WINTER 2011

CENTRAL

NEWS AND VIEWS FOR EIGHTH DISTRICT BANKERS

FEATURED IN THIS ISSUE: Are We in a Jobless Recovery? | Many Community Banks Still Struggling with Crisis Fallout

In-Depth Public Discussions Explore the Financial Crisis, Federal Deficit and Unemployment

ill the Dodd-Frank Act lessen the impact of future financial shocks? Could the debt crisis in Europe trigger a recession here? Why is the unemployment rate barely moving even though jobs are opening up? What is driving the federal deficit? These are among the concerns the public raised during the St. Louis Feds fall discussion series, Dialogue with the Fed: Beyond Todays Financial Headlines. Hundreds of guests came to the Bank on Sept. 12, Oct. 18 and Nov. 21 to see the presentations and engage in open discussions with experts from the St. Louis Fed. The public series proved so popular that the final two sessions were webcast live via the Banks web site. We noticed a significant increase in interest from the general public for current financial and economic information from the Federal Reserve, said Julie Stackhouse, senior vice president and managing officer for Banking Supervision, Discount Window Lending and Community Development. We decided the best way to connect the public with the expertise here at the Fed was to engage them directly. The goal of the series was to provide the public with relevant and timely information as well as a forum for discussion of current issues. Based on the feedback we received, I think we addressed this need. Although Dialogue organizers had no shortage of possible topics related to the

PA G E 2

| Central View | Reaching the General Public | Part 1 | Lessons Learned from the Financial Crisis | Part 2 | Bringing the Federal Deficit under Control | Part 3 | Understanding the Unemployment Picture

PA G E S 3 - 6 PA G E S 7- 9 PA G E S 9 -1 1

financial crisis and Great Recession to discussincluding the sluggish recovery, a stagnant housing market and the downgrade of the U.S. sovereign debt ratingthey focused on three specific and critical themes. As explored in this issue of Central Banker, the session topics were: 1. the origins of, responses to and lessons learned from the financial crisis; 2. the federal budget deficit and the hard choices that must be made regarding taxes and spending; 3. and the current unemployment situation in the United States. Visit www.stlouisfed.org/dialogue to view the presentations and videos, including the question-and-answer sessions. Information on future Dialogues will appear there soon.

T H E F E D E R A L R E S E R V E B A N K O F S T. L O U I S : C E N T R A L T O A M E R I C A S E C O N O M Y

STLOUISFED.ORG

CENTRAL VIEW
News and Views for Eighth District Bankers

Vol. 21 | No. 4 www.stlouisfed.org/cb

EDITOR

Dialogues Bring the Fed and General Public Together

By David Sapenaro

Scott Kelly 314-444-8593 [email protected]

Central Banker is published quarterly by the Public Affairs department of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Views expressed are not necessarily official opinions of the Federal Reserve System or the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Subscribe for free at www.stlouisfed.org/cb to receive the online or printed Central Banker. To subscribe by mail, send your name, address, city, state and ZIP code to: Central Banker, P.O. Box 442, St. Louis, MO 63166-0442. To receive other St. Louis Fed online or print publications, visit www.stlouisfed.org/subscribe Follow the Fed on Facebook, Twitter and more at www.stlouisfed.org/followthefed The Eighth Federal Reserve District includes all of Arkansas, eastern Missouri, southern Illinois and Indiana, western Kentucky and Tennessee, and northern Mississippi. The Eighth District offices are in Little Rock, Louisville, Memphis and St. Louis.

