2024 AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING

BOARD EXAM REVIEWER

GRAIN STORAGE

by

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio, MS

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineer
ASEAN Engineer

Volume 6 –AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING

Disclaimer

Photos, illustrations and schematic diagrams of equipment or machine parts shown in

the presentation are solely for educational purposes to facilitate comprehension of the
topics by the students. Showing them does not endorse a product nor imply criticism
of similar products not mentioned.
 INTRODUCTION

☐ Grain storage is the process of

protecting seeds from animal,
pest, rain, dampness, fire, and
theft. It is also a facility that
provides an environment that
maintains the grains in proper
condition for a long period of time.
 PURPOSES OF STORAGE

☐ To minimize the reduction of quantity and quality of the grains.

☐ To provide sufficient supply between harvests.
 Principle of Storage
☐ Grains are living organisms that require
nourishment, grow, and die. They must
have essentially the same care required by
other living organisms if they are to remain
alive and in good condition. The grains’
embryo is particularly sensitive to
temperature and humidity.
☐ If the temperature and humidity are kept
low at about 15°C and at moisture content
of 14 to 15%, the embryo remains viable
but inactive and the grains can be stored
for long period. However, when the
temperature and humidity increase, the
viable embryo becomes active, draw
nourishment from the concentrated
nutrients, particularly starch and protein
stored in the endosperm.
☐ Heat and moisture result from the process and soon the grain
mass begins to warm up. This further stimulates the activity of the
embryo and chain reaction is formed. Molds and microorganisms are
frequently present in the kernels; and if insects are also present, they
are assumed to become active thereby still producing more heat and
moisture. Eventually, part of the grain mass develops a temperature
of 57°C at which time visible deterioration and rotting begins. Good
storage must then provide an environment in which grains will remain
viable but inactive.
Recommended Level of Moisture
for Storage
Purpose Duration MC
(months) (% wb)
Seeds 1–3 13
4–6 12
7 – 12 11
Food 1–3 14
4–6 13.5
7 – 12 13
 Safe Storage Life of Paddy at
Different Moisture Levels and
Temperatures
Grain Safe Storage Life at Indicated MC
Temp. 14% 15.5% 17% 18.5% 20% 21.5%
(°C)
38 8 4 2 1 0 0
32 16 8 4 2 1 0
27 32 16 8 4 2 1
21 64 32 16 8 4 2
 Factors that Cause Changes During
Storage

☐ Physical factors – consist of variation

and fluctuation of temperature and
humidity.
☐ Chemical factors – mainly on moisture
content and oxygen concentration.
☐ Physiological factors – due to
physical and chemical actions, there is
respiration and heating.
☐ Biological factors – due to insects,
rodents and microorganisms.
 CATEGORIES OF STORAGE PRACTICES

☐ Farm Level

The amount stored in this level of operation is small, sufficient for

family consumption in one season. The common methods used are
storing grains in plastic bags, bamboo basket, “tabungos”, or tin
cans of about a cubic meter in size.
☐ Commercial Level

• This has a greater volume of paddy being stored and requires

longer storage time.
• Warehouse – is a flat and long building with several side doors
and roof ventilators. Materials of construction are usually
concrete flooring, GI roofing, and either GI or concrete hollow
block walling. Grains are sacked and stacked on the floor.
• Flat Store - is similar to a warehouse but the grains are stored in
bulk rather than in sacks.
• Rectangular-Steel/Wooden Bin – is normally used for bulk
storage of grains inside the building.
• Steel/Concrete Silos – are slender and tall structures for bulk
storage of grains with individual roofs.
 Recommended Dimension of
Warehouses Based
on Capacity

Warehouse Dimension Capacity

(No. of Cavans)
10 m x 30 m 10,000
20 m x 48 m 50,000
25 m x 78 m 100,000
75 m x 142 m 500,000
Grain Processing Plant
 WAREHOUSE CAPACITY FORMULA

C = [15 bags/m3 ] [ L W H ] : for rice

C = [10 bags/m3 ] [ L W H ] : for paddy
C = [12 bags/m3 ] [ L W H ] : for corn

where:
C - warehouse capacity, bags
L - effective length of warehouse, m
W - effective width of warehouse, m
H - effective height of warehouse, m
Perspective View of a Typical Warehouse
 Optimum Recommended
Stack Height
Grain Stack Height Stack Height
(in layers) (in meters)
Wheat, barley, and 18 4.57
maize
Paddy 16 4.27
Rice 16 4.27
 If a pile of rice is 8m-long, 6m-wide,
and 3.6m-high, how many bags of
rice are safe to be piled?

