. g coil. galvanometer.

· of a movm
the current sens1·t·1v1ty
Alm: To detcnninc
.
, • •
Apparatus: Movmg coil table Jvanometer, cell, plug key, reversing key, high resistance box,
. . go
connecting wires etc.
e
formula: (i) s == -
lo
10 = Current through galvanometer
S = Cunent sensitivity
0 :... deflection m galvanometer
Circuit diagram:

F
K
t--- --4 (. 1- -- -- -- -- -
+
E : Daniel Cell
R : Resistance box
R ,, K :key
K1 : four way key .
I
I
I G : Galvanometer
I
I

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
K, so that current flows through
2. Select high resistance from box and close key K and key
galvanometer. Note the deflection 0 in the galvanometer.
ssive readings differ about by
3. Repeat the procedure for 3 different values or ' R' so that succe
down current 10 in each case.
3 to 4 divisions and it covers entire scale of galvanometer. Note
mean value.
4. Calculate current sensitivity S for each observation. Find its
5. Plot a graph of 0 against 10 . Hence determine the curren
t sensitivity of the galvanometer

Observations:
(1 ) Resistance of galvanometer (G) .lo. 0.. n .
(2) E.M.F. of cell (E) = \ ·.5 .volt.

(59) •
•
r
Obaervatton table

dtv/A__ "--~

0 .0 1.4, X 10
10,000
.. .' o·036 X/06' o·~l

i
':JOOO
3. O • Olt 1./0{ Xte
8000
o ·O '-Ix /ob
4.
. _ __ _ _~ _ _ ! _ ';/-000
0
-------------..1
d1\-/A
Cloculotions: Current scns1tl\ 1ty of golvonomctcr S=-1
r,
Graph :

Scale X = - - - - A
y - ---__.,...

0 div

Results Current sensitivity of a moving coil table galvanometer. (S'

S ~ 0-39--No~divtAmp. ( by calculation)
S = _Q: 0 4 ;<J_o~div/Amp. ( by graph) ,,.
r ' I' tions:
J Check that all connection at tcnninal screws arc tight.
2 Check that key (K) and key (K 1) arc tight.
3 Check that all keys in resistance box ore tight except which you remove from the resistance bol.
4. Check that deflection in the galvanometer when you remo\ e resistance from the resistance bol.
5. Poss the current through circuit only at the time of observallons
6_ Always odJust the resistance in the box so that the pointer gal\anometer does not go out
the scale.
• (@) •
 Scale:

~ ~tr7-~H ~+-++4-1t+W..J-......J___[...J..-l.
.~ "~~+w;~-.;-1

~ ~~CTr~+ lf+4-+....t -~-.l-...l-- -l-~y~......:+-----+--- +---1

- JCM

• ( 61) •
 . . ( scnes
Aim : To verify the laws of combmat,on . an d para llcl) of b using
. resistances h t at meter
II .
Apparatus : Meter bridge, two resistances,
. gaIvano meter' resistance ox, r eos a ' ce '
plug key, connecting wires.
Circuit diagram :

Resistance box I ) Resistances in series (XJ

2) Resistances in parallel()(,)

A L..JJ~--
C

X,

Formulae:

1) X ~R ( ~: ) Where, Lx ood LR ore balancing lengths corresponding to X and R.

2) For series combination, Xs = X, + X
2

3) . .
For parallel combmahon, X P =-X ,-
x X-2

X, + X 2

Procedure:
I. Arrange and connect the circuit for series combination.
2. Take some suitable value of resistance form the resistance box and then close the plug key.
3. Touch the jockey at point A and C of the meter bridge wire, so that the galvanometer will
deflection on either side of zero.
4. By touching the jockey at various points along the wire AC, locate the point where galvanometer
shows zero deflection. This point is called as 'NULL POINT'
5. Measure the length Lx and LR as shown in the figure. llence, calculate the value of X . -
6. By changing the resistance in the resistance box, take THREE sets of observations in the5 same
way.

7. Repeat the experiment by interchanging the positions of X and R. Hence, calculate, the value
ofX5 • 8

8. Repeat the experiment by connecting X, and X2 in parallel, and hence calculate the value of
•
•
Observations :
Ji
Resistance (X I) = _______ -•- --- --- --- ••- Q Ly
lo
Resistance (X i ) = ____ --- --- --- --- --- --- -- n
•

J) Fo r series combinati
on :
Obs. Resistance from Lx (cm) La (cm)
Resistance
Position No . Resistance Box (0 ) R
I - I,.," f 43 L 51
Series in 2 13 4S 55
left gap 3 ~ - 14 T 4z i 5 8 _J
I 2. 5£ 45 I
r .o1
1
Series in
- - - ~ 52
13 . t 48
right gap 46 5 11 · '2.
3 I
Mean X = -·----------------------- Q
s · 6185"
11
on :
2) Fo r pa ra lle l combinati
Resistance 1
Obs. Resistance from Re
sistance I
Lx (cm) / LR(cm) I X, =R ( ~
I L.
)0
Position No . Box (Q) R I
'10 2 ,o n o
I 2 5o I

Parallel in 3 51 t..,q
I
3. /2 ~
2
left gap 3 4 48 52. I L, , 33 2. ~

'2 ·2 6 6
~

2. Y8 52
I I 2. 3q gs
Parallel in 3
£ ~
4S
2
4 S 5~ 3. Jqgo
right gap 3 4 ----- Q
Mean X = ------------------
S 2 83 \ r~