Useful St. Louis Fed Sites

Dodd-Frank Regulatory Reform Rules www.stlouisfed.org/rrr FOMC Speak www.stlouisfed.org/fomcspeak FRED (Federal Reserve Economic Data) www.research.stlouisfed.org/fred2 St. Louis Fed Research www.research.stlouisfed.org

he recently completed Dialogue with the Fed series is a new means to engage an important Bank constituent: the general public. We have long held these types of events for other Bank constituents, such as business leaders, bankers and local governmental officials, but this was the first time we had events targeting a more general David Sapenaro audience. is the first vice We believe that it is important for the president and chief general public to have access to experts operating officer of who can explain important and often the Federal Reserve complex economic situations and inforBank of St. Louis. mation in laymans termsespecially in an open forum. We also want the public to have a better understanding of what the Federal Reserve does, why we do it and how we do it and to see firsthand that we are committed to working in the publics interest. The Dialogues appear to have been effective on all of these fronts because the events were well-attended and, based on feedback from participants, well-received. Over the past several years, the Bank has emphasized the importance of external outreach, both in person and through electronic means. Our Bank officials and economists devote time each year to meet face to face with constituents throughout the Eighth District to share information and seek anecdotal feedback on the economy and other pressing financial and banking-related issues. In addition, we have significantly enhanced our web sites and begun using social media tools to provide timely and high-quality economic and financial information. And we have expanded and augmented our outreach to specific constituents, such as teachers and community development professionals, to provide information and materials to help them better perform their responsibilities. Visit www.stlouisfed.org for more information about our events, programs and economic research. Also, please visit www.stlouisfed.org/followthefed, where you can use Twitter, Facebook, RSS feeds and more to keep track of the latest information and data.

>> N O W O N L I N E

Third-Quarter 2011 Banking Performance Reports www.stlouisfed.org/cb

2 | Central Banker www.stlouisfed.org

IN-DEPTH

Can Lessons from the Recent Financial Crisis Help Avoid Future Crises?

ven though financial crises, recessions and depressions are nothing new in America, the severity of the 2007-2009 recession and ensuing financial crisis highlighted some weaknesses in our financial system and gaps in our regulatory system. On Sept. 12, St. Louis Fed officials and a public audience explored the causes of and responses to the financial crisis during the first Dialogue with the Fed discussion, Lessons Learned from the Financial Crisis. Julie Stackhouse, senior vice president and managing officer for Banking Supervision, Discount Window Lending and Community Development, led the presentation and discussion. Joining her for an audience question-and-answer session were Mary Karr, the St. Louis Feds general counsel, and economists William Emmons and Silvio Contessi.

of 2008 began with an asset bubble in housing, expanded into the subprime crisis, escalated into a severe freezeup of the interbank lending market, and culminated in intervention by the U.S. and other industrialized countries to rescue their respective banking systems. Numerous assumptions, miscues and efforts to transfer risk to other parties combined to trigger the crisis. As Stackhouse explored in her presentation, several lessons have been culled from those underlying causes. Lesson: Misguided Comfort High levels of debt, uncertain ability of borrowers to repay debt and an expectation that housing prices will always increase (among other factors) created a comfort level that was misguided. Too much debt that does not have a clear ability to be repaid and is dependent on an assettypically landgoing
continued on Page 4

DIALOGUE WITH THE FED PART 1

Underlying Causes and Lessons

According to a December 2009 congressional report, the chain of events leading to the severe crisis in the fall

FIGURE 1

FIRST RESPONDERS TO THE FINANCIAL CRISIS

Federal Reserve
Provided funds (liquidity) to stabilize financial markets through several credit and lending facilities and programs

United States Government

Funded: Troubled Asset Relief Program $800 billion economic stimulus Cash for Clunkers program Homebuyer tax credit Extended unemployment benefits

Federal Deposit Insurance Corp.

Raised bank deposit insurance limits Provided other bank debt guarantees

Central Banker Winter 2011 | 3

FIGURE 2

Federal Reserve Credit Easing Policy Tools

Weekly, January 2007 - August 2011, in billions of dollars
Financial crisis liquidity programs Feds purchasing programs of bonds, mortgage-backed securities and U.S. Treasuries.

