ASME EA-4G–2010

(ANSI Designation : ASME TR EA-4G–201 0)

REAFFIRMED 201 5

Guidance for ASME

EA-4, Energy
Assessment for
Compressed Air
Systems

AN ASM E TECH N I CAL REPO RT

I N TE N TI O N ALLY LE FT B LAN K
 ASME EA-4G–2010
(ANSI Designation: ASME TR EA-4G–2010)

Guidance for ASME

EA-4, Energy
Assessment for
Compressed Air
Systems

A TE CH N I CAL R E P O R T P RE P ARE D B Y AS M E AN D R E G I S TE R E D WI TH AN S I

Three Park Avenue • New York, NY • 1 001 6 USA

 Date of Issuance: February 25, 2011

This Guide will be revised when the Society approves the issuance of a new edition. There will be no addenda or
written interpretations of the requirements of this Guide issued to this edition.

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Copyright © 2011 by
THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS
All rights reserved
Printed in U.S.A.
 CONTENTS

Foreword .............................................................................................................................................................................. iv
Committee Roster ................................................................................................................................................................ v
Correspondence With the EA Committee ....................................................................................................................... vi
1 Scope and Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1
2 Introduction to Compressed Air Systems ....................................................................................................... 3
3 An Effective Compressed Air System Assessment ......................................................................................... 6
4 Guide to Organizing the Assessment .............................................................................................................. 7
5 Guide to Conducting the Assessment ............................................................................................................. 13
6 Guide to Analysis of Data From the Assessment ........................................................................................... 20
7 Guide to Reporting and Documentation .......................................................................................................... 30
8 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................... 38
Figures
1 Example Compressed Air System ............................................................................................................... 4
2 Motor Power Factor as a Function of Percent Full-Load Amperage ...................................................... 12
3 Measured Power Factor Versus Percent Full-Load Amperage ............................................................... 15
4 Example Installed Data System ................................................................................................................... 17
5 Example Pressure Profile 1 ........................................................................................................................... 23
6 Example Pressure Profile 2 ........................................................................................................................... 24
7 Example Measured Pressure Profile ........................................................................................................... 24
8 Compressed Air Waste .................................................................................................................................. 27
9 Example of a Simple Block Diagram .......................................................................................................... 31
10 Complex Block Diagram Showing Transducer Locations ....................................................................... 32
11 Dynamic Pressure Trend ............................................................................................................................... 35
12 Wrapper Machine and Test Pressure Locations TP17, TP18, and TP19 ................................................. 36
13 Wrapper Dynamic Pressure Profile Signature (25-Hz Data Interval) .................................................... 36
Tables
1 Site-Specific Assessment Goals .................................................................................................................... 10
2 Production Rates Recorded During the System Assessment .................................................................. 19
3 Example Baseline Summary ......................................................................................................................... 20
4 Example Baseline Profile for Production Day Type ................................................................................. 21
5 Example Equipment-Rating Notes ............................................................................................................. 32
6 Example Equipment Age/Comments ........................................................................................................ 33
7 Example Key End-Use Air Demands .......................................................................................................... 33
8 Example Accuracy Information ................................................................................................................... 33
9 Example Operational Summary .................................................................................................................. 38

Nonmandatory Appendices
A Expanded Glossary ......................................................................................................................................... 39
B Measurement Uncertainty .............................................................................................................................. 41
C Key References ................................................................................................................................................. 48