3) Fo r series combinati
on: Right gap

Obs. No L
Log R = a
\,
c=a + b
Log LR = d
c-d = e
Antilog e = X 5
on : Ri gh t gop
2) For pa ra lle l combinati Left gap 7 2 :__:........----3-,---,...f
1
3 0
Obs. No
6' 60~ 0 0 ,g OJ-0 6 d .f1 L O '6
Log R =-a- + : - ~ ~ - t - - - - t-
t---
Log Lx = b
c= =a +b
Log LR = d '
c- d = e
Antilog e r Xr ,
67
C
Colculattons :
1) ~•R (t-J
Mean ~ U:., .Bs....n
(experimental value)
2) Xr == R ( ~ j
Mean Xr == .2tS,~-\--n
(experimental , aluc)
Result :

Il In series . lL6.l.8.5....... n
a) Expenmental Yaluc of X, ·
b) Theoretical \'alue of XS = xi + x2
= ••• 15........ n
2) In parallel 2 • 4 &-3.1............ n
a) Expenmental Yalue of XP = -------:J----
b) Tl
x1+x X"~ ---3----a3_________ n
. 1value of x P -- X
1eoretica
1 2
Hence laws of series and parallel is verified.
Precautions :

1. All the connections and plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
2. Null point is obtained in the middle <-½-J" portion of the metre bridge wire.
3. Do not slide the jockey on the wire.
4. Remove the plug key after completion of experiment.

l . What is a balance point in meter bridge?

ihe. nllii. •PO fo \••01••bd\ci il(ed ••po fo 1• S••o O•••cttr.QDgvii. .

:.\tie .~l':'m.5 . F whe.cff,$ ~o
•1
f: .:res
.0 J5:t.{)1rS... 0. .(".rbOS[, Cl ,:u .O..
·--~-0.1.dB e...01r.rne+.enr ... x+.,d.q.~ suc.h.ih.Q.l-..J.l'\e ...deFJe.chP...
.. 111 +ne .gbLv.qnome. :ei J.s .. :~.%:o.'. ................ ......... .... ..
2. Resisitance of a wire is x n. The wire is stretched ta triple its length, then the res~

~
becomes ? • /2 , .
. • 1.
To.e.. 7reG.t 5k,f,1 ce ..Q .. a w.,x-e...1.s .. 1f.\ve«seI3 ,PtoPm·.ho.r. .~/ .
.ctr.ea ...an P.d.1. i;-.ed['i_i}:r.o.P,o:r.±(o.oq I... to... 1ti.. lf2ngf.h •~n1 ·
~
.lellg Hi... J. ...hi p..1 ea.:':1 ne.n..:Jr.e.s,..s t:o!)ce. .. 4).J /.1 ..c;:1ls.o. beC.Q. •
..1:h-r:e.e..::h ro .e,s :..... ..... .................................. .... .. .....
... ··· ··· ... ··· ··· .... .. .
Remark and sign of teacher : .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. \v! ....................................... ..
... ...... .. ................ .... " ....... " ... .. .. " .. . " \\. 1..... ..." " .. .... ... ....... " .. ... ........ ..
···· ··· •· .. ········ ··· ··· ··· ······• •.. .. .... ...... ...... ... .......... .. ... ....... ........ .. ........ .. .... .
 EXPENRIMENT N0.9
TANCEOFGALVA OMETIRBY klLVIN'I
c f' Wheatstone's
To dctcnnine the rcsistan c O a galvan omctcr by Kelvin's method using
,l jrt' I :
~
meter bridge
box. a
Apparatus : W heatstone's meter brt'dge, a rheostat • 0 ccII , a galvanometer, a resistance
•
Jockey, cmmectmg . . , a cell or battery, a plug key etc.
wues

Forrt1 ula : .f
. 10 G
G = R_Q. where f G = length Of tile bndge wire corresponding
fR
corresponding to R
f length of the bndge Wire
R -

G = resiS t ance of Galvanometer

R = resistance introduced in R.
B

Circuit Diagram :

E
K

Procedure:
shown in figure and a
I. Connect the circuit as G is to be de termi ne d is connected m one am1
ose resistance c, 1s
2. The galvanometer, wh arm of the W heats ton e ·s metcrbndgc \ jo~k
ted in the other
resistance box is connec e res istan ce 1s introduced m the res
istance bo\..
poin t B. A su itabl
directly connected from cti on 1s no ted 'Jhe rheostat 1s odJuste
d so that
d the galvanom eter de fle
3. The circuit is closed an dcl1ect1on
nearly half the full scale
the galvanom eter shows the ga lvu no mctcr dclkct1on either
mcreases or
touched on the wi re, to the
4. When the jockey is wi re till the ga lva no m eter detlcction 1s restored
ey along the is
decreases . Move the jock lan ce po ml . Th us 111 tlus pos1hon. the null point
null point or ba just R so that the balance
original value. This is the ov ed fro m the wi re. Ad
is touched or rem the middle of the bridge
constant when the jockey on e rea din g ne ar or m
d 70 cm, preferably
point is between 30 cm an
wire. Measure .eG and .eR
ging the values of R
5. Take three more readings by chan e fo ur rea din gs by ad justing R. calculate the va lue
G and Rand tak
6- Interchange the position of
ean G.
of G in each case. Find m
•
Q I)
 Obtatutloll table :
t) Galvanometer in left