$3,000 $2,500 $2,000 $1,500 $1,000 $500 $0 Jul 07 Oct 07 Jul 08 Oct 08

Jul 09

Oct 09

Jul 10

Oct 10

Jul 11

Traditional Security Holdings Other Fed Assets Primary/Other Broker Dealer Seasonal Credit Maiden Lane 3 Other Credit Federal Agency Debt Securities SOURCE: Federal Reserve Board

Securities Lent to Dealers Currency Swaps Primary Credit Maiden Lane 1 Asset-Backed Commercial Paper Credit to AIG Term Asset-Backed Securities

Repurchase Agreements Term Auction Credit Secondary Credit Maiden Lane 2 Net Portfolio Holdings Comm. Paper Mortgage-Backed Securities Long-Term Treasury Purchases

Lessons
continued from Page 3

up in price is a recipe for disaster, said Stackhouse. We like to think that values will always increase over time; we need to begin to think that they might not. And you have to be able to repay your debtparticularly when its a big debt on your balance sheet. This is one of those lessons that has to be learned and relearned and relearned. And the risk was a lot harder to see this time around because it was so spread out over the financial system, she said. Lesson: Misunderstood Risk Risk needs to be understood across all parts of the financial system, including banks and nonbanks. Spreading risk outside of the insured banking system and the use of insurance policies, such as credit default swaps, did not result in risk diversification.

Why, though, didnt the Fed see it? Our regulatory structure was not built to see this risk, she said, because different agencies oversee different components of the financial industry. Not all risk is found in banks; many times, risk is in financial institutions that arent banks, such as insurance companies and investment houses (the so-called shadow banking system). Stemming from this lesson, a new Financial Stability Oversight Council was created by the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010. The council is charged with monitoring risk across all financial sectors. If the council identifies a new systemically important financial institution, it will be supervised by one regulator, the Federal Reserve. Lesson: Short-Run Choices Choices made in the short run may have longrun consequences that need to be carefully considered.

4 | Central Banker www.stlouisfed.org

Oct 11

Jan 07

Apr 07

Jan 08

Apr 08

Jan 09

Apr 09

Jan 10

Apr 10

Jan 11

Apr 11

That is our role: providing financial stability by being there to stop the panic but stepping out when the panic is done. Julie Stackhouse
During the housing bubble, many looked upon owning a home as a means for building wealth for retirement, based on the assumption that prices would always go up. But if building wealth for retirement was a goal, then there were probably better and more certain choices than investing in a home, Stackhouse said. Looking back, its a simple lesson but probably one that we looked over a bit too quickly.

Did the 1999 Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act Cause the Crisis?

During the Sept. 12 Dialogue with the Fed, some audience members questioned whether previous government and regulatory actions not only fueled the crisis but also need to be undone to prevent a future crisis. One person asked whether the Dodd-Frank Act sufficiently addresses the lack of separation between commercial banking and investment banking; the 1933 Glass-Steagall Act created the separation, but it was repealed as a result of the 1999 Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act. According to some economists, policymakers and lawmakers, the repeal helped create the subprime mortgage crisis and too big to fail financial institutions, but Fed economist William Emmons noted the lack of consensus behind that argument. He pointed to the extraordinary September 2008 actions involving four large financial organizations: The federal government took over Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac; allowed the investment firm Lehman Brothers to go bankrupt; and bailed out AIG, one of the worlds largest insurance companies. None of them, Emmons said, had anything to do with GlassSteagall, and they were unaffected by the act of 1999. The Feds Julie Stackhouse added: The reason why Glass-Steagall was repealed is because investment banking and commercial banking became so intertwined they couldnt be separated easily. Many investment banking activities support prudent commercial banking activities. One of the components of the DoddFrank Act, the pending Volcker Rule, is meant to address issues related to the 1999 act, such as proprietary trading. The public can comment on the proposed Volcker Rule until Jan. 13, 2012. Go to the Open for Comment section at www.stlouisfed.org/rrr for more information on the rule.
Central Banker Winter 2011 | 5

