverse applications. Several common geometries of complex geometries more effectively, encouraging the investigation
heat exchanger tubes are actively employed in contemporary applica of new tube shapes.
tions, such as flat tubes with attached louvered fins [106], spiral tubes, • Diversification of Applications: As heat exchanger technology ex
U-shape tubes, etc. The visual representation of the most widely used pands into various industries and applications, researchers may be
heat exchanger tubes can be observed in Fig. 23. This assortment of tube drawn to explore designs tailored to specific needs, leading to a
configurations reflects the ongoing advancements and options available divergence from traditional flat tube configurations.
in heat exchanger design, enabling engineers to tailor thermal solutions • Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Collaborations across disciplines,
to diverse applications. such as materials science, fluid dynamics, and thermodynamics, may
Due to their unique characteristics and promising thermal capabil drive researchers to consider novel shapes and materials that were
ities in heat exchanger applications, nanofluids have undergone exten not previously explored in the context of heat exchangers.
sive testing, encompassing both numerical simulations and
experimental studies. Positive findings have been reported, prompting While the decline in studies on flat tube heat exchangers may be
further research endeavours aimed at identifying optimal design and evident, it is important to recognize that this trend reflects the dynamic
operational parameters. Numerous research groups and laboratories are nature of scientific inquiry. The ongoing interest in investigating new
actively engaged in projects related to nanofluids, indicative of the tube shapes underscores the adaptability and responsiveness of the
sustained interest and commitment to unlocking the full potential of research community to emerging challenges and opportunities in the
these materials in the realm of heat exchange. field of heat exchanger technology.
The Scopus dataset also reveals the global distribution of research
5.1.1. Flattened tube heat exchangers studies focused on the application of nanofluids in flat tube heat ex
Flattened tubes have become a predominant choice in the design of changers, as shown in Fig. 25(a). India leads the field with 18 published
radiator heat exchangers, showcasing their versatility and efficiency in studies, indicative of a robust research landscape and a significant
thermal management systems. These tubes, characterized by their flat commitment to advancing heat transfer technologies. Following closely,
tened cross-sectional profile, offer distinct advantages in terms of heat Iran and Malaysia contribute substantially with 15 studies each, high
transfer capabilities. To further enhance their performance, helical or lighting a noteworthy interest in exploring nanofluid applications in flat
louvred fins are commonly attached to these flattened tubes, creating a tube heat exchangers. China, though presenting a lower count at 7
symbiotic relationship that significantly augments heat exchange effi studies, still demonstrates a considerable interest in the intersection of
ciency. The flattened tube design in radiator heat exchangers provides a nanofluids and heat exchanger technologies, aligning with broader ini
practical solution for optimizing space and ensuring effective thermal tiatives in energy efficiency. Other countries, including Iraq, Canada,
dissipation. This flattened geometry allows for a more compact Egypt, Pakistan, Romania, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, the
arrangement, making it particularly suitable for applications with space United Kingdom, United States, etc., have two or fewer studies each,
constraints, such as automotive and HVAC systems. Additionally, the collectively contributing to the global exploration of nanofluid appli
flattened shape promotes laminar flow characteristics, contributing to cations in this field. The distribution of studies across these countries
improved heat transfer rates. highlights the global nature of research in this field, with different na
Flat tube heat exchangers have gained considerable attention in tions contributing to the advancement of knowledge in the application
recent years over the past two decades. According to data compiled from of nanofluids in flat tube heat exchangers. Overall, the dataset reflects a
the Scopus database, the number of studies on flat tube heat exchangers concerted global effort to leverage nanofluid technologies for enhanced
and those specifically focused on using nanofluids as a working fluid has heat exchange in flat tube configurations.
shown a fluctuating trend, Fig. 24. Research on flat tube heat exchangers spans multiple subject areas,
The introduction of nanofluids in flat tube heat exchangers started to underscoring the interdisciplinary nature of this field, Fig. 25(c). The
27
majority of studies, totalling 32, are situated within the realm of Engi Flattened tubes are mainly used for vehicle radiators and therefore
neering, reflecting a primary focus on the design, analysis, and appli hold critical significance as the engine’s safety and performance effi
cation of flat tube heat exchangers. Physics and Astronomy contribute ciency is quite dependent on the heat removal efficiency of the cooling
substantially with 28 studies, delving into the fundamental principles system. Therefore, nanofluids are considered and tested as potential
and physical phenomena governing heat transfer processes. Chemical coolants for future automotive engines (including Electric Vehicles i.e.,
engineering, with 27 studies, emphasizes the chemical aspects, mate EVs). These advancements offer opportunities to optimize cooling sys
rials, and fluid dynamics involved in these heat exchangers. Materials tems, improve engine efficiency, and meet the increasing demand for
science, represented by 10 studies, centres on the composition and effective thermal management, particularly in the context of electric
optimization of materials for enhanced heat exchange efficiency. The vehicles.
Energy category encompasses 9 studies, offering a broader perspective Table 1 summarizes the key findings from recent studies published
on the role of flat tube heat exchangers in energy-related applications, between 2016 and 2022, highlighting the promising potential of nano
including efficiency and sustainability considerations. Environmental fluids as effective coolants in flat tube heat exchangers. A thorough
Science, with 5 studies, explores the ecological impact and sustainability examination of the table indicates that the performance of nanofluids in
of these systems. Additionally, computer science suggests a technolog flat tubes is intricately linked to various factors, including fluid tem
ical aspect, mathematics contributes to quantitative analysis and perature, flow rate, nanoparticle concentration in the base fluid, and the
modelling, chemistry explores chemical properties, while agricultural size and shape of the nanoparticles. Notably, an increase in Reynolds
and biological sciences hint at potential applications in controlled en number is commonly associated with an enhancement in the thermal
vironments. Moreover, the inclusion of single studies in business, man performance of the system. Higher flow rates contribute to improved
agement, and accounting, as well as economics, econometrics, and heat exchange due to increased turbulence. Temperature elevation
finance, suggests an exploration of economic and managerial aspects in boosts the heat transfer rate by intensifying the Brownian motion of
the context of flat tube heat exchangers. This diverse distribution un nanoparticles. However, it is crucial to note that higher temperatures
derscores the broad relevance and applicability of flat tube heat can lead to surface deterioration of the channels or tubes.
exchanger research across scientific and engineering disciplines. Moreover, the concentration of nanoparticles plays a critical role,
Fig. 25(b) illustrates the interrelation of keywords extracted from a with an observed performance increase up to a certain limit. Beyond this
collection of articles in the Scopus database focusing on the utilization of threshold, the performance tends to decline, attributed to nanoparticle
nanofluids in flat tubes. The graph visually represents the frequency of agglomeration and, in some cases, channel clogging. While the majority
each keyword’s occurrence and their co-occurrence with other key of studies report positive impacts of nanofluid utilization in heat ex
words. In the graph, nodes denote individual keywords, while edges changers, conflicting results emerge in some instances. Consequently,
represent the instances of co-occurrence. Node size corresponds to the further research is imperative to establish a comprehensive under
frequency of each keyword, and node colour indicates the publication standing of the performance dynamics of nanofluids in heat exchange
year of the associated study. The keywords “heat transfer,” “nanofluid,” applications.
and “flat tube” emerge as the most frequently co-occurring terms in the The evolution of flattened tube heat exchangers has marked a sig
graph, aligning with the primary themes of the articles in the dataset. nificant chapter in thermal management systems, especially in appli
Additionally, other keywords such as “friction factor,” “pressure drop,” cations with space constraints like automotive and HVAC systems.
“heat exchanger,” “Reynolds number,” and “Nusselt number” exhibit Researchers are currently exploring novel tube shapes, spurred by fac
notable co-occurrence, suggesting their significance and relevance tors including the advancement of flat tube technology, emerging
within the discussed studies. The graph highlights additional frequently manufacturing capabilities, diverse applications, and collaborative ef
co-occurring keywords such as “nanofluid flow,” “friction factor,” and forts across disciplines. Despite a decrease in recent studies on flat tube
“pressure drop.” This observation implies that within the context of flat heat exchangers, this shift in focus does not diminish the continued
tubes, the use of nanofluids may contribute to an increase in both fric importance of flattened tubes in thermal management innovations.
tion factor and pressure drop. Fig. 25(d) shows the distribution of These tubes remain integral to addressing challenges posed by spatial
document types published on the discussed topic. constraints in various applications.
In flattened tube heat exchangers, the added louvred fins provide a
high heat transfer surface which keeps the walls at relatively low tem 5.1.2. Circular tubes
peratures. At the boundary layer, the temperature gradient induces the The studies on circular tubes are quite interesting as a variety of
thermophoretic phenomenon of nanoparticles in which the particles novelties have been introduced with the circular tubes i.e., the insertion
move from the high-temperature region towards the low-temperature of twisted tapes (Fig. 27) and longitudinal inserts to induce turbulence
region. The thermophoretic phenomenon intensifies the heat transfer which leads to increased convective heat transfer. Moreover, the annular
rate in louvred fin flattened tube heat exchangers. Moreover, flattened configuration is widely tested as well. Using the nanofluid as a cooling
geometry itself offers a higher surface area for the convection heat fluid intensifies the heat transfer.
transfer. Thermophoresis keeps the particles in motion and lowers the Heris et al. [144] examined the heat transfer performance of nano
risk of clustering due to the continuous movement. Because of the higher fluids in a circular tube through experiments. They tested alumina
temperature carried by the nanoparticles, particle Brownian motion also nanoparticle-based nanofluid to examine the effect of Peclet number,
gets increased which eventually leads to a higher thermal transport rate. Reynold’s number, and nanoparticle concentration on the Nusselt
Higher particle motion leads to higher intermolecular interaction at number. They reported that the Peclet number and concentration in
greater speeds thus the risk of agglomeration of nanoparticles is crease result in enhanced heat transfer parameters such as the rate of
reduced. The study conducted by Shah et al. [106] showed a minimal heat transfer and the coefficient of heat transfer. They credited the
difference in the observed heat transfer rate during the repeatability improvement in heat transfer parameters to increased interparticle
tests conducted after 3 days (Fig. 26). In a study, Abbas et al. [108] interaction and structural fluctuation along with increased thermal
examined the efficacy of innovative Fe2O3-TiO2/water hybrid nano conductivity. At optimal conditions, an increment of 41% in HTC was
fluids in flat tubes equipped with louvred fins. The findings indicated a observed compared to the base fluid (water). Fotukian and Esfahani
notable enhancement in the Nusselt number within the flat tubes, [145] ran a series of experimental studies to evaluate the performance of
registering a 20.03% increase compared to the base fluid. The experi γ-Al2O3/water nanofluid in a circular tube and reported 48 %
mentation involved testing nanofluids at concentrations ranging from enhancement in heat transfer coefficient (at 0.054 vol% and 10,000 Re).
0.005 to 0.009 vol%, with an inlet temperature spanning 48-56 ◦ C, and a Interestingly, in the turbulent regime, the influence of concentration
flow rate of 11-15 LPM. increase had little effect on the heat transfer. An increase in Reynold’s
28
number decreased the relative heat transfer enhancement percentage nanofluid flowing twisted tape inserted circular tube as compared to the
(between the nanofluid and the water). Wall temperature was observed water flowing in the simple circular tube was reported to be 80.19% at
to be much lower in the case of nanofluid as compared to the water (due 0.5 vol% and 22,000 Reynold’s number. Performance of nanofluids in
to the thermophoretic effect). Ryzhkov et al. [146] analyzed the effect of circular tubes as reported by various studies has been summarized in
thermophoretic mobility on the near-wall region of a circular tube. They Table 2.
observed that in the laminar range, due to the mobility induced by the Sundar and Sharma [153] reported that for nanofluid the enhance
thermophoretic effect, nanoparticle concentration near the wall is ment in heat transfer coefficient for nanofluid as compared to water is
smaller and the velocity of flow near the boundary layer is higher as 30.3% and 42.17% in simple tube and tube with twisted inserts
well. However, the effect of nanoparticle concentration tends to fade at respectively due to the synergistic effect of turbulence and the nano
higher inlet velocity due to the dominance of the turbulent effect. particles. Ahmed et al. [154] evaluated the performance of alumina-
Mwesigye and Huan [147] conducted a thermodynamic analysis of a water nanofluid in helical tape-inserted circular tubes and reported a
circular tube with Al2O3/water nanofluid flowing through it. The anal maximum of 31%, and 31.29% enhancement in Nusselt number, and
ysis showed that at a higher Reynold’s number, the effect of nano heat transfer rate respectively as compared to water. They reported that
particles in the base fluid becomes less significant in terms of the twist ratio is a critical factor since the induced turbulence and the
thermodynamic parameters. At higher Reynold’s number, the optimum particle interaction with the tape impact the flow structure and heat
cross-sectional area of the tube is high whereas at high. Moreover, past a distribution in the tube. A higher twist ratio reduced heat transfer per
certain range of Reynold’s number, the presence of nanoparticles in the formance was reported (Fig. 28). No considerable effect of twist ratio on
base fluid produces no impact in terms of reduction in entropy genera the friction factor for the nanofluids has been reported in the literature.
tion. Ho et al. [148] conducted a numerical analysis to analyze the effect The exploration of circular tube heat exchangers, particularly with
of temperature on the performance of nanofluids in the circular tube. the incorporation of innovative elements such as twisted tapes, longi
They observed that the temperature has a strong impact on the perfor tudinal inserts, and nanofluids, has yielded significant advancements in
mance parameters. Moreover, the pumping power enhancement or the heat transfer performance. The studies highlighted in this review un
pressure drop tends to decrease at the higher temperature of the nano derscore the intricate interplay of parameters like Peclet number, Rey
fluid. Ho et al. [149] conducted an experimental evaluation of Eicosane- nold’s number, and nanoparticle concentration, showcasing their
based nanofluid in a circular tube and examined the effect of particle collective impact on the Nusselt number and heat transfer coefficients.
concentration on the surface temperature of a circular tube. An increase Noteworthy findings include the substantial heat transfer enhancements
in nanoparticle concentration resulted in increased heat removal from observed with nanofluids, attributed to increased interparticle in
the tube wall due to a higher number of thermal acquisition particles. teractions, structural fluctuations, and elevated thermal conductivity.
However, a mammoth pressure drop is observed due to the increased The intricate balance between nanoparticle concentration and flow
viscosity of the flow. dynamics, as demonstrated by varying Reynolds numbers, emphasizes
Ho et al. [151] performed experimental and as well as numerical the nuanced nature of heat transfer augmentation. Recent studies,
analysis of alumina-based nanofluids in a circular tube and found that including those employing dimpled twisted tapes and helical tape in
the wall temperature was much lower in the case of nanofluids as serts, showcase the potential for further improvements in heat transfer
compared to the base fluid. Nanoparticle insertion increased the Nusselt performance through enhanced turbulence. As we move forward, it is
number as well as the pressure drop across the tube. To accurately imperative to focus on refining the understanding of the complex
simulate the flow of nanofluids through the tubes, it is necessary to take interplay between turbulence and nanoparticle concentration, opti
into account the variation of thermophysical properties of nanofluids mizing geometrical parameters like twist ratios, and exploring advanced
against the temperature change. Nanoparticle concentration enhance materials for turbulator elements. Future directions should also delve
ment increases the frequency of particle interaction and therefore the into the practical implications of these findings in real-world applica
resistance coefficient and the drag force are increased whereby the fluid tions, ensuring the scalability and economic viability of these heat
viscosity is increased. The thermophoretic effect increases the accumu exchanger designs. The dynamic synergy between experimentation and
lation of nanoparticles at the center of the tube which intensifies the numerical analyses will be instrumental in unlocking the full potential of
interparticle interaction hence the viscosity is further increased result circular tube heat exchangers, paving the way for more efficient and
ing in higher pressure drop and pumping power. sustainable thermal management systems in diverse industrial contexts.
The circular tube performance is evaluated by passing a fluid
through a tube of some axial length with a circular cross-section and the 5.1.3. Horizontal spiral tube heat exchangers
tube is heated by the heaters from the outside surface. Temperature, This section presents insight into nanofluid performance in hori
velocity, and pressure at the inlet and outlet are monitored to derive the zontal spiral tubes for heat exchanger applications (Fig. 29). Thermal
values of performance assessment parameters. There is a very large performance for nanofluids has been tested in horizontal spiral tubes in
number of published studies on nanofluid-based circular tubes. How terms of percentage enhancement in heat transfer rate, convective HTC,
ever, the turbulence is reported to induce greater heat transfer and Nusselt number as compared to the base fluid. Even though the
augmentation as compared to the nanoparticle concentration. There nanofluids outperform the base fluid in terms of thermal parameters
fore, turbulator elements such as twisted tapes and longitudinal inserts nevertheless, the otherwise effect on flow parameters has been reported
are introduced inside the circular pipes to achieve higher heat transfer i.e., the percentage of pressure drop for nanofluids is reported to be
performance. Zheng et al. [150] inserted dimpled twisted tape in the higher as compared to the base fluids.
circular tube which resulted in increased swirl velocity and turbulent The influence of curvature, nanofluid concentration, and tempera
mixing which results in disturbance in the flow structure. The dimpled ture of hot water on heat transfer rate, Nusselt number, and pressure are
side yielded a 25.53% greater HTC as compared to the protrusion side of mostly analyzed in such studies. Naphon [160] experimentally investi
the twisted tape. Moreover, dimpled tape outperformed simple tape gated the heat transfer characteristics and pressure drop of titania
inserts. Furthermore, a 58.96% higher convective heat transfer coeffi nanofluids flowing in horizontal spirally coiled tubes. The effects of
cient for nanofluid (Al2O3/Water) was recorded as compared to the base curvature ratio, hot water temperature, and nanofluid concentration
fluid. Sundar and Sharma [152] inserted longitudinal tube inserts in the were considered. The findings revealed that the Nusselt number for
circular tube and found that the topmost augmentation in heat transfer nanofluids was 21-34% higher compared to water, indicating enhanced
coefficient in the simple tube was 55.73% for nanofluid (Al2O3/Water) heat transfer. However, the friction factor exhibited only a slight in
as compared to the nanofluid in the simple tube due to the enhanced crease with nanofluids compared to water. It was found that heat
turbulence in the flow. Moreover, the topmost enhancement in HTC for transfer enhancement increased with decreasing curvature ratio and
29
predict heat transfer in such complex systems without needing addi