. 4J
3 q 17-
4 '2.0 6 · ol./
2) Galvanometer in right gap

/Rem l Mean
O= R .J. ohm
IR

Calcu lations :
Log calculation table :
1) Ga lva nom ete r in left gap
Obs. No. 1 2 3
log R= a
1 ~ •O Oo
log e = b l
a+ b= c
log e = d 6, ~ IJ
c- d= e
antilog e = G ~o i.. 6q
1.06",
2) Galvanometer in right gap
Obs. No. 1 2 3
log R= a 4
I· 2-.. '2.•CIO
log f = b
a+ b= c 3, l
log f =d l, .3
c- d= e
antilog e = G

:. the resistance of the galvanom

eter

G = mean G (of left gap) + me

an G (of right gap)
2
0 = ~~ •1-r+s n

, ( 72) •
I
 : resistance of the galv
Jles11lt fhe t-115"n
4 •__
anometer o = __ ~
preca11tions :
I. ]\fake all connections
. and the keys m . the r ·
· Adjust . esistance
the resistance R such thQ t thC potnt bo,:· tight
. the middle
f',e,'"
2
.
or between 30 cm and 70 cm , one third of the meterbnd!JC wire
. . an only at the, prcicrobly One rca d.mg near or on the mid of the bridge wire
J(eep the c1rcmt
. 1·d . Itmc of observation
31 po nots 1 e the Jockey on tile . b
-t• wire ut tap 1't gent1y to get the exact null point

_ (Quesdon1J
I. What 1s 9'~alq~c,e point?
heo.tde.H
, 1ne au\-rut1anpu.~ ~q.o.~l.l.oa_l.bctLanLe
.fi_the __ h pot()~
- - . 1s ' -_w. h_e11. -a __ p_I_o.ce_'f, _ _
___ 1.5 equatl ll d1shibute.d _ wt1!: top.u t,,or whW--l-'!et . b:1-
c'()o+ . AV"'l_;o o\ -.t r en ... ~6.nni on .o .. S).r:\ .re
f'V\eI c. ~'\arnf
.;:)f L....... e. -i_----
\ , ., c-,----("
1.J ... en:- --I_a -- -, --- bct\r1 /' - -l-00 If\ rI 1L>' --- nefl
- - _...o_-., L

-\-he, .....h e.. - o .r. .. r., €a.T ... J.s... e..""""

0l p0.1 .:;;1, .... l,l.~.-.1. .. l :1-Y------
I"' --- ..1.... h,e_rl I (,Y.£lri
-"'r. 1-oJ
-""' :r;c.
/\r

...... n_. . . ..om................................................................................... .

. .... .. .... . . . . .. . ... . . . . . . . . .... . . . . .. ... . .... ... . . . . . . .... .. . . .... . ... . . . . . . .... .. .. . . .. . .. . ......... .. ......

·····················································································································
................ .................. .~····· ···························································•·"··••"····
3. Can you use a shunt for the Jvanometer? Explain
.. .. .. .. . • .. .. ................................................................... t .. L" .......................
' _m__o:rden. _Jo _CV ri\l Ra: t __a ___ fr.a lv af.11.'l_m _e~ -,{l TV- .pn- .Elm_ll!~fw-,
__,;i__ v.~ __ \_o \-1'.l _c,reG_ isJq n. ce __ \;:,no_w.n. __ o. s_ -----S h.uo _\ __ '. _':f.~_5 J_s_t:ao
--_02. _,~s _can nee.Jed. __ 111- Pco:c;d J_ ~ 1- --'.kl --<:ta Jv_ ~ nan;i e ~ ---_ fl ____
. s.~a.\\ ...p. .•. t.t.Qn.~-0- e__p:nnCJp_ctJ c..r.1rr.:e.nJ !+ll IJ _f-:_19~------
-thxo l,_f.he 0 -9 ___ _ani:,_m.etfu'.- eind - 1.<n-.9e_C.1,nr.-1;nJ__ _
---- w.0\ __ 1~oui __ _.fh __ u-9b.--the.. shun+_: ___________ ------------ _______________ _____ _
-- - -------- - --- - ------------- - ------ - ---- - - ' - - -- - - - -- - ----- - - - --- - -- - - - - - - - -- - --- - -- - - -- - - -- - -- - --- - -------- --- - -----

Remark ond sign of teacher : -------------~ -----------------------------------------------------

--------------- --------------- ------ ----------- ------- ~1\(1.i(. _________________ --- ---- ----- --------- ------
- -- - -- - - - -------- - -- - --- - -- ---------- - ----- - --- - - --- -- - -- - --------- ----- - --- - - - -- -- - - - --- - - --- - -- - ---------------

- (7.3) •
 Alm: To compare e.m.f. of the two given cells using a potentiometer.
Apparatus: A potentiometer. a plug key, a rheostat. two cells, jockey, four way key,
galvanometer, connecting wires etc.
Diagram:

+ 2
E-::- E,
s -
K

Rh ~,- +~i=-.o (S11111)

• , (E,+E,)

o--±, ,-(E,-E,)~ f±---o (Differ--,

Formula:
1) Individual cell method or Separate cell method -
El LI
·- - -
E2 Li
Where, L1 is the balancing length when cell EI is in the circuit and L is the balancing length when
cell E2 is in the circuit. 2

2) Sum and difference method - .