Panics Can Be Stopped

In the fall of 2008, the Federal Reserve, the federal government and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corp. (FDIC) started using many tools to combat and stop the financial crisis. (See Figure 1 on Page 3.) The Fed repeated and expanded on a measure last used immediately after the 9/11 attacks: It injected liquidity via credit programs and loans to banks and financial organizations to get the financial markets moving again. As Figure 2 on Page 4 shows, the Feds balance sheet was fairly steady until the crisis became acute in fall 2008. The Fed initiated many lending facilities and used other long-standing liquidity measures, including working with foreign banks. That is our role: providing financial stability by being there to stop the panic but stepping out when the panic is done, Stackhouse explained. Whats not well-understood is that although the balance sheet got very large and peaked at a high level in the late winter of 2009, the programs enacted in response to the crisis have largely gone down to zero. Today there is very little left on the Federal Reserves balance sheet from the financial crisis programs. As seen in Figure 2, whats left on the balance sheetthe large amounts from early 2009 to the presentrepresents the Feds efforts to stimulate the economy by purchasing bonds, mortgage-backed securities and U.S. Treasuries. During the question-and-answer session, Emmons added that central bank liquidityboth here and abroadideally should be used only for emergencies. We dont want the central banks to be the only providers of liquiditytheyre the lenders of last resort, he said. We want the interbank markets to be the primaryalmost exclusivesources of liquidity. That lack [of a strong interbank market] is the problem in Europe right now.

But Will It Work in Europe?

Previous experiences demonstrate that actions of central banks can stop a crisis in its tracks. But because of debt woes in Greece, Italy, Spain and other nations, Dialogue audience members were eager to know whether events in Europe threatened a new crisis that could spread to America.
continued on Page 6

FED FACT

Congress first authorized the Feds liquidity actions under the Federal Reserve Act of 1913.

Lessons
continued from Page 5

Speaking specifically of the situation in Greece, Contessi said it wasnt clear whether a crisis could be contained. The direct exposure of the U.S. to the Greek financial system is small, but there is a lot of indirect exposure. Obviously many European banks own Greek debt, and there are bilateral relationships between U.S. and European banks, he said. If any of those countries default, then the value of the Treasury bonds that banks hold may be very different within a few days of default. So, there

is a chance that things could turn ugly, he said. Direct and indirect exposure is where contagion comes from; thats where panic is very dangerous, Stackhouse said. But thats also where central banks step in to calm the fears by making sure that payments can be made where solvency otherwise exists. And of course the hard thing to judge is when solvency exists.

In Sum: What Did the Financial Crisis Teach Us?

Unrealistic comfort levels, assumptions, miscues and the failure to appreciate industry-wide risks converged to trigger the financial crisis. The DoddFrank Act is designed to deal with those shortcomings and help prevent a similar crisis in the future, but its costs and impact on the financial industry are not yet known. Meanwhile, the Fed, along with the federal government and FDIC, proved once again that major financial crises are stoppable. Most of the Feds liquidity measures for the crisis itself have since fallen off the Feds balance sheet. And even though financial events in Europe could spread to the U.S., central banks still have the ability to inject liquidity into the markets. While there is no magic bullet to prevent all financial crises, there is vigilance: Risk will be something different tomorrow than it is today. The challenge will be to identify what the next thing is so that it doesnt get ahead of the system designed to watch over it, Stackhouse said.

>> M O R E O N L I N E

Financial Crisis Timeline http://timeline.stlouisfed.org Liquidity Crises in the Small and Large www.stlouisfed.org/liquidity Federal Reserve Balance Sheet Information www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy/bst.htm

Many Community Banks Still Struggling with Crisis Fallout

The financial crisis officially ended in 2009, but many banks are still struggling, a situation that concerned some audience members during the Sept. 12 Dialogue with the Fed discussion. The subprime mortgage market has largely disappeared, and significant challenges remain in the housing market: Seriously delinquent or in-foreclosure mortgages are backlogged and must be worked through the pipeline. There are massive numbers of home equity loans out there, the St. Louis Feds Julie Stackhouse said to members of the audience. If a mortgage defaults, then the home equity loan is almost a total loss.
6 | Central Banker www.stlouisfed.org

Hundreds of the nations 7,000 community banks are still having troubles. Thats one of the things we worry about: Its just going to take time to work through the problems because inevitably every one of those banks has a lot of real estate loans on its books. When you have that problem, those banks are not in the business of doing new lendingwhich is frustrating for many of you looking for credit. On the positive side, Stackhouse noted, are the thousands of community banks that are fairly healthy. Those are the ones in the lending game, she said. The question going forward for all banks is whether borrowers can meet banks tighter loan standards.