tional experiments.
Considering the reported literature, heat transfer enhancement can
be increased by multiple times using combined techniques like tube
geometry, tube inserts (turbulators), sinusoidal peristaltic pumping
(flow pulsation), magnetic effects, nanofluids, etc. Some of the tech
niques bring forth the challenge of increased frictional loss (pressure
drop and pumping power). However, the structural fluctuation of flow
induced by pulsative and magnetic effects leads to increased particle
migration (velocity) thereby reducing the probability of agglomeration/
clustering of particles. Furthermore, the integration of nanofluids and
intricate geometries, such as fractal-inspired designs or dynamically
adaptable surfaces, has opened new frontiers for thermal performance
enhancement. Cutting-edge research is delving into the utilization of
smart materials with tunable thermal conductivity, leveraging the
principles of metamaterials to achieve unprecedented control overheat
transfer processes. The convergence of machine learning algorithms,
specifically deep learning techniques, is revolutionizing the predictive
modelling of complex heat exchanger systems, offering not only accu
rate simulations but also insights into optimizing parameters beyond
conventional methodologies. Furthermore, the exploration of exotic
heat transfer fluids, such as supercritical fluids or phase-change mate
rials with tailored properties, is pushing the boundaries of what is
achievable in terms of heat transfer efficiency and thermal energy
storage.
5.1.4. Helical tube heat exchangers