El + E2 = ~ El LI + L2
Le. - = - - -
E1 - E2 L2 E2 L, - L2
Where, L I is the balancing length when both cells assist each other i.e. E + E (sum method) and
I 2
L2 is the balancing length when both cells oppose each other i.e. E - E (difference method).
Procedure: 1 2

Part - I (Individual cell Method or Separate cell method)

1. Care has to be taken that Ei > E2 , E~ > E & Es> E
1 2
2. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.(i). Close the key K to bring the circuit in working, as
current will start flowing. Adjust the rheostat at minimum resistance for maximum current in
the circuit.
3. Take the cell E1 in the circuit by closing key K1• Then touch the jockey at zero end of tht
potentiometer wire and note the direction of deflection in the galvanometer. Touch the jockey
at the other end of the potentiometer wire. If the direction of deflection is opposite to that ·
the first case, the connections are correct. (If the deflection is in the same direction then eith

•
• ( 76)
 connections are wrong or e.m.f. of the cell used is less). Starting from the point A touch the
jockey on the wire at various points and obtain the null point P1• Note the length L, of the
potentiometer wire between the point A and p 1,
the cell E2by closing key~-
4_ Now disconnect the cell E, by opening key K,. And connect
Obtain the null point P2 and note the length L2 of the potentiometer wire between the points A
& P2. Make sure that rheostat position is same as in step 2.
5. Repeat the observations alternately for each cell again by adjusting the rheostat at different
positions.

port-II (Sum and difference method)

I, Care has to be taken that E I ~- E2 & E• > EI + E2
2. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.(ii) such that the pos1t1ve terminal of E1 is connected to the
negative terminal of E2• In this case both cells assist each other i.e. sum method. Close the key
K to bring the circuit in working, as current will start flowing. Adjust the rheostat at minimum
resistance for maximum current in the circuit.
3. Then touch the jockey at zero end of the potentiometer wire and note the direction of deflection
m the galvanometer. Touch the jockey at the other end of the potentiometer wire. If the
direction of deflection is opposite to that in the first case, the connections are correct. (If the
deflection is in the same direction then either connections are wrong or e.m.f of the cell used
is less). Starting from the point A touch the jockey on the wire at various points and obtain the
null point P,. Note the length L 1 of the potentiometer wire between the point A and Pl.
4. Now connect cells, such that the negative terminal of E1 is connected to the negative terminal
of Er In this case both cells oppose each other i.e. difference method. Obtain the null point P2
and note the length L2 of the potentiometer wire between the points A & P2 . Make sure that
rheostat position is same as in step 2.
5. Repeat the observations for each sum and difference method by adjusting the rheostat at
different positions.

Obsen·ations :
E.M.F. of battery, Es = g V
E.M.F. of cell, E 1 = .lo ()_
E.M.F. of cell, E2 = 0 , K_.
Port- I (Individual ceJI Method or Separate cell method)

Balancing length when 1 Balancing length when

E, is in the circuit E2 is in the circuit 5-=~
I (cm) L, (cm) E2 L2
1. i 5' J l..0 o,q°'3lt
L :>--2-
&/=
2. ,,(')~~
3. l- j .LS') I · I O!f2..
4. \, \ 0 'L
Mean ' () J

(77) •
•
 Part - II Sum method and difference method

iri
L, (cm L2 (cnt)
I.
)0 31-8 ).50 ~·
2. I 1 S9l q& JI
3.
1lt6'1I ~,,_ -go
-

4.
S18 1-r
Cokulotions:

M~ n ~ Q• D483 t i · Gr-o f t 1, r- 0 47+\,13 41

11

Result: . . . . . ~ I •O
I) £ / £ 2 using separate or 111d1v1clual cell method - ....... .. .. .
1 J/
2) £ / £ 2 using sum and difference method == . .. .... 1.~ .6'J.(( ._r--
Precoutions:
I. All the connections and r,lun keys should be tight.
2. Jn part - I, sec that Es,,, E1 and Es ~ E,.
3. In part JI, sec that Es ;, E1+E,, /~s "' E -E, and E ..,, £ ,.
1
1

4. For a given set, the setting of the rheostat shou ld be the same while determining the balance
point P1 and P2•
5. The balancing lengths should be measured from the point A.

( 78) •
•
Alm: To detennine the internal resistance of a given cell using potentiometer.
Apparatus: Potentiometer, rheostat, resistance box, battery, celt,jockey, plug key, galv
etc.
Diogrom:

Formula:

Where, ~ is the shunt resistance in parallel with the given cell, L and L are balanci
1 2 ng length
without and with shunt respectively and r is the internal resistance of the cell.
Procedure:
1. Measure the e.m.f. (Es) of the battery and the e.m.f. (E) of the cells. See that Es>
E.
2. Make the connections as shown in the figure above. Close the key K to bring
the circuit in
working. Adjust the rheostat at minimum resistance for maximum current in the circuit.
3. Then touch the jockey at zero end of the potentiometer wire and note the directio
n of deflection
in the galvanometer. Touch the jockey at the other end of the potentiometer wire. Ifthe
direction
of deflection is opposite to that in the first case, the connections are correct. (If the
deflection
is in the same direction then either connections are wrong or e.m.f. of the cell used
is less).
4. First keep ~ open and K closed. Starting from the point A touch the jockey
1 on the wire
at various points and obtain the nuH point P • Note the length L of the potentiometer
1 1 wire
between the point A and P •
1
5. Now, close K, as well as K2 and keep suitable resistance RB (10 n to 20 Q) from
resistance
box. Again touch the jockey from point A on the wire at various points and obtain
the null
point P2• Note the length L2 of the potentiometer wire between the point A and Pi-
6. Take two more readings by changing the value of RB.

