GEY 285

DR. FELICIA F. AJAYI

 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES: FOLDS

INTRODUCTION
Geological
mapping activities
include recognising
and determining
the type of
structure
discovered within
rock units, as well
as proper
representation of
such structures on
geological maps.
For this reason, the ability to correctly interpret the relationships displayed on a
geological map or on the field of mapping relies heavily on the knowledge of the basic
principles of geologic structures and amongst such structure is FOLD.

FOLDS
Folds are bends or wave like features in layered rocks they are
usually caused by the lateral compression of the earth crust. Folding
may affect any rock type but is usually displayed in an easy to study
layered sequences I.e bedrocks

Compressive forces developed within the earth crust causes many rock strata to
be pushed into Folds; which are a succession of ridge and furrow that are
otherwise referred to as Anticlines and Synclines
An Anticline is an upward arcing fold; and within the anticline the rock layers are observed
to dip away from the axis of the fold while the downward arcing counterpart of an
anticline is the Syncline or the trough-like folds. In the syncline the layered rock usually dip
towards the axis of the fold

…Anticlines close up (think

Anticline) and synclines open
up (think sVncline) and
monoclines just have one limb.
MORPHOLOGY OF A FOLD
 MORPHOLOGY OF A FOLD
In the series of folds are shown above. Anticline are usually separated from syncline by the
Axial plane. The Hinge line or fold axis are usually the crest (highest point) of one anticline
or the bottom of the syncline that define the hinge-line of a fold. For each anticline and
syncline the hinge-lines are contained within the vertical planes which is referred to as Axial
plane
The Axial plane is an imaginary plane containing the hinge lines of a fold I.e the axial plane
divides the fold into two limbs with each anticline and syncline sharing one limb with each
other.
When the limbs of a fold have the same amount of dip then the fold is
Symmetrical and the axial plane is vertical and bisect the fold. In the case of a fold in
which the bed of one limb dip more steeply than the other, this type of fold is referred to
as Asymmetrical type of fold. The axial plane in this case is not vertical but incline and may
not necessarily bisect the fold
As a result of the effect of erosion on a folded strata or bedding plane.
Succession of bed of one limb of a fold is repeated in reverse order in the other
limb. In an eroded symmetrical anticline the older beds out-crops in the centre
if the structure. While in the symmetrical syncline the youngest bed is in the
center.
 Basic Fold Nomenclature

1. Hinge line or fold axis: it is the line of maximum curvature on the folded surface
2. Axial plane: The fold axial plane is the plane containing the hinge line within one
particular fold. It can also be referred to as axial surface.
3. A fold is symmetric: if the limbs on either side of the axial plane are of actual length
and the fold is asymmetric if they are not.
4. The fold wavelength: is the distance between adjacent hinge lines or inflection point.
5. Inflection point: it is the point of maximum slope on the folded limbs
6. A fold is cylindrical if it has the same shape in the profile plane at all points along the
fold axis. A non cylindrical fold has varying profile shape along the fold axis. A fold train
is a series of folds . a particular unit or within a particular bed. Limbs are the side of a
fold.
7. Tightness of a fold: The tightness of a fold is measured by the size of the angle
between the fold limbs This is called the inter-limb angle .

Inter-limb Angle Description of fold

1800 -1200 Gentle
1200 - 700 Open
700 - 300 Close
300 - 00 Tight
00 Isoclinal
 Interlimb Angle

The Interlimb angle is defined as the angle between the planes tangential to the
folded surface to the inflexion lines.
 Types and classification of Folds
Depending on the measured angle or measured interlimb angle; folds can
be described as follows:
Folds occur in
many varieties
and sizes some
are small and are
studied under the
microscope in
which the fold is
referred to as
Microfolds while
others can have
adjacent
hingelines that are
up to tens of
kilometers apart;
and some folds
can be up to a
kilometer or more in height such Folds then become Megafolds
Folds can be classified on the basis of various features as follows:

1. On the basis of position of axial plane

2. On the basis of degree of compression of the beds
3. On the basis on their mode of occurrence.
4. On the basis of their position of fold axis/ hinge-line
5. On the basis of behaviour with depth

1. On the basis of position of axial plane, we can have:-

Harmonic fold and Dis-harmonic Fold. Harmonic folds
are types of folds in which the axial plane are
continuous across several numbers of layers. While
Dis-harmonic folds are folds in which the axial line are
not continuous from one layer to the next.
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical fold.
Overtuned folds. They are severely folded folds in which the axial
plane get so much inclined that the two limbs of the fold are in the
same general direction
Recumbent fold: This is an over tuned fold that have been over
tuned to such an extent that the limbs are essential horizontal. And
the beds in the inverted limbs are generally inner.
Isoclinal folds: They are folds in which the limbs are dipping
essentially in the same direction and at equal angles, so that their
axial planes are essentially parallel. This folds may be vertical, inclined
or even horizontal.

a) Vertical isoclinal fold

b) Inclined isoclinal fold

c) Recumbent isoclinal fold

2. On the basis of degree of compression of bed
During folding, the beds may get compressed either slightly or severally, in the
first case when they are compressed to a lesser extent the rock layers may not undergo any
variation in thickness, whereas the case of severe compression. The beds may get thinner
at the limbs and Thicker at the crests or trough.