Recent advancements in helical tube heat exchangers (HTHEs) un
derscore a multifaceted approach to improving thermal performance.
The helical arrangement of the tubes induces secondary flows that
promote mixing and turbulence, leading to increased heat transfer rates.
Additionally, the compact design of HTHEs allows for more efficient use
of space, making them attractive for applications with limited space
constraints. Researchers have expanded beyond traditional tube designs,
Fig. 27. (a) Circular tube with twisted tape inserts, (b) and twisted tape with exploring innovative geometries such as conical-shaped helical tubes.
protrudes [150]. These configurations exhibit promising enhancements in heat transfer
capabilities, offering potential breakthroughs for efficient thermal
increasing nanofluid concentration. The induced secondary flow caused management across various industrial applications. Concurrently, the
by the centrifugal force significantly improved nanoparticle mixing. integration of nanofluids in helical tube systems has garnered attention,
Naphon and Wiriyasart [161] appraised the heat transfer performance demonstrating the ability of nanoparticles to boost heat transfer rates
of nanofluid (TiO2/Water) in a spirally coiled tube and employed flow and overall efficiency. The synergy of these advancements positions
pulsation and magnetic field. Pulsation and magnetic force induced helical tube heat exchangers at the forefront of research for optimizing
disruption/mixing of flow structure (turbulence) which resulted in heat exchange processes. In parallel, the materials used in helical tubes
pronounced heat transfer augmentation. Structural fluctuations in the have undergone significant improvements. Advanced alloys with
flow prompted by pulsative pumping and magnetic force intensify the heightened thermal conductivity and corrosion resistance are now in
Brownian motion (agitated particle migration) which leads to an tegral to design considerations, ensuring durability and longevity,
increased thermal transport rate near the boundary layer (reducing the particularly in demanding industrial environments [163–165]. A
thickness of the boundary layer) of the bounding walls. The synergistic research effort led by Maziasz et al. [166] at Oak Ridge National Lab
effect of using nanofluid, magnetic effects, flow pulsation, and tube oratory focused on improving the high temperature performance of
curvature enhanced the Nusselt number by 18.3 %. Nevertheless, compact heat exchangers, specifically for recuperators used in micro
magnetic effects also prompt enhancement in friction factor. In another turbines. Standard 347 stainless steel has been commonly used for
study Naphon et al. [162] applied artificial neural network (ANN) recuperators but suffers degradation above 650 ◦ C due to moisture-
models to analyze and predict the pulsating heat transfer coefficient and accelerated oxidation and excessive creep. The study explored alloys,
friction factor of TiO2/water nanofluids flowing in a spirally coiled tube including HR120, alloy 625, and a novel AL20-25 + Nb stainless alloy.
under the influence of magnetic fields. Four different ANN training al These alternative alloys exhibit superior resistance to oxidation and
gorithms were tested, with the Levenberg-Marquardt Backpropagation creep when compared to the commonly used 347 stainless steel, pre
(LMB) algorithm providing the best prediction performance based on senting promising prospects for elevating the efficiency and durability of
minimum mean square error (MSE) and maximum correlation coeffi recuperators in high-temperature applications. Alloys, such as nickel-
cient (R). Using the optimal LMB-trained ANN model with 4 hidden based superalloys and titanium alloys, offer excellent corrosion resis
layer neurons, the majority of predicted Nusselt numbers and friction tance, high temperature stability, and strength, making them suitable
factors were within 2.5% and 5% of experimental values, respectively. for demanding applications in extreme environments [167]. Addition
This demonstrated the capability of the optimized ANN approach to ally, high-temperature polymers such as polyphenylene sulfide (PPS)
accurately represent the thermal performance characteristics of the and polyetheretherketone (PEEK) are gaining popularity due to their
nanofluid-filled spirally coiled heat transfer system with applied mag lightweight nature, excellent corrosion resistance, and capacity to
netic fields. The well-trained ANN model can be applied to simulate and withstand elevated temperatures, making them valuable in electronics
and aerospace [168]. Thermochromic materials, exhibiting colour
30
H. Babar et al.
Table 2
Nanofluid performance in circular tubes – a brief summary.
Tested / Roughness
41 % enhancement in heat transfer coefficient occurred at optimal

operating conditions. The heat transfer coefficient of nanofluids
rises with both Peclet number and nanoparticle concentration,
surpassing predictions from single-phase heat transfer correlations
Heris et al. [144] Experimental Al2O3 20 nm Water 0.2–2.5 vol% Circular Tube Copper based on nanofluid properties. This discrepancy suggests that
mechanisms beyond enhanced thermal conductivity, such as
nanoparticle dispersion, chaotic movement, Brownian motion, and
particle migration, play significant roles in augmenting heat transfer
by altering flow structures and temperature gradients at the wall.
As the Reynolds number increased, the degree of heat transfer
enhancement diminished. Additionally, the nanofluid exhibited
Fotukian and 0.03–0.135 vol Circular tube with 5 mm significantly higher pressure drop compared to pure water, while
Experimental γ-Al2O3 20 nm Water Copper
Esfahani [145] % inner diameter experimental findings aligned well with both Maiga et al. [156]
correlation for nanofluid heat transfer and Buongiorno’s model
[157] under the assumption of a laminar sublayer thickness of 5.
The reduction in viscosity near the wall increased fluid velocity in
this region, leading to a flattened velocity profile near the tube axis
Circular Tube with a radius
Ryzkhov et al. [146] Numerical Al2O3 46 nm Water 0–0.05 vol% – to maintain a constant mass flow rate. At higher inlet flow velocity,
of 0.001 m
the impact of nanoparticle concentration enhancement tends to
fade.
There was an optimal tube cross-sectional area and Reynolds
31
number at which entropy generation was minimized, and these