Observation:
Balancing length when~ is open L =.... ~-~ .. .. .. cm
1

( 84) •
•
 _, don Tobie:
obte• .. 0

~--t-----------t--1~
---~-,___j1_~~~ ~ ~-~__,--~
'76
1.s- __~ ~ ~ - ~-~ld.:::~~---1
Mean
caJculotions:

-::::. 6 ·6 L\ S'S- TO ' \\ 68 t- 6 ·2-\ O(' t 6 8317

~
' <s o6' \
~
:=:- 6 •_2Q__ 6 1',

Result: , .
Internal resistance of the given c ~ ~ -•$.~?~
Precautions: (
1. Once the rheostat is adjusted, the setting of the rheostat $hould not be changed throughout the
experiment.
2. Current should be passed for short time.
3. See that Es> E .
( Questions j
1. What do you mean by the internal resista~e of celp
-m:\er.r.of.?.\. .x~s.is.-tor\C~.:1c€ .t encs..:to..1h..e .!'.?.p..p.o.sd-{up..fQ.±h,e.
..tto.w .o.\:-.. C.~TI M.t .. .o.Ue~..d .. 'b ~-. ¼ .e .. c..e.\ Ls ..a .r\ d b.ct. J.J:-e:n"e5
. ±h.e m.s.e \v e5... :o.~..$.~ .l h 0.fl .... Jf\. lli ~- ..<_3 ~ n e'.Y.c;;t boo. o .t:-...h €.ct b:..
2. What are the factors on which intern esistance of cell depends?
Tu~S, .-\.h£ .. \.n_\-err.n.a._\..:.rf?. .,s. of:-.. ce. ct£.pends. on .the..
1"-:c\ rtCe... c.t. H.
... fuc\:o:r.S .. \. \.k~:----~\5,:-\-:-c.l.oc.e. ... b7-~-~.e r) ..~ -e-. ..{:? \ec. ~--d.e..s 1 ..-t.h ~ - 1 ~
1 he.. e.tt-ectt ~ .e..~ Y'f?Ct ..Qt:. ib.e ...fr\ ~ .Crru oe.s. -f .the .Co.t1.Cf-'...f-{.,d n
+.-B.m {?.: ~
3. Does internal resistance of cell depends on the current q_r~v\ n from the cell? 5°\(l ~ 0- " -e
~-:\EhrDa,.\..~.-e5i5.t"Q.O.Ce: ..".'J" .~. 1=V..P:-. S o l ~ ,(s ~\5~ ···-~---······ ~
.clefenc\. .. 0 n .-\:.h.e...C.\)...'Y.Y..e..n.\- .I . c\~e,l vJn rror."'""' ce\\ ...............
..
Remark and sign of teacher : ............. .. -~ ...... . ........ .. ... . ...... . . . . .... . .. ........
~ \, v
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::\.?.: ~ .. :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~:::::: :::::
($5) •
•
 •
Aim: Comparison of magnetic dipole moments (m) ofa bar magnet by Individual, and by
and Oppose Method. . d'ffi t eti'
Apparatus: A pairs of bar magnets (A & B) (pre,era l': bly havmg I eren magn c
retort stand, thread, stop watch, etc.
Diagram:

likes poles repel

(m 1 + mi) (b) (m1 - II½Hc)

( Assist Position ) ( Oppose position)
Formula:
2 I
µ =4n B Ti
H

For assist method (like poles together)

2(II+/2)
µ I+ µ2 = 4 n 2
BHTS
For oppose method (unlike poles together)

(I - 1 )
µ -µ = 4n2 I 2
I 2 B T2
H d
Theory:
Vibrating magnet in Horizontal component of Earth's magnetic field:
The equation of motion of the angular oscillations of a bar magnet suspended in the earth's
magnetic field is given by d20
1 - = -µB sin0
dt2 H

Thus, the time period of oscillation, for small 0 is

T=ZirJ I
µBH
where I is moment of inertia of the magnet about an axis of oscillation, m its magnetic moment

( 88) •
•

rt ; j
 is horizontal comp onen t of earth 's magn etic field
c,ndBlf
rectangular bar magn et,
fora
l=M L +
( 12
2
82)
nd and M is the mass of the bar magnet
where L, b are th e lenglll a bread th of the bar magn et
procfdurf: .
balan ce.
I. The moss(M) of magn et IS meas ured using weig hing
Vernier calli pers.
. The lengt h (f) 0nd brea dth (b) of the magn et are meas ured using
2 ass needle.
). The direction of BH IS drow n on the table using a comp
threa d.
. The bar magn et is susp ende d horiz ontal ly using an inextensible strin g or
4 et near to it.
. The magn et is set mto vibrot10n by mom entar ily bring ing anoth er bar magn
5 watc h. The proc ess is repeated three
6. The time taken for 20 oscil latio ns is noted using stop
times and mea n t IS deter mine d.
7. Calculate perio d T = t/2O
ist Posit ion) using rubb er band or thread.
8. Hold the two magn ets as show n in figure 1 (b) (Ass
of the expe rime nt.
Suspend these magn ets using threa d as in the earli er port
that their comb mati on start s perfo rmin g
9 Bring the third mag net near these magn ets such
oscillatory moti on.
the time period.
JO. ~ote the time taken for 20 oscil latio ns and calcu late
Jl. Hold the two magn ets as show n in figur
e I (c) (Opp ose Position) usirlg rubb er band or threa d.
the expe rime nt.
Suspend these magn ets using threa d as in earli er part of
12. Bring the third mag net near these magn ets
such that the comb inati on start s perfo rmin g
oscillatory moti on.
the time perio d (T).
13. Note the time taken for 20 oscil latio n and calcu late