Concentric folds: They usually have successive beds bent into arcs, having the same center
of curvature. The beds retain their thickness with little or no attenuation(changes).
Similar folds: These are folds having their bed thickness more at the
trough and crest than the limbs I.e the thinning of beds takes place in
the limbs, while the crest and trough retain the normal thickness and
they usually have strong axial cleavage.
3. On the basis of Mode of occurrence:-

Anticlinorium/Synclinorium
An Anticlinorium fold is a large anticline which is further thrown or subjected into a
smaller folds; similarly a Synclinorium is a large syncline further consisting of
smaller folds
In the same vein the term Geoanticline and Geosyncline are used for
Anticlinorium and Synclinorium folds of larger size running into
several km and affecting a region as a whole. Geosyncline normally
refer to important basins that have sediment depositions. Which
may be further uplifted, upon further lifting form Fold mountains.
4. On the basis of
position of fold
Axis/hinge line
The fold axis or the
hinge line may either be
horizontal of inclined.
When the fold axis is
horizontal it is called a
Non-plunging fold and
when the axis is incline
to the horizontal then it
is called a Plunging fold.
5. On the basis of behaviour with depth
Parallel folds: These are Folds in which the shape of the folds varies with depth. But the
thickness of the folded bed layers remain more or less the same. In such folds the anticlines
become sharp and sharper with depth. Whereas the syncline become broad and broader
with depth.
Supratenuous folds: These folds are developed when sedimentation accompanies
the folding process in rocks, these folds exhibit, thinning and thickening at the crest
and the trough respectively. In such Supratenuous folds therefore anticlinal ridges
will be thinner due to erosion or lesser deposition of sediment, and the syclinal
troughs would be thicker due to large scale gradual accumulation of sediment
 Other miscellaneous folds
Drag folds: Drag folds are the minor folds develop within the body of a weaker bed
enclosed between two stronger bed; Due to the dragging effect when the stronger
beds happens to slide pass the sandwiched weaken bed in opposite directions during
any major folding events. The weaker bed is called the incompetent beds and the
stronger beds are called competent beds. Drag fold can also be referred to as
Intrafolial fold .
Chevron Folds

They are Folds that are rounded along the limbs while the axial part remain pointed
or the fold has sharp hinge-lines / hinges
Post-Humous Fold
A Fold becoming partly eroded and once again experience deposition of sediment
on the eroded surface. The new strata will lie uncomfortably on the older strata; subsequent
uplifting and folding may cause the two sets of bed to be folded.
Polyphase Folding
Polyphase folding patterns, results from folds being refolded. The stress
causing the refolding may be due to a later phase of the same orogeny ( mountain
building process). The stress may equally be unrelated to the direction of the earlier
folding. The early folds will be seen to have being refolded because the axial plane of
the first set of fold will themselves be folded. E.g include synclinorium or post
humous fold.
 FOLDS ORIENTATION
Plunge: Folds that have been tilted at a later stage by earth movement will lean or plunge in
the direction
of tilt. Plunging
fold is the type
of fold in which
The hinge lines
are not
Horizontal.
 Folds are usually of limited extent and may plunge at either
ends before dying out. The Plunge is the bending of the hinge
line or fold axis from the horizontal plane and the Plunge
angle is the angle which the plunging hinge-line makes with
the horizontal.
Pitch: This is the dip of the axial plane. The Pitch angle of the
folds is the angle which the axial plane makes with the
horizontal and it is measured with respect to the incline
plane. Both the plunge and the pitch of the fold can be
measure on the field with a compass Clinometer.
 Domes and Basins
A Dome is a special type of anticline in which the beds dip away from the central point in all
directions.
A Basin is a special type of syncline in which the bed dip towards the central point
from all direction. Domes and Basins tends to be features on a grand scale, some are more
than 100km across. They are formed by uplift, that is somewhat greater (for domes) or
lesser( for basins) than that of the rest of the region. A structural Basin or a Basin fold is like
a set of nested bowls having all its strata dipping from the periphery to the centre. This type
of tectonic basin is common in coal fields. E.g is in the forest of Dean located in Great
Britain.
Dome is the opposite type of structural basin. It is a structure in which the beds or strata dip
away from the central point, in cross section, a dome resembles an anticline and it is
sometime called a doubly plunging anticline; examples include Harlech Dome in Wales. Both
Domes and Basins are types of structures readily sort for in oil prospecting.
 Diapirs
They are structure that usually occur as intrusion by forcefully plunging aside and
distorting the country rock as they are intruded. The structure resulting from this type of
intrusion is a piercement fold called Diapir. Under-compacted shale may rise and form
Diapirs as well as salt deposit or salt layers. The difference in density between the rock and
the overlying sediment is the motivating force which causes the salt to be intruded with the
surrounding sediment. They are equally very important in oil prospecting.
As examples, shale diapir is common in the Niger delta of Nigeria, salt diapir are equally
common in defferent parts of the world like the Upper palaeozoic rocks of the Gulf coast of
USA and in Germany.
 Causes of Folding
Folding of rocks can be caused by numerous reasons which is divided into two main parts:-
A. Tectonic causes
B. Non -Tectonic causes
Tectonic causes of folding are those which are produced due to the forces
operating within the earths crust which are:-
1. Lateral compression caused by shrinkage
It is believe that pressure /stress are develop within the earth crust due to shrinkage
resulting from the differential cooling of the initial hot molten earth, these compressional
stress developed by shrinkage are thought to be primarily responsible for throwing the rocks
of the crust into undulation and warping i.e fold.
2. Igneous Intrusion
Intrusion of magma from below/
beneath may result in the
folding of the overlying strata
as illustrated below

Thus the anticlinal folds may develop easily during the formation of laccoliths.

3. Salt intrusion
The upward movement of
salt body under pressures (ie. Intrusions)
from beneath, may also result in the
arching up of the srata above,
thereby causing folding.
 Non-Tectonic causes of Folding

1. Land sliding
2. Land creeping
3. Differential compaction
4. Isostatic settling
5. Subsidence into solution cavities.
6. Glaciation
 Assignment
• Write on the various importance of folds

• Submit your write-up (as a mail

attachment file) to [email protected]
on or before 24th May, 2021