optimal values increased with an increasing Reynolds number and
Circular tube with cross tube cross-sectional area. The Bejan number, signifying the
Mwesigye and Huan
Numerical Al2O3 28 nm Water 0–6 vol% section area ranging from – dominant irreversibility, decreased with a decreasing tube cross-
[147]
0.0000025 m2 to 0.05 m2 sectional area and increasing Reynolds number. Additionally, a
threshold Reynolds number existed beyond which the use of
nanofluids increased entropy generation compared to the base fluid,
making their thermodynamic use undesirable.
At the higher temperature of the nanofluid, the temperature,
depending on thermophysical characteristics, improved, and the
Ho et al. [148] Numerical Al2O3 36 nm Water 0–9 vol% Circular Tube –
pressure drop decreased. The local thermal performance of the

nanofluid was also enhanced.
Compared to pure water, phase change nanofluids effectively
suppressed tube wall temperature when flow rate and heat flux were
in an appropriate range, with the effect increasing at higher nano-
PCM particle concentrations. In the initial entrance region, the
Circular tube with 3.4 mm
Eicosane (a phase nanofluid was less effective than pure water due to inlet subcooling;
Ho et al. [149] Experimental 57–138 nm Water 1–10 wt% inner diameter and 4.0 mm Copper
change material) however, beyond this region, the nanofluid became increasingly
outer diameter
effective in suppressing wall temperature through latent heat
absorption from nano-PCM particle melting. Despite the benefits,
there was a substantial penalty in pressure drop when using
nanofluids, particularly at higher particle concentrations,
H. Babar et al.
Tested / Roughness
highlighting the need for efforts to reduce viscosity and enhance

thermal conductivity to mitigate this drawback.
Using dimpled twisted tapes significantly enhances heat transfer
compared to smooth twisted tapes, with the dimple side showing
Circular Tube with dimpled
Zheng et al. [150] Numerical Al2O3 30–50 nm Water 0–4 vol% – better performance than the protrusion side. The dimples disturb the
twisted insert
flow and increase turbulence. Nanofluid outperformed the base fluid
by 58.96 % in terms of convection heat transfer coefficient.
Experimental and numerical analyses were performed. Considering
the effect of temperature on the thermophysical properties of
Circular Tube with an inner
Numerical / nanofluids yielded accurate simulation results. Wall temperature
Ho et al. [151] Al2O3 22.2–47.7 nm Water 1–10 vol% diameter of 3.4 mm and –
Experimental was decreased and Nusselt number and pressure drop were
wall thickness 0.3 mm
increased due to the nanofluids as compared to the base fluid i.e.,
water.
Heat transfer coefficients increased with nanofluid volume
concentration and decreased with the aspect ratio of longitudinal
strip inserts. The maximum enhancement of the Nusselt number,
Sundar and Sharma Circular Tube with
Experimental Al2O3 – Water 0–0.5 vol% Copper achieved with a 0.5% volume fraction of alumina nanofluid, ranged
[152] Longitudinal Insert
from 17.36% (at Re = 3000) to 30.30% (at Re = 22,000) compared
to water, while friction factors were higher with strip inserts than in
a plain tube for both water and nanofluids.
The enhancement in heat transfer coefficient for nanofluid as
compared to water is 30.3 % and 42.17 % in simple tubes and tubes
Sundar and Sharma Distilled Circular Tube with Twisted
Experimental Al2O3 47 nm 0.02–0.5 vol% Copper with twisted inserts respectively. Friction factor with 0.5%
[153] water Tape Insert
nanofluid and the twist ratio of 5 was 1.096-1.2657 times higher
than water in plain tube
Heat transfer increased with Reynolds number and decreased with
twist ratio, reaching its maximum enhancement at twist ratio 2.93.
32
The Nusselt number increased with nanoparticle concentration,

Pathipakka and showing a maximum enhancement of 31% for a 1.5% volume
Numerical Circular Tube with Helical
Sivashanmugam Al2O3-Water 30 nm Water 0.5–1.5 vol% Mild Steel fraction at the highest Reynolds number, and the Nusselt number
(CFD) Insert
[155] enhancement ranged from 5% to 31% for various helical inserts and
nanoparticle concentrations tested, with simulated values closely
matching literature data for plain and helical insert tubes within a ±
10% discrepancy.
Al2O3 23 nm In comparison to simple nanofluids, the ternary nanofluids exhibited
TiO2 27 nm enhanced stability and dispersion. The thermal conductivity saw an
improvement up to 1.14 W/m.K at 45 ◦ C for 0.1 wt% nanofluids,
Circular Tube with 10 mm
Distilled leading to a maximum heat transfer coefficient of 3200 W/m2K

Ahmed et al. [154] Experimental 0.025–0.1 wt% internal diameter and 1.2 m Stainless Steel
water achieved with 0.1 wt% nanofluids at the highest Reynolds number,
ZnO 17 nm length
representing a substantial 79% increase over the base fluid. The
varied particle sizes and shapes contributed to the enhanced thermal
performance observed in the ternary nanofluids.
Improved thermal performance parameters were reported for
nanofluids, however, the magnetic induction reduced the heat
Circular Tube with length
transfer performance. 22 % increase in Nusselt number was
Mei et al. [158] Experimental Fe3O4 20 nm Water 1–5 wt% of 1.2 m and outer diameter Copper
observed at 5 wt% of nanoparticles. Additionally, the effects of the
of 10 mm
magnetic field were more significant at higher Reynolds numbers in
the turbulent flow regime.
The topmost enhancement in Nusselt number was reported as 36.74
27 nm, 39 nm, Distilled Circular Tube with an inner % and the friction factor increased by 13.5 %. Developed
Ponnada et al. [159] Experimental SiC 0.04–0.1 wt% Copper
and 62 nm water diameter of 28.6 mm correlations for Nusselt number and friction factor as a function of
particle size and concentration.
computational approach aids in optimizing designs and predicting per