IN-DEPTH

Ever-Higher Taxes or Ever-Higher Debt?

Exploring Scenarios and Possible Solutions to the Federal Budget Deficit

ince the end of World War II, the U.S. had been fairly successful at managing its debt and deficit. However, inadequate tax revenues for most of the last 30 years, the shock of the financial crisis and looming fiscal challenges related to the aging U.S. population and rising health care costs have left the U.S. with a more than $1.3 trillion fiscal gap between revenue and outlays. While a number that size may seem insurmountable, one St. Louis Fed economist suggests that a solution is still well within our reachbut only if lawmakers and citizens make hard choices now and stick with them. The deficit was just one of the stark figures presented during the second Dialogue with the Fed on Oct. 18, Bringing the Federal Deficit under Control. St. Louis Fed economist William Emmons led the presentation and discussion. Joining him for a question-and-answer session with the attendees were Christopher Waller, senior vice president and director of

Research, and Julie Stackhouse, senior vice president and managing officer for Banking Supervision, Discount Window Lending and Community Development.

DIALOGUE WITH THE FED PART 2

A $1.3 Trillion Deficit

We have an extreme situation of very large budget deficits, Emmons explained. According to an August 2011 Congressional Budget Office (CBO) report, the United States is facing profound budgetary and economic challenges, which Emmons described as the most accurate statement of the seriousness of the budget situation. CBO figures anticipate that the fiscal gap between revenue and outlays will be equivalent to $1.3 trillion dollars every year between now and 2085 if the nation continues on its present course. To see what may happen, Emmons explored the CBOs two markedly different scenarios for deficit control.1
continued on Page 8

Two Scenarios for Debt Held by the Public

250 Actual debt-to-GNP ratio through 2011

200

Percent of GNP

CURRENT POLICY (More likely, according to CBO) 150

100

Debt-to-GNP ratio under CBOs extended baseline scenario CURRENT LAW (Less likely, according to CBO) Alternative scal scenario Additional percentage points of debt under CBOs alternative fiscal scenario

50 WWII 0 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 Extended baseline

NOTE: The CBOs August 2011 baseline reflects the effects of provisions related to the Congressional Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction. SOURCES: Office of Management and Budget (OMB), Congressional Budget Office (CBO)

Central Banker Winter 2011 | 7

Taxes or Debt
continued from Page 7

Current-Law Scenario: Ever-Higher Taxes

The CBOs extended-baseline, or current-law, scenario assumes that all provisions of laws currently on the books will be fulfilled on schedule in 2011 and 2012. This includes reverting tax rates to year 2000 levels, ending the one-year payroll tax reduction and ending the temporary limitations on the alternative minimum tax. Spending caps and cuts currently on the books, including those mandated by the Budget Control Act of 2011, would need to be enforced. Current law would reasonably shrink long-run deficits and reduce debt levels relative to the size of the economy in three to five years, with the deficit of about 2 percent of GDP, Emmons said. However, it would mean that revenues as a share of GNP would continue rising indefinitely. Tax revenues would increase at doubledigit percentage rates for each of the next three years at 12 percent or more

and then would continue to grow faster than the economy. Its a windfall for the federal government, Emmons said. The restoration of higher marginal tax rates, bracket creep and the alternative minimum tax will play a large role in ever-rising taxes. So, yes, current law solves the budget problem but in a fairly unpleasant way, he said.

Alternative Fiscal Scenario: Exploding Debt

The CBO warned in August 2011 that certain provisions of current law are either widely expected to change or would be politically and economically difficult to sustain for a long period. Therefore, the CBO created an alternative fiscal scenario based on current policy (not current law), assuming that many current-law provisions will not be enacted. The temporary revenue and outlay measures would not expire as planned, and most of the spending caps would not begin. Based on recent experiences and current policy, the CBO suggests that deferring painful choices would produce a large and growing mismatch between revenue and outlays, resulting in a massive increase in debt. At some point, investors might refuse to buy the expanding stock of Treasury debt, resulting in a debt crisis that would push interest rates skyhigh, Emmons said. If hard choices continue to be deferred, about half of all national income would be needed simply to pay the interest on federal debt by the end of the 21st century.