Obsen ation s :
I. Least coun t of Vern ier calli pers = _Q~_Q _l_ cm.
2. Zero error of Vernier calipers = Z = . . . . . . . . . . cm
3. Mass of the Bar Mag net (A) = ___6._Q_ ______ g.
4. Mass of the Bar Mag net (B) = ____:1:JJ______ g.
Observation Tabl e for mea sure men t of lengt h and
brea dth .I I h
V.S. R. T.R. Corr ected
l\1eo n
M.S. R read ing
Obs no. · Mag net Posi tion V.S.D. cm CQ\
I cm
Cmo b c=H+ b d =~-:, cm

1 Leng th
+ ·8 1 -&4 +~s~
A

I· '2. ~.:i \ ·2 .9 1· 29
t
h ~

2 A Brea dth
~
1
::1- ~88 ±· ~&_ I
i
3 B Leng th 7
+-:- - ~s
\· L s \· \5 I \ .
B2= I • IS
4 B Brea dth

( 89.) •
•
 Observation table for periodic time (T)

tl
'f\ I
Individual 4~· l-< 5 4S
~
')

2 So 5o So
111di\idual
<" ' Assist
~~
3
( I · 2) 81- 81 21·
Oppose
4
(1-2)
6s b5 65
Cakulotions:
Moment of Inertia of'Mognet (A)

Moment of Inertia of Magnet (8)

2
- + B,-
I 2 = M l/ J
[ 12
Individual Method

Assist and oppose Method

Result:

I. The magnetic moments

method
or the magnet~ were compared using lndi\ idual, Sum and difference
2. f!J_ ~~02
( lnclividuol Method)

.!i -3 . 62.61-
3. J.12 ( A,,i,t and oppose Method)
I
Precautions :

I. Make sure that the bcir ma~Jncts used in the experiment have di ffcrcnt magnetic dipole moment.
2. Sec that the magnet/magnets is/arc hctd horizontal while performing the experiment.
3. Ensure that due to torque the magnet/magnets do not start performing rotational motion .

( 90) •
•
 EXPERIMENT NO. 13
CBARACTERISncs OF ZENER DIODE
\im: To study the characteristics of Zener diode in
reverse bias and determine its reverse
breakdown voltage.
\pporotm,: DC power supply, Milliameter, Voltmeter,
Connecting wires etc
1 hror~ : The Zener diode is used to regulate the volta
ge across a load when there are variationa
in t~e supply or load cun-ent. The Zener regulator is conne
ct_ed between the o~tp_u~ of the bridge
rccttficr w1th the filte~- & th~ load.The Zener regulator
consists of a current ~1m1hng resistor\
connected m senes w1th the mput voltage Vs & the Zene
r diode 1s connected m parallel with the
load ~- TI1e Zener diode is reverse biased. It is selected
with a breakdown voltage V equal to the
des1rcd across the load. I\ - Vs - Vz As long as Vs is great 7
er then VI is the Zener diode operates
m the breakdown region & output voltage remains constant.
Circuit diagram:

I V, = Variable input
Rs
Vanable D.C. voltage
Power Supply
+ + I\ = Resistance
vi v2 rnA = milliameter
- Z = Zener Diode
R, = Load Resistance

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagr
am.
2. Vary the voltage (vi) of the D.C. supply as shown in
the observation table .
3. Note the current through the Zenerdiode (Iz).
4. Measure the voltage across Zenerdiode (Vz)
5. Plot a graph oflz (-ve Y axis) Vz V (-ve X axis)
6. Note the breakdown voltage 01 ) .
8
Observation table:
Sr. No. \' !~U T VOLTAGE CURRENT THROUG
H ZENER OUTPUT VOLTAGE
(Vi) volts
I
I Iz (mA) ACROSS ZENER
\
I (\ .,) volts
1 \ 0
I - C
....2 -+-- \ I q.5
3
- ..,_ _ \ '2..
- 4,5
f-

4 \ -
3
- -- ~-5
~
5 y
6 5
5 - 5
7 \ G s
- 8 \ 1 -
5"
9 g
.

. \ 5 -
\
....10 q .5 -
( 94) •
•
 1h i
~ i..
16

.r
l,J
1,
I, I
,.,
0
I

, ,i I: .
I,
I,
!
'

I -~~+--t--t->---t---J-t---t--t--+- ._,_.......,.._._-+-..:..+-....+-I -
·--
I
~
·' r1
ri - f - -
.

-
--·- ,.,-- r

- 7 1-r .J. " ~

'i:I
I ~v Ii l 1
I I
I I 1--1---· - .. - . . ·- ..__
I " l l I I
I I { I r ,..