formance under varying conditions, contributing to informed decision-
making in the design process. Bahremand et al. [170] conducted a
comprehensive study on turbulent convection flow of nanofluids in
helical tubes, employing both numerical simulations and experimental
analysis. Their findings revealed an increase in heat transfer and a
simultaneous rise in pressure drop within helical tubes when nanofluids
were utilized as the working fluid. Rasheed et al. [171] conducted an
experimental and numerical study investigating heat transfer enhance
ment in a shell and helical microtube heat exchanger using different
nanofluids. Three helical microtube shapes (circle, oval, elliptical) were
tested at various Reynolds numbers from 200 to 1800 using water
initially. Results showed the circular helical microtube achieved the
highest heat transfer augmentation and thermal performance compared
to oval and elliptical designs due to the superior mixing from secondary
flows. The circular helical microtube was further tested with alumina
and zinc oxide nanofluids at 1-2% volume fractions. Heat transfer was
Fig. 28. Effect of twist ratio on the Nusselt number [155]. found to increase with higher nanoparticle concentrations as well as
Reynolds number for both nanofluids. Alumina nanofluid provided
changes with temperature variations, show promise for intelligent heat better thermal performance compared to zinc oxide nanofluid overall. It
exchanger design, providing visual indicators of temperature distribu was also revealed that smaller nanoparticle size resulted in improved
tion for improved system monitoring. Furthermore, conductive poly heat transfer owing to enhanced thermal conductivity and Brownian
mers like polypyrrole (PPy) and polyaniline (PANI) offer opportunities motion effects, however, a noticeable increase in friction factors was
for flexible and lightweight heat exchangers, particularly in wearable also observed.
applications and electronic devices, revolutionizing heat management In a similar vein, Kumar et al. [172] performed a CFD analysis
[169]. focusing on the thermal and fluidic characteristics of MWCNT/water
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modelling has become a nanofluid in a heat exchanger with helical coil tubes (Fig. 30). The
cornerstone in this research, providing valuable insights into fluid dy investigation covered the laminar regime within a Dean number range of
namics and heat transfer characteristics within helical tubes. This 1300-2200, maintaining nanoparticle concentrations at 0.2, 0.4, and
Fig. 29. Horizontal spiral tube experimental test setup [160].
33
0.6 vol%. Results indicated a notable 30% improvement in the Nusselt Experiments were conducted by passing the nanofluid through the tube
number for the 0.6 vol% nanofluid at a Dean number of 1400. Addi side of the heat exchanger at a constant Reynolds number, while hot
tionally, at a Dean’s number of 2200, the pressure drop increased by up water was passed through the shell side at varied flow rates (Fig. 31). It
to 11% compared to the base fluid. Kurnia et al. [173] numerically was found that the presence of silver nanoparticles significantly
investigated laminar heat transfer and entropy generation in helical enhanced the convective heat transfer coefficient - by up to 32%
coils and straight tubes with circular, elliptical, and square cross- compared to water. The heat transfer enhancement increased with
sections. They found that helical coils offered higher heat transfer nanoparticle concentration and was mainly attributed to the swirling
rates but also required more pumping power compared to straight tubes. flow caused by the coil geometry, thinning of thermal boundary layer,
Among helical coils, circular tube generated the lowest entropy while and the Brownian motion of nanoparticles. The pressure drop was not
square tube provided the maximum heat transfer. The results provide significantly impacted by the addition of nanoparticles. Analysis of
insights into selecting optimal geometries and operating parameters for thermal performance factor revealed that a nanoparticle concentration
designing efficient heat exchangers based on requirements. Helical coils of 0.05% volume was optimum. Thus, the green-synthesized silver
are suitable for high heat duty applications where pumping power is not nanofluid shows promise for improving heat transfer in helical coil heat
a constraint. Straight circular tubes are preferred in mass production exchangers without much pumping power penalty.
systems where parasitic pumping loads need to be minimized. Radkar Niwalkar et al. [178] conducted a series of experiments on a shell
et al. [174] conducted a comprehensive investigation to assess the and helically coiled tube heat exchanger using SiO2/water nanofluids
thermal capabilities of ZnO/water nanofluids in helical tubes of heat with varying volume concentrations. They observed a notable 28.71%
exchangers. The nanofluids were prepared by dispersing the ZnO increase in heat transfer coefficient at 0.25% volume concentration
nanoparticles in water using a hydrodynamic cavitation technique. This compared to water, attributed to enhanced thermal conductivity and
allowed the creation of stable nanofluids with minimal agglomeration of changes in flow and thermal fields. However, the study noted a trade-off,
the nanoparticles. Thermal conductivity measurements showed up to as the friction factor and pressure drop significantly increased by
136% enhancement for a 0.5 vol% ZnO nanofluid at 50 ◦ C. A maximum 52.61% and 62.60% respectively at the same volume concentration,
18.6% Nusselt number improvement was observed with 0.25 vol% ZnO indicating heightened pumping power requirements for improved heat
nanofluid. This illustrates substantial intensification of convective heat transfer performance. Bhanvase et al. [179] explored the enhancement
transfer by the combination of helical geometry and studied nanofluid. of convective heat transfer in a vertical helical coiled heat exchanger
Singh et al. [176] examined water, surfactant-water solution, and using water-based polyaniline (PANI) nanofluids. PANI nanofibers were
carbon nanotube (CNT) nanofluid in a helical coil heat exchanger. The synthesized through ultrasound-assisted emulsion polymerization and
hydrodynamic study revealed that the friction factor decreased with dispersed in distilled water at concentrations ranging from 0.1% to 0.5%
increasing Reynolds number for all fluids, with CNT nanofluid exhibit volume. The study revealed a substantial 70% increase in the heat
ing higher values. While the surfactant solution showed no heat transfer transfer coefficient at 0.5% volume concentration compared to distilled
enhancement over water, the CNT nanofluid demonstrated a 62.62% water. Bahiraei et al. [180] investigated the hydrothermal characteris
increase in the overall heat transfer coefficient at a Reynolds number of tics of water-Al2O3 nanofluid flow in a shell and tube heat exchanger
5000, suggesting its potential to replace conventional base fluids for equipped with helical baffles. It was found that increasing the nano
improved heat transfer performance. Kulkarni et al. [177] investigated particle concentration and baffle overlapping, as well as decreasing the
the heat transfer and flow characteristics of a helical coil heat exchanger helix angle, led to increases in both the heat transfer coefficient and
using silver nanoparticles synthesized from neem leaves dispersed in pressure drop. The heat transfer coefficient showed a 14% increase
water. They prepared silver nanoparticles using a green method with when the concentration rose from 1% to 5% across different baffles
neem leaf extract and mixed them with deionized water to make the overlapping conditions. The study observed a more pronounced impact
nanofluid with volume concentrations ranging from 0.01% to 0.05%. of varying baffle overlapping on pressure drop at smaller helix angles.
Fig. 30. Geometry design of double pipe helical tube (a) single section and [175] (b) full tube [172].
34
Fig. 31. Test section arrangement for helical tube heat exchanger using nanofluid (a) schematic representation, and (b) experimentation setup [177].
Specifically, at helix angles of 30 and 50◦ , an increase in overlapping Moreover, there are very few studies on double tube helical coiled heat
from 0 to 0.6 resulted in reported enhancements of 105% and 38.6%, exchangers due to design and manufacturing complexity. The pressure
respectively. Additionally, optimal design considerations recommend drop of fluid is very high in helical tube heat exchangers which makes
smaller helix angles when aiming for a balance between high heat the effectiveness of nanofluids quite trivial. The orientation of the he
transfer and minimal pressure drop, while larger baffle overlapping lical tube has also been reported to have a strong Nanofluid influence on
values should be reserved for instances where augmenting heat transfer the performance of the fluid flowing inside the tube. Maghrabie et al.
outweighs the importance of reducing pressure drop. [184] appraised the Nanofluid influence of changing orientation on the
Narrein and Mohammed [181] explored the impact of alumina, sil thermal performance of the fluid through the helically coiled tube. They
ica, copper oxide, and zinc oxide-based nanofluids in a helical tube heat reported that transitioning the helical coil from a horizontal to a vertical
exchanger. It was found that CuO, Al2O3, and ZnO nanoparticle-based orientation resulted in an 11% increase in the Nusselt number for water.
nanofluids demonstrated superior heat transfer enhancement However, for Al2O3/water nanofluid and SiO2/water nanofluid with a
compared to water, while SiO2 nanofluid performed less favourably nanoparticle concentration of 0.1 vol%, orientation led to an 8.3% and
under specific flow conditions. Results also indicated a decline in 7.5% enhancement in the Nusselt number, respectively. Moreover, the
convective heat transfer beyond 2% nanoparticle concentration due to performance of nanofluids in terms of heat transfer has been reported to
increased pressure drop, with water-based nanofluids demonstrating the be far better in helical tubes as compared to straight tubes [185,186].
most significant thermal improvement. Guo et al. [182] performed a However, the increase in coil diameter reduces the pressure drop [187].
numerical investigation to assess the impact of flow pulsation on the Helical tubes have also been tested in coned shapes for heat transfer
thermal performance of Al2O3/water nanofluid in a heat exchanger with applications (Fig. 33) [188].
a helically coiled tube. A 1.14 times higher convective heat transfer The comprehensive exploration of existing literature has brought to
coefficient value was recorded for 1.5 vol% nanofluids as compared to light a pivotal aspect in the realm of heat exchanger optimization: the
the base fluid. An increase in pulsation frequency increased the heat shape of the heat exchanger tubes exerts a pronounced influence on the
transfer coefficient ratio and pressure drop ratio up to a certain value performance of nanofluids within the system. However, a noticeable gap
and then they started to drop as shown in Fig. 32. Details of major in research pertains to the scarcity of studies investigating nanofluid
findings of some other studies on the performance of nanofluids in he behaviour within heat exchanger tubes characterized by variable cur
lical tube heat exchangers are reported in Table 3. vatures, especially in helical configurations. This gap presents an un
Helically coiled tube heat exchangers offer the opportunity for high tapped frontier, offering opportunities to elucidate the intricate
heat transfer due to special geometry. Quite limited types of nanofluids dynamics of nanofluid flow and heat transfer in complex geometries.
have been tested for application in helical tube heat exchangers [183]. The positive impact of nanofluid presence accentuates the importance of
35
3. Insertion of perforated conical rings (Fig. 36).