iii
 FOREWORD

This guidance document provides technical background and application details in support of the understanding
and application of ASME EA-4, Energy Assessment for Compressed Air Systems. This guidance document provides
background and supporting information to assist in carrying out the standard. The guidance document covers such
topics as rationale for the technical requirements of the assessment standard; technical guidance, application notes,
alternative approaches, tips, techniques, and rules-of-thumb; and example results from fulfilling the requirements of
the assessment standard. This guidance document was developed to be used as an application guide on how to utilize
ASME EA-4.
ASME EA-4 provides a standardized framework for conducting an assessment of compressed air systems. A com-
pressed air system is defined as a group of subsystems composed of integrated sets of components used to deliver
compressed air energy to manufacturing equipment and processes. Assessments performed using the requirements set
by ASME EA-4 involve collecting and analyzing system design, operation, energy use, and performance data and iden-
tifying energy performance improvement opportunities for system optimization. These assessments may also include
additional information, such as recommendations for improving resource utilization, reducing per unit production cost,
and improving environmental performance of the assessed system(s).
ASME EA-4 provides a common definition for what constitutes an assessment for both users and providers of assess-
ment services. The objective is to provide clarity for these types of services that have been variously described as energy
assessments, energy audits, energy surveys, and energy studies. In all cases, systems (energy-using logical groups
of industrial equipment organized to perform a specific function) are analyzed through various techniques such as
measurement, resulting in the identification, documentation, and prioritization of energy performance improvement
opportunities.
This Guide is part of a portfolio of documents and other efforts designed to improve the energy efficiency of indus-
trial facilities. Initially, assessment standards and guidance documents are being developed for compressed air, process
heating, pumping, and steam systems. Other related existing and planned efforts to improve the efficiency of industrial
facilities include
(a) ASME assessment standards, which set the requirements for conducting and reporting the results of a com-
pressed air, process heating, pumping, and steam assessments.
(b) a certification program for each ASME assessment standard that recognizes certified practitioners as individu-
als who have demonstrated, via a professional qualifying exam, that they have the necessary knowledge and skills to
apply the assessment standard properly.
(c) an energy management standard, A Management System for Energy, ANSI/MSE 2000:2008, which is a stand-
ardized approach to managing energy supply, demand, reliability, purchase, storage, use, and disposal and is used to
control and reduce an organization’s energy costs and energy-related environmental impact.
NOTE: ANSI/MSE 2000:2008 will eventually be superseded by ISO 50001, now under development.
(d) an ANSI measurement and verification protocol that includes methodologies for verifying the results of energy
efficiency projects.
(e) a program, Superior Energy Performance, that will offer an ANSI-accredited certification for energy efficiency
through application of ANSI/MSE 2000:2008 and documentation of a specified improvement in energy performance
using the ANSI measurement and verification protocol. Superior Energy Performance is now using the ISO Draft
International Standard 50001 for plants. ISO 50001 is not yet final. The Measurement and Verification Protocol is
anticipated to be a normative reference to ANSI/MSE 50021 and ANSI/MSE 50028.
The complementary documents described above, when used together, will assist organizations seeking to establish
and implement company-wide or site-wide energy plans.
Publication of this Technical Report that has been registered with ANSI on July 27, 2010 has been approved by ASME.
This document is registered as a Technical Report according to the Procedures for the Registration of Technical Reports
with ANSI. This document is not an American National Standard and the material contained herein is not normative
in nature. Comments on the content of this document should be sent to the Managing Director, Technical, Codes and
Standards, ASME.

iv
 EA INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM ENERGY ASSESSMENT
STANDARDS COMMITTEE
(Th e followin g is th e roster of th e Com m ittee at th e tim e of approval of th is G uide. )

STANDARDS COMMITTEE OFFICERS

F. P. Fendt, Chair
P. E. Sheaffer, Vice Chair
R. L. Crane, Secretary

STANDARDS COMMITTEE PERSONNEL

J. A. Almaguer, Th e Dow Ch em ical Co. A. T. McKane, Lawren ce Berkeley N ation al Laboratory
R. D. Bessette, Coun cil of I n dustrial Boiler Own ers W. A. Meffert, G eorgia I n stitute of Tech n ology
R. L. Crane, Th e Am erican Society of Mech an ical En gin eers J. L. N icol, Scien ce Application s I n tern ation al Corp.
G. T. Cunningham, Ten n essee Tech U n iversity J. D. Rees, N orth Carolin a State U n iversity
T. J. Dunn, Weyerh aeuser Co. P. E. Scheihing, U .S. Departm en t of En ergy
F. P. Fendt, Th e Dow Ch em ical Co. P. E. Sheaffer, Resource Dyn am ics Corp.
A. R. Ganji, San Fran cisco State U n iversity V. C. Tutterow, Project Perform an ce Corp.
J. C. Ghislain, Ford Motor Co. L. Whitehead, Ten n essee Valley Auth ority
T. A. Gunderzik, XCEL En ergy A. L. Wright, Oak Rid ge N ation al Laboratory
S. J. Korellis, Contributing Member, Electric Power Research R. G. Wroblewski, Prod uctive En ergy Solution s, LLC
I n stitute