--
1
I .:.J
ii
I,
'*
.
·7-
I
I I I ·- ....
I _,IY ·,
r
I '
I~ I I
,--
l----1---IJ.!-1 1 __,..-.+-l-+-+-+-+.,....,.,.l---+-,,+➔-t--l~t-,---;t-~r-+'-f·.......-f-i~tr-1- '--~-+--+---+--t

I I I
' I

' I I I I
' I
I'! ' I I
'
I I I '11
'I
7 I
'
I fl,
I! I I '
.,, II
I
I I
I I' 11'. I I I -,
I II I
11 I ' I
' ' I '

' I
'
I J_
., j I
I 7 I ;1 I I
,7· 11
'I
'

I
I,,,,
J If
t-t--l--+--+--+--+.:...-+--1--1,....,-JI1-rr
·/
1 1,
I

I
'
i ·11 ri I ,f-
I 1,l 'II'
I I Ii I.
I.,
rrm 1 ,1
i IiT,;.i. Ii • I

.1 Iii 'I 11 111 I 1; I 1,• ' Ii ' I

'
ll-'--.........-i'l- . . .-
1, j:
I jl ,,
,...,_+r,.;
,, :
'
-r ¾ . I -
,, I,: I Ii I
111
rr·I r ·- r--t
I I I• I
+ 1....... '"I ...
I

i. ....
Ii
I•
I
1-h- -
r. .
1
II 7 1
·r ' 1 u:1 .... r'.,..,,
I; , 1 ',, 1
r-t---t---!-.J--l.
1....-1--1--l. ' I
1 !'
I_ µf •11-:-y..;
11 1111 r
t·•·' .. f.l•+ tt
'i 1
•
J

~, i, I
I
" ,I I I' I I Ii I 1,
~
II Ii I,,
I.
I
trt'"h+.....-,.h,_\.µc:.++.,..._.j.,..,..,.-H-,-,fi--'
! I 11 ' ii 'I II I I _1 'i '.: I -, . . """11,·· ·1•·, · rh-~-~
: dI ' ,I ,
"T -
I I '
-
I l.:... -
I' I ;
_,_t.!:
I Sign of teacher
Ll 1i. ;,, I
'i ,, ,

( 95) •
•
 -I z
Result: Breakdown voltage of zener diode (V 8 ) = _.S volt
precautions: -
!. All the connections should be tight.
2. Input voltage should be adjusted in suitable range.
3. Increase reverse voltage gradually.
( Questionsj
l. How is the breakdown voltage related to doping level of a diode?

~ E',. -~eS4i fi09::: ii~ihi 3:e:.: i E, •1n:v ~~:Se\ ?J· .. P.Yof m: ~:~;:,:.;; i:.::b .
..5!\.Ua-:c:e... of, .d.~.l Oq ... .de 0 5 J. r.j . ..t.f ..,;:u:i. ~ ....\ 'i3 .r:\ QY.e?.. :±t,-e. . .
....WJ?.<::l'E-.. O.i::i.{'. \ .1'.'.'J ... Q.e1'£ r:\d e.r.. c.g ... _c;:,f. .fue ....-e. \.e.ch,:c.. .. H ·e .ld.
0 \ .'t:r-c e.~~c\.o.w..D..-. .... ... ........ .. ............................. ...... ... .. ... .... .. . .
2. State the applica tions of Zener diode.

. .. ........... . . . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....
. . . ......... ....... .

Remark and sign of teacher : ... • •. • •• • •• •• • · · ~ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ......

··· ··· ······· ···········································-·· ~,,\01>. ·············································
... ...................... ........................................................................................

•
Alm: To identify given IC's and to verify the truth table for each type oflogic gate,
Theory: Gate is a logic circuit with one or more input signals, but only one output•·
are digital circuits because the input and output signals are either low (O) or high (1) ~
truth table shows all input and output possibi Ii ties for a logic circuit. Tot~I number ofcom
is 2n variables the number of inputs. OR, AND and NOT are the baste gates, NANO
are derived gate the OR get has a high output if any input is high . The A~D ga~e provide
output only when all inputs are high. For Not gate output is always oppoSite the mput. it
light output when its input is low The NAND gate has a high output when at least one of its
is low. The NAND gate has a high output when all inputs are low.
The !Cs 7400, 7402, 7404, 7408, 7432 are from standard TTL family. For TTL devices_
voltage from 0 to 0.8 V is considered low input and any voltage from 2 to 5V is consider
input. Any voltage from Oto 0.4 Vis low output and any voltage from 2.4 to 3.9 Vis high
For 7400 series supply voltage rage is 4.75 to 5.25 V over a temperature range of 00 C to 7
Logic gates can be used to build flip-flops, digital counters etc. which can be used c a l ~
computers and other digital systems.
Appara tus: 5V DC power supply, IC block ,probes, digital multimeter. IC7408 (AND
GCJtel
IC 7432 (OR Gate), IC 7402 (NOT Gate), IC 7400 (NAND Gate), IC 7404(NOJ
Gate)
Procedu re:
1. Mount the IC to be tested on the IC block.
2. Connect the positive of the supply to pin 14 and negative to the 7th pin of the IC.
3. Consider any one of its gate out of four gates.
4. Give different combinations of input from 0 to 1. Here 0 indicates zero voltage and 1
indicate +5V.
5. Connect a voltmeter across the output terminal oflC and the ground terminal to pin no.7.
6. Measure the output voltage, which will be zero for Oand around +5V for l state.
7. Repeat the same procedure to test the other gates.
8. Verify the truth table and observation table for different input combinations.
9. Repeat the above procedure to test the other IC's i.e. 7408, 7404, 7400,7432 etc.
Pin Diagram and observations :
(1) r--_;;;_
Quad - dual - Input ____
OR gate IC . ___ ___ __