4. Insertion of conical wires.
5. Longitudinal tube inserts.
6. Insertion of twisted/helical screw tapes.
7. Tubes with external fins i.e., pin fins, louvered fins, helical fins, etc.
8. Tubes featuring surface improvements or treatments.
Biswakarma et al. [193] numerically appraised the performance of

Al2O3/Water nanofluid in an internally v-grooved tube and obtained an
increment of 13.8 % in heat transfer coefficient and 14.5 % in pressure
drop. Internal grooves help to reduce the wall temperature and have a
much higher Nusselt number value as compared to the plain tubes.
Pourrajab et al. [194] reported an increase of 18.47 % in Nusselt number
for SiO2-Cu/Water hybrid nanofluid in an internally engrooved tube as
compared to the base fluid. Kristiawan et al. [195] tested the micro-fin
structure for a tube with TiO2/Water nanofluid flowing through it and
observed a hike of 80 % in pressure drop as compared to the plain tube at
0.3 vol% of nanoparticles. Therefore, heat transfer enhancement is not
the only consequence of engrooving the tubes, the presence of grooves
increases the frictional factor, and thereby the pressure drops, and
pumping power is increased. Safarzadeh et al. [196] performed a similar
analysis for helical tubes with micro-fins and reported an enhancement
in hat transfer performance.
Darzi et al. [197] used externally corrugated tubes with SiO2/Water
nanofluid and observed that the heat transfer performance could be
improved by increasing the corrugation height and reducing the pitch.
Darzi et al. [198] reported a 330 % increase in heat transfer for Al2O3/
Water nanofluid flowing through a corrugated tube as compared to the
base fluid. Darzi et al. [199] in a similar study reported a 320 % increase
in heat transfer for alumina base nanofluid in a helically corrugated
tube. Nakchi and Esfahani [200] appraised the performance of Cu/
Water nanofluid in a tube with perforated conical tube inserts and
observed a 278.2 % increase in heat transfer as compared to the plain
tube.
Kumar et al. [201] appraised the effect of longitudinal tube insert in
Fig. 32. Effect of pulsation frequency on (a) heat transfer coefficient ratio, and
a tube and used Fe3O4/Water nanofluid as a heat transfer media. They
(b) pressure drop ratio [182]. observed that increasing the aspect ratio of longitudinal tube inserts
decreases the heat transfer rate. At 0.6 vol% of the nanoparticle, the
Nusselt number increased by 14.7 % as compared to water and the
extending investigations to diverse tube shapes, particularly those with
enhancement approached 41.26 % when the longitudinal tube insert of
variable curvatures, promising not only a fundamental understanding of
1 aspect ratio was introduced. However, the frictional factor also gets
nanofluid behaviour but also novel insights for optimizing heat transfer
increased due to the tube inserts. The increase in friction factor for
efficiency in unconventional heat exchanger designs. New forming and
nanofluid as compared to the water was reported as 9.2 % which further
bending methods allow the production of helical coils with improved
jumped to 26.7 %. Taking into consideration the reported literature,
precision and the ability to tailor geometries. This includes finely tuning
novel ideas of heat transfer augmentation like the insertion of twisted
helix angles and tube shapes.
tapes and the internal or external grooves (fins) produce anomalous
Moving forward, rigorous mechanistic modelling incorporating
results however, these additions also lead to increased pressure drop
Brownian motion, thermophoresis, clustering and near wall effects
which needs to be addressed.
promises to further advance the field. Most importantly, in situ transient
Tubes with surface improvements or treatments in the context of
performance data across duty cycles and thermal ageing studies in in
heat exchangers involve modifications to the tube surfaces to enhance
dustrial environments would enable reliable helical tube heat exchanger
heat transfer efficiency. By incorporating surface improvements and
implementation. Step-change heat transfer coefficient and associated
treatments, tubes can be transformed into versatile components with
pumping power tradeoffs must continue to be investigated for various
enhanced functionality, leading to improved efficiency, performance,
helix angles and curvature ratios. There is also considerable interest in
and even novel applications. In this regard, surface tension and wetta
functionalized nanoparticles to achieve heat transfer augmentation
bility are critical factors in the performance of heat exchangers. They
through both latent heat effects and localized temperature-dependent
influence how fluids interact with the surfaces of heat exchange com
aggregation-disaggregation action.
ponents, impacting heat transfer efficiency, flow characteristics, and the
prevention of issues such as fouling [202]. Lower surface tension is the
6. Advanced tube concepts
sought-after quality, as it facilitates superior spreading and wetting of
the fluid on the heat exchange surface. High surface tension promotes
A variety of novel heat transfer intensification ideas has been pro
bubble nucleation and growth, leading to enhanced nucleate boiling
posed in recent literature. The following concepts have been reported to
heat transfer. However, excessive surface tension can also hinder bubble
considerably augment the rate of heat transfer.
detachment and cause overheating at contact points, reducing overall
performance. Additionally, surface tension affects droplet entrainment
1. Internally and externally engrooved tubes (Fig. 34).
in two-phase flows, influencing pressure drop and flow distribution
2. Corrugated tubes (Fig. 35).
within the exchanger. The impact of wettability on heat exchangers is
36
Table 3
Summary of recent studies on the application of nanofluid in helical tube heat exchangers.
Reference Study type Nanoparticles Particle Basefluid Concentration Tube Geometry Tube material / Major Findings
Size Tested Roughness
The two-phase approach

demonstrated significantly
more accurate predictions of
heat transfer behaviour
compared to the single-phase
approach. Heat transfer
enhancement increased with
coils having a greater
Bahremand Experimental / 10; 30; 50 Helically coiled
Ag Water 0.03 vol% Copper curvature ratio, and a decrease
et al. [170] Numerical nm tube
in nanoparticle diameter
further heightened the heat
transfer enhancement.
Interestingly, the base fluid in
a helical pipe exhibited more
effective heat transfer
enhancement than the
nanofluid in straight tubes.
The heat transfer coefficient
demonstrated an increase with
both rising nanoparticle
concentration and Dean
number. At a Dean number of
2000, the Nusselt number was
20%, 24%, and 30% higher for
concentrations of 0.2%, 0.4%,
Kumar et al. Numerical 0.2%, 0.4%, Double helically and 0.6%, respectively,
MWCNT’s – Water Copper
[172] (CFD) 0.6 vol% coiled tube compared to water, while
pressure drop increased by
4%, 6%, and 10% for the
corresponding concentrations.
Additionally, correlations
were developed to predict the
ratios of heat transfer and
pressure drop for the
nanofluid compared to water.
At a 2% CuO concentration
and with equal mass flow
rates, the heat transfer rate
was 14% higher compared to
pure water. The water
temperature increased with
Huminic and Counterflow Copper /
TiO2 increasing nanoparticle
Huminic Numerical 24 nm Water 0.5–3 vol% double pipe Hydraulically
CuO concentration, attributed to
[175] helical tube smooth
enhanced heat absorption in
the nanofluid. Additionally,
correlations were developed to
predict properties of
nanofluids, such as thermal
conductivity and viscosity.
A notable 18.6% increase in
Nusselt number was achieved
with 0.25 vol% ZnO
nanoparticles, and the heat
transfer coefficient
demonstrated an increase with
rising nanoparticle
Radkar et al. Helically coiled
Experimental ZnO 9–15 nm Water 0.05–0.25 vol% Copper concentration and Reynolds
[174] copper tube
number. Possible reasons for
the heat transfer enhancement
were identified, including
improved dispersion,
turbulence, and thermal
conductivity, among other
factors.
The surfactant-water solution
exhibited no difference in
ID: 5–15 viscosity compared to water
nm, OD: but displayed a slight increase
Singh et al. Helically coiled
Experimental MWCNT’s 50–80 nm, Water 0.05 wt% – in density. Additionally, the
[176] tube
Length: friction factor increased with
10–20 mm Reynolds number for water,
surfactant solution, and CNT
nanofluid, and there was a
37
substantial 62.62%
enhancement in the overall
heat transfer coefficient of the
CNT nanofluid compared to
water at Reynolds number
5000, attributed to the higher
thermal conductivity and
chaotic motion of CNT
nanoparticles.
A notable 32% enhancement
in the heat transfer coefficient
was observed with the
nanofluid compared to the
base fluid. The Nusselt number
exhibited an increase with
both nanoparticle
Kulkarni et al. Deionized Helically coiled
Experimental Ag < 30 nm 0.01–0.05 vol% Copper concentration and Dean
[177] water tube
number, while there was no
significant rise in pressure
drop with the nanofluid. The
thermal performance factor
slightly decreased with an
increase in nanoparticle
concentration.
The nanofluid demonstrated a
substantial 28.71% increase in
heat transfer coefficient
compared to water. However,
Shell and
Niwalkar et al. it also exhibited higher friction
Experimental SiO2 17 nm Water 0.05–0.25 vol% helically coiled Copper
[178] factor (52.61%) and pressure
tube
drop (62.60%). Correlations
were developed to predict the
thermo-physical properties of
nanofluids.
The heat transfer coefficient in
nanofluid increases with a rise
in PANI nanofiber
concentration, showing a
notable 69.62% enhancement
for the 0.5 vol% nanofluid.
Polyaniline Additionally, there is an
Bhanvase et al. Distilled Vertical helical
Experimental (PANI) ~100 nm 0.1–0.5 vol% Copper increase in the heat transfer
[179] water coiled tube
nanofibers coefficient with the rise in
Reynolds number, and this
enhancement is particularly
significant compared to a
straight tube, attributed to the
secondary flow generation due
to the helical coil geometry.
The impact of changing baffle
overlapping is more
pronounced on the heat
transfer coefficient and
pressure drop at smaller helix
angles. A neural network
model has been developed,
Bahiraei et al. Helically coiled
Numerical Al2O3 – Water 1–5 vol% Stainless Steel demonstrating high accuracy
[180] tube
in predicting both heat
transfer coefficient and
pressure drop, with the
recommendation of using
small helix angles when both
high heat transfer and low
pressure drop are crucial.
The enhancement of heat
transfer initially increases
with increasing nanoparticle
concentration but declines
Water,
Narrein and after reaching 2%, attributed
Al2O3, SiO2, ethylene Helically coiled
Mohammed Numerical 25–80 nm 0–4 vol% – to increased viscosity and
CuO, and ZnO glycol, tube
[181] density. Additionally, smaller
engine oil
nanoparticle sizes contribute
to higher pressure drop due to
increased viscosity. The co-
rotation of the tube is found to
38
enhance heat transfer more