FED FACT

The Fed is responsible for monetary policy, but Congress controls fiscal policy, which involves taxes and spending.

The Supercommittee and Other Ideas

Could More Debt-Financed Stimulus Reduce the Deficit?

The Oct. 18 Dialogue audience members wondered whether more short-term, debt-financed stimulus would be an effective deficit-fighting tool. The St. Louis Feds Christopher Waller replied that there is no clear consensus on whether such stimulus spending has a significant impact on the economy. If you borrow a dollar to spend a dollar on government spending, the amount of GDP you increase is small or zeroyoure borrowing a dollar from someone who would have spent it anyway. So, essentially, youre not changing anything. There is a lot of evidence that its not that powerful of a tool to get the economy going. On the other hand, a lot of economists think that it has huge effects, but so far we dont seem to see it in the data yet, Waller said.
8 | Central Banker www.stlouisfed.org

If either CBO scenario is unpalatable, what can be done? Congress latest deficit reduction attempt, the Budget Control Act of 2011s supercommittee, ended in deadlock on Nov. 21. According to the act, the bipartisan supercommittees failure to submit proposals is supposed to trigger an automatic $1.2 trillion in deficit reduction measures starting in January 2013. Meanwhile, opinion polls consistently indicate that the majority of the public believes that the economic pain of increased taxes and spending cuts should be shared by all income levels, including spending reductions for Social Security and Medicare. Dialogue audience members generally agreed.
continued on Page 9

IN-DEPTH

Whats Not Working This Time Around?

Third Dialogue Examines Why Unemployment Remains High

he nation lost more than 9 million jobs during the Great Recession, and the unemployment rate has been stuck around 9 percent for more than two years. Companies, uncertain about the recovery, remain reluctant to hire, and millions of job seekers have stopped looking for work entirely. Because the employment situation has been so frustrating and confusing, the St. Louis Fed hosted Understanding the Unemployment Picture on Nov. 21 to offer insight on this issue and answer attendees questions. As part of the Dialogue with the Fed series, Christopher Waller, senior vice president and director of Research, led the presentation and discussion,

with assistance from economists David Andolfatto and Natalia Kolesnikova.

DIALOGUE WITH THE FED PART 3

The Causes Are Many

Most recessions between World War II and the Great Recession had several things in common. For example, after a sharp spike in unemployment, housing starts and sales would lead the recovery and unemployment would decline in response to monetary or fiscal policies. That pattern did not occur this time around. Unemployment doubled between January 2008 and October 2009, and
continued on Page 10

Taxes or Debt
continued from Page 8

Also, many legislators, economists and even Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke agree that the deficit must be controlled to ensure economic stability. Alternatives include increasing tax revenue and efficiency, cutting mandatory and discretionary spending, reducing the growth of health care costs, and promoting reforms focused on growth and economic stability. There can be no sacred cows in the budget, Emmons said. The supercommittees inability to reach a consensus illustrates that nothing will fundamentally change unless the government actually makes the hard choices and sticks with them, Emmons insisted. The supercommittee is a new version of an old game: Well promise to make these changes in the futurebut then well see if we actually make them, he said.

The general public appears open to a combination of tax hikes and spending cuts. Those sentiments are echoed by advocates of broadbased spending reductions and efficiency and revenueenhancing tax reforms, which include controlling health care costs and reforming the budget process. This isnt like a technology problem that we have to send engineers to figure out, Waller said. You cut spending, raise taxes or boththats it. But do you have the political will to do it?

>> M O R E O N L I N E

FRED Charts on the Gross Federal Debt www.stlouisfed.org/FYGFD Questions about the Budget Deficit Have No Easy Answers www.stlouisfed.org/deficitanswers
ENDNOTE 1 Both of the CBOs scenarios are based on a rate of inflation of about 2.5 percent CPI, with a similar economic growth rate, and interest rates of 10-year U.S. Treasuries at 5 percent. Note that the alternative/current-policy scenario does not reflect provisions related to the 2011 Budget Control Acts bipartisan supercommittee. Central Banker Winter 2011 | 9

In Sum: Will We Make Hard Choices?