Given:
Length of pile -8m
Width of pile -6m
Height of pile - 3.6 m

Required: Number of bags of rice

Solution:
No. of bags = [ L x W x H ] / 15 bags / m3
= [8m x 6m x 3.6 m]/15 bags/m3
= 2,592 bags
COMPONENT FACTORS IN GRAIN
STORAGE

☐ Stored Product
☐ Storage Structure/Container
☐ Environmental Factor
☐ Storage Pest
☐ Personnel involved
 LOSSES DURING STORAGE

☐ Respiration
☐ Microorganisms
☐ Insects
☐ Rodents
☐ Birds
☐ Spillage
CONTROL MEASURE FOR STORAGE
PEST
☐ Sanitation
☐ Disinfection

(1) Chemical control

(2) Biological control
(3) Environmental control
a. Thermal disinfection
b. Modified atmosphere
c. Sealed storage
d. Aeration
e. Refrigeration
f. Drying
 Warehouse and Loss Inventory

Rice Corn
Loss due to WLr (see table below) WLr (see table below)
respiration
Loss due to WLmo = [Wi(100-Mi)/100+(0.68)x 10(0.44Mi-11.08))]D
microorganism where: Wi – weight of incoming stock, tons
Mi – percentage of moisture content of
incoming stock, %wb
D – days in storage
Loss due to insect WLi = 0.003 Id
where: Id – percent of insect damaged kernels at the
end of the storage period, %
 Rice Corn
Loss due to WLro = C x D
rodents where: C – 0.0036, 0.020, 0.035 kg/day for mice, small
rats, and large rat respectively
D – days of storage
Loss due to WLb = 0.0055 D x P
birds where: D – days in storage
P – bird population
Loss due to WLs = 0.5% per handling
spillage
Total Weight WLt = WLr + WLmo + WLi + WLro + WLb + WLs
Losses
 Daily Dry Matter Loss per 1000 Tons of
Paddy and Corn at Different Moisture
Content
Moisture Content (% wb) Dry Matter Loss (kg/1000 Tons-day
Paddy Corn
13 2.897 11.03
14 2.031 19.20
15 19.142 35.60
16 46.763 66.45
18 156.735 279.07
20 420.512 959.00
22 - 1910.00
24 - 2882.00
 QUALITY CONTROL AT THE TIME OF
STORAGE

☐ During storage, the physical factors like temperature, moisture

and pests are the most important ones that influence the keeping
quality of the grains. The grains being hygroscopic in nature, picks
up moisture from the atmosphere and attains its equilibrium.
Moisture and temperature produce favorable condition for the
multiplication of insects and fungi. The important deteriorative
changes that take place in storage are either visible type such as
sprouting, olding, weevilization and discoloration, or invisible
chemical and biochemical changes such as less viability,
development of free fatty acid, loss of nutritive values, cooking
quality, etc.
☐ Rodents and birds also cause qualitative and quantitative
losses by direct feeding or contamination by their dead bodies,
urine, fecal matter, etc. In addition, they are responsible for
spreading a number of diseases also.
☐ Hygiene and sanitary conditions in and around the storage
structure is an essential requirement for scientific storage
management as clean surroundings can do away with 70 to 80%
of infestation problem. Pesticides, when used on dusty surface,
do not give desired results.
 MAIN REQUISITES FOR QUALITY
CONTROL IN GRAINS DURING
STORAGE
☐ Selection of suitable and
adequate facilities.
☐ Preparation of warehouse
for receipt of grains to eliminate
all sources of infestation.
☐ Planning for proper storage
by acquiring adequate quantity
of pallets, pesticides and other
pest control equipment in
advance.
☐ Inspection of grains at the
time of receipt in warehouse with
a view to have first-hand
information about the quality of
the incoming grains and also to
segregate weevil, dump or
damaged and contaminated
grains.
☐ Care during stacking to build
stable blocks standing on pallets
away from wall with sufficient
alley ways around.
☐ Periodic inspection and
analysis of grains during storage
with view to draw up
disinfestation program ad priority
list for issue of stock.
☐ Implementation of preventive and curative
disinfestation measure regularly during
storage.
☐ Unkeep of the warehouse throughout the
storage period.
☐ Issue of stock according to drawn out
priority list. Necessary care at the time of
issue needs to be exercised to segregate the
deteriorating grains with a view to avoid any
complaint of substandard.
☐ Timely reconditioning of substandard stock
segregated at the time of receipt/issue and
during storage so as to recover good grains.
☐ Whenever necessary, set rules to avoid
processing and disposal of damaged grains
for human consumption.
☐ Safer handling of pesticides and their
judicious use to avoid contamination of food
grains beyond prescribed tolerance limit.
 STORAGE REQUIREMENTS