compared to stationery and
counter-rotation cases.
The alteration of the
inclination angle from
0◦ (horizontal) to 90◦
(vertical) resulted in an up to
11% enhancement in the
Nusselt number, accompanied
by a reduction in pressure
drop by 11.8%. Additionally,
in a vertical orientation at
Maghrabie Helically coiled
Experimental Al2O3; SiO2 50 nm Water 0.1–0.3 vol% Copper Reynolds number 6000, the
et al. [184] tube
Al2O3 nanofluid demonstrated
a higher heat transfer
enhancement compared to
SiO2 nanofluid, achieving a
35.7% improvement in heat
transfer coefficient and a
35.5% improvement in
effectiveness with 0.1 vol%
compared to the base fluid.
The convective heat transfer
coefficient value was recorded
as 1.14 times higher for 1.5 vol
% nanofluids compared to the
base fluid. Pulsation induces
secondary flows and vortex
Helically coiled
Guo et al. [182] Numerical Al2O3 – Water 0.5–1.5 vol% – formation, improving fluid
tube
mixing and heat transfer, and
the mechanism behind heat
transfer enhancement is
associated with these
secondary flows and thinner
thermal boundary layers.
The use of a helical tube, as
opposed to a straight tube,
significantly enhanced heat
transfer rates. In helical tubes,
nanofluids exhibited better
heat transfer performance
Straight tube compared to straight tubes,
Hashemi and
Base oil (SN- 0.5%, 1%, and and helical tube with a maximum
Behabadi Experimental CuO 50 nm Copper
500) 2 wt% with 14.37 mm enhancement of 30.4%, while
[186]
inner diameter the enhancement was 18.7%
for straight tubes with 2%
nanofluid. Employing a helical
tube was found to be more
effective for enhancing heat
transfer than using nanofluids
instead of the base fluid.
Reducing the coil diameter
and increasing the pitch/
diameter ratio enhanced heat
transfer in helical coils. Helical
coils exhibited significantly
Straight and higher heat transfer compared
Behabadi et al. Heat 0.1%, 0.2%,
Experimental MWCNTs – helically coiled Copper to straight tubes, and the
[185] transfer oil and 0.4 wt%
tubes combination of nanofluids and
helical coils demonstrated the
most substantial heat transfer
enhancement, reaching up to
10 times higher than the base
fluid in a straight tube.
Smaller helix radius led to an
increased heat transfer rate
and Nusselt number,
facilitated by enhanced
Mohammed
secondary flow. Increasing the
and Narrein Numerical CuO 25 nm Water 4 vol% Helical coil tube –
inner tube diameter also
[189]
enhanced heat transfer, and
the counter-flow configuration
outperformed the parallel flow
arrangement.
39
The effectiveness of the heat

exchanger was significantly
improved by utilizing
nanofluids, reaching up to
91% enhancement with 2%
Huminic and CuO nanoparticles. Entropy
Tube-in-tube
Huminic Numerical CuO; TiO2 24 nm Water 0.5–2 vol% Copper generation attributable to heat
helical coil
[190] transfer effects decreased as
nanoparticle concentration
increased, and the addition of
nanoparticles led to an overall
reduction in entropy
generation.
In coils with higher curvature
ratios, the enhancement in
heat transfer and the increase
in pressure drop are more
pronounced when using
nanofluids compared to the
base fluid. The local Nusselt
number exhibits oscillations
Helically coiled along the tube length in the
Mirfendereski Experimental / tubes with entrance region before
Ag 10 nm Water 0.03 vol% –
et al. [191] Numerical different becoming fully developed. The
curvature ratios use of nanofluid increases the
fully developed heat transfer
coefficient by approximately
3.5-3.8% compared to water,
and the curvature ratio has a
more significant impact on
temperature and velocity
fields than torsion ratio or
Reynolds number.
The heat transfer rate and
pressure drop exhibit an
increase with rising
nanoparticle concentration. A
lower cone angle yields higher
heat transfer enhancement (up
to 26%) and greater pressure
drop increase (up to 117%)
compared to a helical coil.
Heyhat et al. 0.1% and 0.3 Coned helical
Experimental SiO2 12 nm Water Copper While increasing the coil pitch
[188] vol% tube
enhances the heat transfer
rate, the effect is less
pronounced than that of the
cone angle. The performance
evaluation criterion (PEC)
indicates that the combined
use of nanofluids and conical
coils effectively improves heat
transfer.
The utilization of helical
microtubes proved to be a
significant enhancement in
heat transfer compared to
straight tubes, with the circle
cross-section demonstrating
the best performance.
Specifically, at a 2% volume
fraction and Reynolds number
of 1800, alumina nanofluid in
the circle helical microtube
Rasheed et al. Experimental / 25; 50; 75 1.0%, 1.5%,
Al2O3; ZnO Water Helical coil tube Copper exhibited the highest thermal
[192] Numerical nm and 2.0 vol%
performance factor of 3.1.
Additionally, particle size was
identified as a factor
influencing thermal
performance, with smaller 25
nm particles exhibiting
superior heat transfer
enhancement and thermal
performance compared to
larger 50 nm and 75 nm
particles.
40
Fig. 33. Conical helical tubes experimental test section (a) schematic diagram, (b) actual setup [188].
profound. It is the difference between a fluid forming a thin, continuous Ji et al. [206] conducted an investigation to examine the impact of a
film over the heat exchange surfaces or leaving behind dry spots that nanoscale polymer coating on nucleate pool boiling heat transfer using
hinder the very essence of heat transfer. The advantages of high the refrigerant R134a. The study focused on both enhanced and smooth
wettability extend beyond mere adherence, encompassing reduced tube surfaces, with a 10 nm thick Parylene coating applied through
resistance to fluid flow and an enhanced ability to prevent the formation plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD). The study was
of detrimental dry areas, ultimately resulting in an improved overall carried out at refrigerant saturation temperatures of 6 ◦ C, 10 ◦ C, and
heat exchanger performance [203]. 16 ◦ C, with heat fluxes ranging from 15 to 150 kW/m2. In the case of the
Hydrophilic coatings amplify wettability, while hydrophobic coun smooth tube, the coating led to a reduction in surface roughness, but it
terparts may be strategically employed to repel certain fluids, tailoring adversely affected pool boiling heat transfer performance compared to
the heat exchanger to the specific demands of its application [204,205]. the uncoated tube. The researchers attributed this outcome to the
41
Fig. 34. Internally helically v-grooved tube [193].
nanocomposites known for their exceptional thermal conductivity.