Neither the current-law nor the current-policy scenario that the CBO created would produce an ideal outcome because the former would mean ever-higher taxes and the latter would mean ever-rising debt.

Not Working
continued from Page 9

more than two years after its peak of 10.2 percent, the unemployment rate has fallen only about 1.1 percentage points. In 2008-2009, we lost 750,000 jobs for six straight months. Thats why its called the Great Recession, Waller said. These numbers are staggering, and it means weve dug a very big unemployment hole. Several interrelated factors are contributing to high unemployment: Housing isnt leading the recovery. The collapse of the housing market was one of the primary drivers of the financial crisis and Great Recession. After effectively building 12 years worth of houses in five years, this sector alone lost nearly 2 million jobs, with peripheral industries losing another 800,000. What were seeing is a big recession heavily dominated by one sector, Waller said.

said. There is some spending, some hiring, some housing buys, but there seems to be a permanent drop in the level of consumption relative to the previous trend. Households are retrenching. Consumption is lower partly because people have been deleveraging restraining spending, reducing debt and repairing their balance sheets over the past couple of years. So, people are trying to get their debt down while were encouraging them to spendand its not working like it has in the past, Waller noted. Uncertainty weighs on most businesses. While some sectors, such as health care, continue to do well, overall hiring appears stuck. Weve asked businesses point-blank why they arent hiring, even with very low interest rates and tax rates. They point to the lack of customers and the large uncertainty surrounding the health care laws, regulations and the political situation, Waller said.

Unemployment Duration
Unemployment spells are much longer for many

The Labor Market Seems To Be Changing

Many businesses now treat layoffs as permanent job cuts instead of temporary decisions to be reversed when the economy improves. And while many businesses are posting vacancies, they arent necessarily filling them. Under normal economic conditions, vacancies are high when unemployment is low and vice versa. However, even though vacancies are coming back to pre-financial-crisis levels, unemployment remains high. This leads some economists to believe that some structural changes are happening in the labor market. (Please see Many Moving Parts: A Look Inside the U.S. Labor Market at www.stlouisfed.org/ar for details.) As seen in the Figure at left, 42 percent of the unemployed have been out of work for at least six months, more than twice the percentage observed before the start of the financial crisis. One study suggests that about half of the increase in long-term unemployment can be explained by demographic changes before the recession started, especially among older people, economist Kolesnikova said. Although unemployment rates are higher for younger workers, the rate is larger for all workers. Even people

MAY 2007

OCTOBER 2011

Less Than 5 Weeks 36%

Less Than 5 Weeks 19% 5-26 Weeks 48% 27 Weeks and Over 42%

5-26 Weeks 38%

27 Weeks and Over 17%

NOTE: Due to rounding, numbers do not equal 100 percent. SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics

Monetary and fiscal policies dont seem to be helping employment. Since the start of the financial crisis, the Fed has lowered its key interest rate to effectively zero and the federal government has lowered tax rates and spent upwards of $1 trillion to stimulate the economy. But we havent seen in the data any kind of dramatic rebound in investments or buying of durable goods and housing, Waller

10 | Central Banker www.stlouisfed.org

with college degreesregardless of their ageare unemployed at a higher rate now, she said. Kolesnikova also noted that the market has become polarized between low-skill, low-pay jobs and high-skill, high-pay jobs; middle-skill, middle-pay jobs are disappearing. For the past three decades, workers at midlevels have been replaced by computers, automation or jobs being sent overseasa trend that has accelerated during this recession, she said.

Have We Entered a Jobless Recovery?

After the 2001 recession, it was often said that increasing productivity helped produce a jobless recovery, in which real per capita output rises while employment per capita remains steady or declines. To some, that seems to be happening again. When asked at the Nov. 21 Dialogue whether jobless recoveries were real, economist David Andolfatto said that they were and noted what occurred during Canadas severe recession in the early 1990s. It took seven to eight years for the unemployment rate to drop from 12 percent to below 8 percent. Employment just flatlined for a decade while GDP continued to rise. Eventually we came out of it, he said. However, Andolfatto cautioned against reading too much into rising productivity, which has been occurring in most western developed economies for the last 100 to 150 years while employment per capita has remained fairly stable. Rising productivity does not necessarily mean that employment levels will fall over the long run, according to the data.