☐ Water tightness to prevent water from reaching the grains.

☐ Air tightness to prevent adsorption of water vapor from high
temperature and high humidity atmospheric air.
☐ Alternative to airtight-storage bins to circulate artificially-cooled
air (15°C) around the grains to prevent moisture accumulation and
quality deterioration.
☐ Drying facilities may be necessary in conjunction with the
storage facilities to assure right moisture content of grains prior to
storage, which is in the range of 12 to 14%.
☐ Rodent proof.
☐ Bird proof.
☐ Facilities for fumigation to kill insects. An airtight structure
will accomplish this by reducing oxygen to keep the insects
inactive.
☐ Facilities for bulk storage circulation for removal of possible
hot-spot in non-airtight structures.
☐ Material-handling equipment to move bulk grains into and out
of the storage structure mechanically.
☐ Economical with respect to materials and equipment must be
indigenous to the area, if possible.
☐ Storage size must be planned, designed and constructed to
accommodate the need may it be on far, for group of farmers, or
for some central warehouses.
 Techniques in Storing Grains

☐ Low-Temperature Storage
☐ Hermitic Storage
☐ Underground Storage
 LOW-TEMPERATURE STORAGE

☐ In low temperature storage, refrigeration equipment are needed

to maintain the required temperature. Usually, temperature is
maintained not higher than 15°C in a mechanically-cooled
warehouse. In other countries where low-temperature storage in
widely practiced, rice is dried to 15% moisture. Grains are
husked and packed in 60-kg straw bags.
☐ Respiration of paddy at 15% and 15°C is almost completely
suspended; thus, the loss of viability is prevented.
☐ Germination ratio of more than 80% can be maintained for
two to three years in rice at 15% and 15°C.
☐ Insects and microorganisms’ damage to rice at 15% mc is
prevented as low-temperature storage keep them inactive.
☐ Fumigation of rice is not necessary; thereby, reducing
expenditure and retaining the uncontaminated quality.
☐ Fresh rice taste is maintained for a couple of years.
☐ Milling quality is high and energy requirement is low. The milling
yield increases by 1 kg per 60 kg rice.
☐ Warehouse storage capacity can be increased by 20 to 30%
allowing narrower and fewer passage ways in the warehouse.
☐ Storage management is simple since control in temperature and
humidity need to be monitored.
☐ Lower cost of electricity is required for refrigeration than for
fumigation.
☐ Quality of bran does not deteriorate as readily than those stored
at high temperature.
LIMITATIONS OF LOW-TEMPERATURE
STORAGE

☐ Mechanical refrigeration equipment need to be properly sized

and designed.
☐ The warehouse needs to be insulated to minimize refrigeration
requirements.
☐ Continuous and economical supply of electricity is necessary.
☐ Warehouse should be at least 500sq.m. for 10,000 bags, for
economy.
 HERMITIC STORAGE

☐ Hermitic storage is a technique of

storage which eliminates exchange of
gases and liquids. Airtight storage
keeps the grains dry even the outside
condition has high temperature and
high humidity. Also, this technique of
storage will prevent rice or other food
grains in storage to respire as soon as
the available supply of oxygen is
exhausted. The resulting storage gas
mixture will be low in oxygen and high
in carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide of 13
to 19% will kill insect eggs, larvae, and
adults.
 Advantages of Hermitic Storage