7432 Quad 2 Input OR

(iop •
•
 OR Gate no. I.pin nos. I and 2 ar .
fo~ (OR GATE) e inputs and pin no. 3 is output.
JC 7432 .
Logic Equation
y ::: A+B
Truth table for 'OR' Gate
Observation table
INPUT OUT PUT
INPUT ! OUTPUT
A .4---
B y y (V)
A (V) B (V)
0 0 0 '
0 0 0
0 I
0 I
0
I Q_ I
\ l I
Z) Quad - dual - input AND gate IC
r=-------- ----.

7408 Quad 2 Input AND

JC 7408 (AND GATE)

Logic Equation
Y=AB
Truth table for 'AND' Gate Observation table
INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT
A B y A(V) B (V) Y(V)
-
0 0 0 0 a 0
0 1 0 ,, 0 I 0
,
0 0 / l 0 0 ·-
1 1 I l \

3) Quad- dual- input NAND gate IC

--------- -- -----...
14
vcc
7400 Quad 2 Input NAND
IC 1400 (NANO GATE)
Logic Equation
Y=.4.B
Truth table for 'NAND' Gate
' ,,.-:·- . ,, •'
..
'
'
•• .i' 'i.•

B y
A 0 CJ
0 0 I
(!) '
0 I I -· I ~ ~ -0- - r _l__
1 0 I
I o
1 1 0

4) Quad-dual- input NO~R~g~a~te~IC::__ _--:=---::::::~::;--;::;---1

7402 Quad 2 Input NOR

IC 7402 (NOR GATE)

Logic Equation
Y=A+B
Truth table for 'NOR' Gate Observation table
INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPur
A B y A(V) B (V) y (V)
0 0 1 0 C, L
0 1 0 0 l 0
1 0 0 \ 0 D

1/
1 1 0 I 0
5) Hex Inverter (NOT Gate)

A4 Y4

7404 Hex inverter

• ( 10-0 •
 4°' (liBX INVERTER) NOT OATB
JC 1. t:11uation
, lllJIC .P"'I
Y"'1rruth table for 'NOT' Gate
~-
0
y
0
1 0

rrccoutions :
_ Input voltage must be 5 volts.
1_ connec~ions should be joined correctly.
2 Ground1~9 should be proper for input, 0 , volt.
3.
. connections must be tight.
4
Result: The different given logic IC's are tested and their truth table is verified.
( Questionsj
I. Explain what are the basic logic elements? 1 0

~
.. A~to.
... f-
i3.ctt.,
!" D. K ... cl....~.e.
~ .l .. n J...rxo.R.i..-'
o.R-.94.t.e.J :~q e 1 ~'
m ...... f\-'o . ·.a"'
N .tt1:-:-. ::r -•·
• ..... rt.9......~.ctl~.. Q_,.e... se.v.e.o.... p.&...
Le e~
- ..o·"'~.,. ..,., ,r...
..., . J.~
.. ..0. .. bCJS..( ~ .. . .0 f} ( C ... @ _q .t~:: .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .... .... ... ........ ........ .. .. .. .. . ..
. . . . .. . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . ....... .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
2. What are the applications of logic gates?
.... _. .. ··········· .. ··················· ..:············· · ··············5······················: .... ·····T
!"1l .Cfro.Cci D . \Y.o. Il.ex:,?,.. r.r., 1 c.::c o.p-xo.c&:~a"f. ...1 .. e.. lee.ho .OJ.<. . .ct o.a..
e\e£..-:;\'x .ic.'71 \ ...~TilJ f /A...:,tr..c..u i..\-.S .. c;ioa. .e ro.~.ed d ~
sj5 ~ . O:f. r. .\ ...C. 0. :r.i. uf.\?.........................................................
........
........ .
3. NAND Gate is combination of which two basic Gates?

'1b e...1t-.tl Ar.-\.O.. .c:1,ci:t ~ .. o/., _::o.t..9 ci.1-:e l5 ..-th.-e ···················:i:;--·········

·············································:·.-.-A··· ························ 1
...a:im. .... . 0.g.\:iori
. D~.,ti..9- 0. ...'oo.S .1':C . \. 0 g. 1:c. .. sct ,h15. ...-:th t., ... A. r:\ .P... g .<:t:1-. :(c,•.. cJ.o.d
..U... e " lo n fl 0. L&::> , . . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . ..............................................
·\•11 ... r.,L . r-:-. ·'"U :f.':-r, ....
4. NOR Gate is combination of which two basic Gates?

. ·r:fo~:::ici t~::: i'.s.:: +he::::u~bro: ci Ii';:;::::;('.:;:+h;;::r.-\:c;.r.:;.0.i

11ctlo, ·························································· ··········•"
. .. '.::_)..·. . ..:r:',-,
. . . . ................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .. . ... .. .. ..... . . .. .. .. .. ... .. .. ... .... . .. . ... .. .. . . . .. . ... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ...

Remark and sign of teacher : •· •· •· · · · · · · · · · · · · ~~ · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · ·······

........................................................... 0'\~ ................ ·.· ............................
.. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ..... . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ..
(fo]) •