Can the Fed Bring Down Unemployment?

In a survey from a previous Dialogue with the Fed, 62 percent of audience members responded that the Fed could do little or nothing to bring the rate down. Waller agreed. The Fed doesnt have much direct control over unemployment. We can use interest rates to help firms and help stimulate demand, but at the end of the day, we dont create any jobs; the private sector does. If they say no to our efforts, there is not much we can do about it, Waller said. Even though the economy is flush with liquidity and the Fed has lowered the federal funds rate as far as it can go, some have called for more policy easing by suggesting the Fed aim for a specific unemployment rate. But that approach concerns policymakers and economists, including Waller, who are wary that the U.S. could enter a long period of high unemployment akin to what occurred in Europe during the 1980s and 1990s. We dont want to tie monetary policy to a specific unemployment number because we could end up stuck in that mode for decades, Waller explained.

In Sum: No Easy Solution To Ending High Unemployment

The Great Recession and its aftermath have not followed the historical patterns for recessions and recoveries: Unemployment has stayed around 9 percent for more than two years, the number of people out of work for more than six months is more than double pre-financial-crisis levels, and housing appears unable to lead the recovery. Economists are also seeing persistent changes in the labor market. Although private payroll job growth stayed positive in 2010 and 2011, the growth appears inadequate to lower the high unemployment rate. Policymakers, lawmakers and economists have been debating the effectiveness of current monetary and fiscal policies designed to encourage spending and drive down unemployment.

Explore How the Labor Market Works

In any given month, tens of millions of people are on the move into, out of and inside the U.S. labor market. The St. Louis Feds 2010 Annual Report, available online at www.stlouisfed.org/ar, explains how the labor market works. Unemployment and employment data are dissected by sex, level of education, type of work and more. The essay also examines how U.S. workers fared during the Great Recession compared with workers from other major countries.

>> M O R E O N L I N E

Construction and the Great Recession www.stlouisfed.org/construction Why Is Employment Growth So Low? www.stlouisfed.org/lowgrowth

Central Banker Winter 2011 | 11

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S E E T H E O N L I N E V E R S I O N O F T H E W I N T E R 2011 C E N T R A L B A N K E R F O R Q UA R T E R LY BA N K I N G P E R F O RM A N C E , R E G U L ATO RY S P OT L I G H T S A N D R E S E A RC H AT W W W. S T LO U I S F E D. O R G/C B

Using FRED Is Easier Than Ever with the New Add-in for Excel
Save time collecting and organizing your macroeconomic data with the St. Louis Feds new FRED add-in software for Microsoft Excel. With the add-in, you can quickly and easily: Set up one-click instant downloads of more than 40,000 economic time series. Browse the most popular data and search the FRED database. Use quick and easy data frequency conversion and growth rate calculations. Instantly refresh and update spreadsheets with newly released data. Create graphs with NBER recession shading and an auto update feature.

Q U A R T E R LY REPORTS

RULES AND R E G U L AT I O N S

District and U.S. Peer Banks Third-Quarter 2011 Performance Numbers Statewide Third-Quarter 2011 Bank Performance Numbers
NEW BANKING AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH

Out for Comment: Proposed Volcker Rule Concerning Proprietary Trading Out for Comment: Help the CFPB Set Regulatory Priorities Certain Financial Companies Now Required To Submit Resolution Plans Agencies Clarify Supervision, Enforcement Responsibilities for Federal Consumer Financial Laws

Impact of the Financial Crisis and Recession on Banking Consolidation and Market Structure Is Shadow Banking Really Banking? Gender Wage Gap May Be Smaller Than Most Think

To start using this handy tool, visit: research.stlouisfed.org/fred-addin

FRED is a registered trademark of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis.

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