☐ Disinfects stored food stuff by destroying insects, irrespective of

their stage of development.
☐ Positively prevents the admission of insects, rodents and other
pests.
☐ Inactivates molds and prevents overheating when the product
contains a relatively high moisture level without preventing the
development of acidity caused by anaerobic fermentation when the
humidity is excessive.
☐ All grain products that are dry at the time of storage remain dry.
☐ Saves time and money in inspecting hot spots.
 Some of the Limiting Factors Pertaining
Gas-Tight Storage
☐ Airtight structure are somewhat expensive and difficult to
manage unless plastic lining materials are used.
☐ Rigid type airtight structures must be provided with a breather
bags as an expansion tank to accommodate the change in air
volume with the change in temperature.
☐ The rate of oxygen reduction through the metabolism process
for dry ice at 12 to 14% must be checked with the initial rate of
activity for weevils, beetles, or other insect contained in the rice
to be sure significant damage does not occur before oxygen
reduction kills them.
☐ It is unlikely that high-moisture rice can be stored in sealed
bins without enough oxidation taking place to alter the taste
undesirably.
 UNDERGROUND STORAGE

☐ This type of storage is readily found in

India. The depth is about 5 meters and
almost the same up to a narrow circular
opening at the top. It may or may not be
lined with bricks or concrete. The grains
are stored in bulk. A layer of straw is
placed on all sided of the grain bulk at the
time of filling. Often, about half-meter
thickness of grain layer at the periphery
adjoining the walls turn black due to rotting
because they are not moisture proof. The
insect infestation is comparatively low
because oxygen is depleted.
 GRAIN AERATION

☐ Aeration is the process of ventilating

stored grains by moving air through
them to maintain quality. A typical
aeration system moves air down through
the grains as it replenishes stale air
surrounding the grains with fresh air.
This replaces the practice of turning the
grains or moving them to another
storage bin which is much cheaper and
minimizes damage during handling.
 Benefits of Aeration

☐ Removes odors from the grains.

☐ Prevents moisture accumulation.
☐ Controls the condition favorable to mold growth and
insect activity.
 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF AERATION

☐ Fan – It generates the pressure to force air through the duct

system and the grain mass. Trash and fines create uneven
pressure.
☐ Duct System – Design of air-handling system is crucial to good
fan operation. Poorly designed ducts can create more resistance to
flow.
☐ Drying or Perforated Floor – This factor has prepunched holes
to minimize resistance to airflow and is used for in-bin drying as well
as aeration.
 DESIGNING AERATION SYSTEM
FOR BULK GRAIN STORAGE

☐ Aeration system for bulk storage is designed to remove the heat

generated by the grains in the storage. A device to determine the
volume of air to be delivered per ton-minute is included in the
design of the system, also the fan, duct, motor as well as control
system to deliver the desired amount of air.
☐ Basically, air is blown through the
stored grains for the following
reasons:

1. To maintain uniform condition in

the storage;
2. To remove generated water; and
3. To remove generated heat.

☐ In storage, care must be exercised

to prevent rewetting the grains with
aeration, an error that results from
delivery of the air above the
equilibrium relative humidity of the
grains determines the requirements
for aeration.
STEPS IN DESIGNING AERATION
SYSTEM FOR BULK STORAGE

1. Select the Design Moisture

2. Calculate the Generated Heat
3. Select the Design Day
4. Calculate Equilibrium Humidity
5. Determine Hours of Operation
6. Calculate the Amount of Air Needed
7. Determine the Air Volume and Pressure
8. Determine the Power Requirement
9. Select Fan
10.Design the Air Distribution System
11.Design the Power and Control
☐ Select the Design Moisture

The design moisture approximates the equilibrium relative

humidity of a local climate. For rough rice, design moisture
usually ranges between 14.5 to 15.2%. However, for special
storage designed for wet season harvest, design moisture of
up to 17% could be selected. A good indicator in determining
the design moisture is the equilibrium moisture content of the
particular grain on a given condition.
☐ Calculate the Generated Heat

Generated heat should be estimated as a function of design

moisture. Supposing the grains to be stored is paddy with
16% moisture, the heat and water generated may be
computed using the formula,

log (CO2) = A Mw – B

where:
Mw - moisture content, %
A&B - constants
Rate of Deterioration Constants for
Some Cereal Grains