When applied to surfaces of heat exchangers or other components within
a thermal system, these coatings hold the promise of significantly
elevating overall heat transfer performance. Researchers delve into the
intricacies of these coatings, experimenting with different compositions
and structures to maximize their thermal conductivity-enhancing
properties [207–209].
The exploration of novel heat transfer intensification techniques
presents a promising avenue for enhancing the efficiency and perfor
mance of heat exchangers. From geometric modifications like internal
grooves and twisted inserts to surface treatments like hydrophilic
coatings and ETCCs, each approach presents unique advantages and
limitations. Choosing the optimal strategy requires careful consideration
of the desired heat transfer enhancement, pressure drop constraints, and
specific operating conditions. As research and development continue to
Fig. 35. Helically corrugated tubes [197]. advance, the future of heat transfer promises even more efficient and
tailored solutions, paving the way for enhanced performance and opti
coating covering stable nucleation sites, prolonging bubble coalescence mized systems in a wide range of industries.
time, and introducing a minor thermal resistance. Conversely, on the
saw-teeth tube, the coating resulted in a notable improvement in boiling 7. Conclusion
heat transfer, 1.1 to 1.3 times greater than the uncoated surface. This
enhancement was likely due to the coating activating additional nano The use of nanofluids is a promising aspect of heat transfer
scale nucleation sites on the intricate geometry, thereby accelerating enhancement in heat exchangers. However, taking into consideration
bubble detachment from the fins. Additionally, for the reentrant cavity the reviewed literature, the role of heat exchanger tube geometry/
tube, the coating exhibited minimal impact at low heat fluxes but configuration has also been found to have critical implications. This
contributed to a 20% increase in heat transfer at fluxes exceeding 60 study has reviewed the use of nanofluids in flat tubes, circular tubes,
kW/m2. helical tubes, spiral tubes, and advanced insertions and grooves (fins).
In the quest to enhance heat transfer efficiency, engineers and re Up to a 330 % increase in heat transfer can be achieved by coupling the
searchers have explored inventive solutions, leading to a notable nanofluids with corrugated tubes. The research also presents a
breakthrough in the form of Enhanced Thermal Conductivity Coatings comprehensive bibliometric analysis that not only helps in evaluating
(ETCCs). These coatings aim to boost the thermal conductivity of sur and recognizing the contributions made by researchers but also provides
faces, presenting a substantial advancement in optimizing heat transfer valuable insights for policymakers and industry stakeholders. Notably,
across diverse industrial applications. The formulation of these coatings there is a growing trend of cross-disciplinary collaboration among ma
often involves advanced materials like metal oxides, ceramics, or other terial scientists, fluid dynamics experts, and heat transfer engineers. This
Fig. 36. Perforated conical rings [200].
42
convergence of expertise accelerates innovation by combining insights use of nanofluids in heat exchangers makes them an area of active
from diverse fields to address complex challenges in nanofluid-based research. Further development and optimization of nanofluid formula
heat exchangers. The study reveals the following noteworthy points or tions and heat exchanger designs may lead to more widespread adoption
findings. of this technology in the future. While the future of heat exchangers is
marked by innovation and advancements in various areas. Smart
• Recent advancements in nanofluid synthesis techniques have led to manufacturing principles and Industry 4.0 technologies are being inte
more uniform dispersion of nanoparticles within the fluid medium, grated into the production processes of nanofluids and heat exchangers.
improving their thermal, electrical, and mechanical properties. This This includes the use of sensors, automation, and data analytics to
enhanced dispersion allows for better heat transfer, efficient energy optimize manufacturing efficiency, quality control, and performance
transport, and increased stability, leading to improved performance monitoring. The continuous evolution of heat exchanger technology
in applications like thermal management and energy conversion. The involves the integration of cutting-edge materials such as graphene,
precise control of particle size, shape, and surface chemistry can graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, metal matrix composites, ceramics
overcome traditional challenges and expand the potential applica (e.g., silicon carbide and alumina), titanium and titanium alloys, su
tions of nanofluids. peralloys, shape memory alloys, advanced polymers (e.g., PEEK and
• A new class of nanofluids named hybrid nanofluids has been devel polyimides), as well as hybrid and nanostructured materials. This
oped that demonstrated improved heat transfer capabilities, as well diverse array of materials collectively enhances efficiency, durability,
as longer-lasting stability. The problems of stability, cost, and and overall performance in heat exchangers. In parallel, ongoing
achieving greater control over the thermal and rheological properties research is focused on exploring unconventional geometries to further
urge investigators to move towards hybrid nanofluids. improve performance, and the integration of smart technologies is un
• The new surfactants and stabilizers can improve the stability of derway to achieve adaptive and efficient heat exchanger operation.
nanofluids, preventing the nanoparticles from settling or aggre These collective developments have the potential to revolutionize heat
gating. Researchers have made notable strides in comprehending the exchanger systems, ushering in higher efficiency, reduced energy con
mechanisms that contribute to the enhanced characteristics of sumption, and greater support for sustainable practices across various
nanofluids. Through their diligent efforts, a deeper comprehension of industries.
the underlying mechanics has been achieved, shedding light on the
factors responsible for the improved performance of nanofluids. CRediT authorship contribution statement
• One of the challenges in using nanofluids in heat exchangers is the
tendency of nanoparticles to sediment or agglomerate over time, Hamza Babar: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis,
which can negatively impact their performance. Additionally, the Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Hongwei Wu:
stability of the nanofluid suspension can be affected by various fac Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Wenbin
tors such as particle leading, size, density, morphology, pH, tem Zhang: Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Tayyab Raza Shah:
perature, and shear forces, which can also affect the heat transfer Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Daniel McCluskey:
performance of the nanofluid. Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Chao Zhou: Supervision.
• There are concerns about the potential for nanofluids to cause
corrosion in heat exchangers. Studies have found that some nano
fluids can be corrosive, while others have little or no effect on Declaration of competing interest
corrosion.
• It is important to note that while nanofluids can improve the per The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
formance of heat exchangers in some cases, they may not always be interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the best choice. Particles suspended fluids have a somewhat high the work reported in this paper.
production cost due to specialized equipment, precise manufacturing
conditions, and expensive raw materials. Careful consideration of the Data availability
cost-benefit trade-off is crucial before implementing nanofluids in a
particular application to ensure their improved properties justify the Data will be made available on request.
higher expenses.
• In novel tube geometries/configurations, nanofluids manifest an Acknowledgement
increased pressure drop which requires to be addressed for the suc
cessful operation of nanofluids in advanced tubes with fins and in The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from
serts (internal inserts like helical tape, twisters, etc.). the Engineering and Physical Science Research Council (EPSRC), UK
• Apart from tube geometry/configuration and insertions, structural (Grant No. EP/X038319/1). This support was provided within the
fluctuation-inducing mechanisms like flow pulsation and magnetic framework of the Horizon Europe project Marie Skłodowska-Curie Ac
force can also be helpful to further improve the heat transfer per tions (MSCA), with Grant No. 101082394.
formance. However, these methods result in friction factor
enhancement as well.
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Nanofluids Historical Perspective - 022338

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Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 325 (2024) 103112

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Advances in Colloid and Interface Science

The promise of nanofluids: A bibliometric journey through advanced heat

contributors, and pinpoint areas that demand further exploration within

A method of evaluating scientific output known as bibliometry in­

Fig. 1. Stages of methodology for conducting a bibliometric study.

Fig. 3. Type of documents.

Fig. 4. Stats of the top ten institutes and funding bodies.

Fig. 6. Distribution of publications across different subject areas.

Fig. 7. Number of publications in various journals around the world.

Fig. 8. Co-occurrence and interconnection of keywords.

Fig. 9. Co-citation stats for a diverse range of journals and countries.

Fig. 12. Nanoparticles used in nanofluids’ preparation.

Fig. 14. Conduction-based Heat Transfer Mechanisms in Nanofluids.

Fig. 15. Nanofluid characteristics.

characteristics. The motion of nanoparticles creates more interactions

of the increased nanoparticle mobility and interaction brought on by the

Fig. 19. Effect of nanoparticle size on thermal conductivity of nanofluid [56].

Fig. 20. Shapes of nanoparticles and shape factor value [59].

Importantly, it has been observed in various studies that the

with higher nanoparticle concentrations but underwent a significant ( )

Fig. 22. The selection criterion of heat exchanger tubes.

Fig. 23. Geometries of heat exchanger tubes.

Heat exchangers exhibit a broad spectrum of classifications, pri­

Al2O3 44 nm At a Reynolds number of 2000 and with a 10 vol%

on the coolant side with nanofluid, whereas it

Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 325 (2024) 103112

number and a 3.82% increase in the heat transfer

Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 325 (2024) 103112

was conducted using the NSGA-II genetic

Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 325 (2024) 103112

improvement. Despite an increase in friction factor

[133] Water (60:40) radius and 54 louvred fins

Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 325 (2024) 103112

demonstrating a ± 25% deviation, and the use of

Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 325 (2024) 103112

predict heat transfer in such complex systems without needing addi­

5.1.4. Helical tube heat exchangers

41 % enhancement in heat transfer coefficient occurred at optimal

number at which entropy generation was minimized, and these

Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 325 (2024) 103112

highlighting the need for efforts to reduce viscosity and enhance

The Nusselt number increased with nanoparticle concentration,

Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 325 (2024) 103112

computational approach aids in optimizing designs and predicting per­

Fig. 29. Horizontal spiral tube experimental test setup [160].

3. Insertion of perforated conical rings (Fig. 36).

Biswakarma et al. [193] numerically appraised the performance of

The two-phase approach

enhance heat transfer more

The effectiveness of the heat

Fig. 34. Internally helically v-grooved tube [193].

nanocomposites known for their exceptional thermal conductivity.

Fig. 36. Perforated conical rings [200].

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A method of evaluating scientific output known as bibliometry in

Heat exchangers exhibit a broad spectrum of classifications, pri

predict heat transfer in such complex systems without needing addi

computational approach aids in optimizing designs and predicting per