Grain Moisture Ranges A B

(%)
Corn, yellow dent 10.0 – 13.2 0.17 2.00
13.3 – 17.0 0.27 3.33
Sorghum 10.0 – 13.2 0.12 1.65
13.3 – 17.0 0.32 4.19
Rough Rice 10.0 – 14.1 0.21 3.04
14.2 – 17.0 0.44 6.08
Polished Rice 10.0 – 14.1 0.16 2.83
14.2 – 17.0 0.49 7.48
Brown Rice 10.0 – 13.7 0.17 2.67
13.8 – 17.0 0.44 6.41
Wheat, soft 14.2 – 17.0 0.36 5.14
☐ Select the Design Day

In selecting the design day, local weather data must be used

and, as much as possible, these data should have information
on local weather at least for the last 10 years. The wettest
month appearing in the data should be selected.
☐ Calculate the Equilibrium Humidity

Equilibrium relative humidity or reciprocally, grain moisture in

equilibrium with air may be computed using the formula,

ERH = Exp[ -A / R x (T + C)] x [Exp (-B x Md)]

where:
ERH - equilibrium relative humidity, decimal
R - universal gas constant, 1.987
T - Temperature, °C
Md - moisture content, db decimal
A, B, C - equilibrium constants
☐ Determine Hours of Operation

Hours of operation must be those hours in the design day

that fall below the equilibrium humidity. Example, for Iloilo
the wettest month is August. To determine the hours of
operation, draw the equilibrium relative humidity level to the
design day relative humidity curve. Those hours that fall
below the equilibrium relative humidity will be considered as
design hours of operation.
☐ Calculate the Amount of Air Needed

The amount of air needed can be estimated by allowing 3°C

temperature rise in the aeration air. One kJ basically heats on
kg of air 1°C. For a 3°C rise, the air needed per ton-day
therefore is

85.5 / 3 kJ heat generated = 28.5 kg of air/ton-day

☐ Determine the Air Volume and Pressure

Air volume, pressure and power are critical in the design of

aeration system. It is sometimes economical to aerate a deep
bin because of excessive power requirement. In storage, air is
used through grains as a vehicle to carry away heat and water.
It is used to maintain uniform temperatures, an important
requirement to eliminate moisture migration.
☐ Determine the Power Requirement

Power is the expression of the rate of doing work. In air flow,

the term air horsepower refers to the work done by the flow of
air and is expressed as watts or horsepower. To compute for
the air horsepower,

Air Hp = Airflow (CFM) x Static Pressure (in. water) / 6360

The brake horsepower can be determined by dividing the air

horsepower by the efficiency of the air-moving unit.
☐ Select Fan

Selection of fan must be made in accordance with the

catalogues that give the fan characteristics. The procedure in
Fan Design provides the basics of determining the size of fan
required for the system.
 DESIGN THE AIR DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM

☐ Duct design consists of two basic velocity constraints. The velocity

of the air in the main distribution duct is

• For depth of grains less than 5 meters

V = 300 to 600 m/min

• For depths of grains over 5 meters

V = 400 to 900 m/min
 Design of Power and Control
☐ Power and control can present a problem when the power
network is not reliable, although electric power for fans is much
preferred over gasoline.
☐ Humidistic controls require frequent calibration for accuracy.
They can be adjusted according to readings of wet and dry bulb
sling psychrometers that are quite accurate for humidity
measurement. A sling psychrometer and a manual switch can be
used for control of the fans if a responsible individual is present at
the storage. A recording hygrometer that is calibrated weekly can
be used as an indicator of when the fans should be ran.
 REFERENCES
☐ Araullo, E. V., de Padua, D.B. and M Graham. 1976. rice
Postharvest Technology. International Development Research
Center. Box 8500, Ottawa, Canada.
☐ Esmay, M., Soemangat, Eriyantor, and A. Philips. 1979. Rice
Post Production Technology in the Tropics. University Press,
Hawaii, Honolulu. 140pp.
☐ PCARRD. The Philippine Recommends for Rice
Postproduction Operations. PCARRD Technical Bulletin Series
No. 63. PCARRD, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines.
☐ Spray, R.A. Grain Aeration After Drying Cooperative Extension
Services. Clemson University. Circular 629. March 1982. 22pp.
☐ Teter, N.C. 1981. Grain Storage. Southeast Asia Cooperative
Postharvest Research and Development Programme. SEARCA,
College, Laguna, Philippines. 86pp.
☐ Wimberly, J. 1983. Technical Handbook for the Paddy Rice
Postharvest Industry in Developing Countries. The International
Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines.
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
1. Storage practice in which grains are 4. Storage structure made of pre-
stored in loose form in a large fabricated reinforcement concrete with
container. metal siding and with either a hopper
a. Bag storage bottom or a flat bottom.
b. Bunker storage a. Warehouse
c. Bulk storage b. Silo
d. All of the above c. Bulk container
d. All of the above
2. Storage method in which the
concentration of gas in the storage 5. Method of piling grains that provides
atmosphere is changed. ventilation space between bags and
a. Sealed storage allows circulation of convective air
b. Modified atmosphere current which, in turn, becomes the
c. Controlled atmosphere medium for heat dissipation.
d. All of the above a. Chinese Method
b. Japanese Method
3. Storage system for holding buffer c. Philippine Method
stocks and is usually located at the d. None of the above
shipping receiving terminals.
a. Village-level storage system
b. Commercial-level storage system
c. Centralized storage system
d. All of the above
6. Process in which air moves 9. Maximum allowable safe height
through the mass of stored grains of sack pile in bag storage.
at a low rate to maintain grain a. 12-16 sacks
quality. b. 18-25 sacks
a. Cooling c. 28-30 sacks
b. Aeration d. None of the above
c. Fanning
d. None of the above 10. Recommended stacking density
for paddy per cubic meter of space.
7. Wooden frame used in stacking a. 5 bags
bags of rice. b. 10 bags
a. Dunnage c. 15 bags
b. Loading platform d. None of the above
c. Bag holder
d. All of the above 11. Recommended stacking density
for corn per cubic meter of space.
8. Warehouse used for storing a. 12 bags
paddy or rice, either in bulk or in b. 14 bags
bags. c. 16 bags
a. Silo d. None of the above
b. Godown
c. Farmstead
d. None of the above
12. The recommended stacking 15. Recommended dimension for
density for rice per cubic meter of maximum piling of stacks to conform
space. with the fumigating sheets in situations
a. 10 bags where warehouses cannot be made
b. 15 bags airtight.
c. 20 bags a. 7.3 m x 21.9 m x 4.5 m
d. None of the above b. 6.3 m x 20.9 m x 4.5 m
c. 5.3 m x 19.8 m x 4.5 m
13. If a pile of rice is 8m-long, 6m- d. None of the above
wide, and 3.6m-high, how many
bags of rice are safe to be piled? 16. Recommended optimum stack
a. 2592 bags height for paddy stored in a
b. 2952 bags warehouse.
c. 2295 bags a. 16 layers
d. None of the above b. 18 layers
c. 20 layers
14. Allowable space between the d. All of the above
top of the stacks and the roof truss
of a warehouse. 17. Recommended overall height by
a. 1.0 meter ASAE for an agricultural pallet bin.
b. 1.5 meters a. 72 or 133 cm
c. 2.0 meters b. 62 or 122 cm
d. None of the above c. 52 or 112 cm
d. None of the above
18. If 5000 bags of paddy are to be 21. In storing paddy, which of the
piled 20-bags high, how many following statements is true?
square meters of floor space is a. More paddy can be stored in
required? (0.23 m/bag) a warehouse when it is placed in
a. 108 sgm jute sacks.
b. 121 sqm b. More paddy can be stored in
c. 211 sqm a warehouse when it is placed in
d. None of the above woven polypropylene bags.
c. The same volume of paddy
19. What is the peak storage can be stored in a warehouse
capacity of a 5m-diameter grain- whether they are stored in jute
storage bin with 6m average height sacks or in woven polypropylene
and 28deg minimum angle of fill? bags.
a. 126.5m³ d. All of the above
b. 162.5m³
c. 156.2m³ 22. Size of wire mesh used in
d. None of the above storage to protect stored product
from insects and rodents.
20. Small metal probe used for a. ¼in. mesh
taking samples of paddy from a b. ½in. mesh
sack. c. ¾in. mesh
a. Sampling tube d. All of the above
b. Trier
c. Sampler
d. None of the above