PROJECT TEAM EA-4 — ENERGY ASSESSMENT FOR COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS

A. T. McKane, Chair, Lawren ce Berkeley N ation al Laboratory W. Perry, Kaeser Com pressors, I n c.
F. Moskowitz, Vice Chair, Draw Profession al Services W. Scales, Scales I n dustrial Tech n ologies, I n c.
T. F. Taranto, Vice Chair, Data Power Services, LLC G. H . Shafer, Sh afer Con sultin g Services, I n c.
P. E. Sheaffer, Secretary, Resource Dyn am ics Corp. M. D. Smith, Pn eu-Logic Corp.
D. Booth, Sullair Corp. M. R. Soderlund, G eorgia I n stitute of Tech n ology
M. Chang, Custom Buildin g Products T. Walker, Baxter H ealth care
T. D. H yde, Alcoa, I n c. D. R. Woodward, Weyerh aeuser Co.
K. J. Keena, N ation al G rid J . Yarnall, Rogers Mach in ery Co.
D. E. Peace, Sh aw I n dustries G roup, I n c.

v
 CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE EA COMMITTEE

General. ASME documents are developed and maintained with the intent to represent the consensus of concerned
interests. As such, users of this technical report may interact with the Committee by proposing revisions and attend-
ing Committee meetings. Correspondence should be addressed to:

Secretary, EA Committee
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Three Park Avenue
New York, NY 10016-5990
http://go.asme.org/Inquiry

Proposing Revisions. Revisions are made periodically to the technical report to incorporate changes that appear nec-
essary or desirable, as demonstrated by the experience gained from the application of the technical report. Approved
revisions will be published periodically.
The Committee welcomes proposals for revisions to this technical report. Such proposals should be as specific as
possible, citing the paragraph number(s), the proposed wording, and a detailed description of the reasons for the
proposal, including any pertinent documentation.
Attending Committee Meetings. The EA Committee holds meetings or telephone conferences, which are open to
the public. Persons wishing to attend any meeting or telephone conference should contact the Secretary of the EA
Standards Committee.

vi
 ASME EA-4G–2010

GUIDANCE FOR ASME EA-4, ENERGY ASSESSMENT FOR

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS

1 SCOPE AND INTRODUCTION Appendix A of this document. Section 2 of this docu-

ment presents key elements and characteristics of indus-
1.1 Scope and Purpose trial compressed air systems.
(c) Section 3: References . This section lists documents

1.1.1 Scope. This guidance document was devel- that are referenced in the standard. No guidance is pro-
oped to be used as an application guide on how to uti- vided for this section of the standard. Section 3 of this
lize ASME EA-4, Energy Assessment for Compressed document provides background and rationale for the
Air Systems. This guidance document provides back- criteria that de fne an effective compressed air system
ground and supporting information to assist in carrying assessment.
out the standard. (d) Section 4: Organizing the Assessment . This section
outlines requirements on how to organize an assessment
1.1.2 Purpose. ASME EA-4 does not provide guid- including identifcation of team members and respon-
ance on how to perform a compressed air systems sibilities; requirements for preliminary data collection
energy assessment, but sets the requirements that need and analysis; and requirements on the development of
to be performed during the assessment. ASME EA-4 assessment goals and a plan of action. Guidance is pro-
was written in a form suitable for a standard, with con- vided in section 4 of this document.
cise text and without examples or explanations. This (e) Section 5: Conducting the Assessment . This section

document was developed to be used in conjunction with describes that requirements for conducting an assess-
the standard to give basic guidance on how to fulfll the ment (the implementation phase of the plan of action).
requirements of the standard. This document is only a Guidance is provided in section 5 of this document.
guide, it does not set any new requirements, and ASME (f) Section 6: Analysis o f Data From the Assessment . This

EA-4 can be used with or without this document. section presents requirements for analyzing the data col-
lected during an assessment, including the development
1.2 Limitations of a baseline pro fle. Guidance is provided in section 6 of
this document.
This guidance document does not set any new require-
(g) Section 7: Reporting and Documentation . This sec-
ments for application of ASME EA-4.
tion provides requirements for information presented in
the assessment report. Guidance is provided in section 7
1.3 Introduction — Using the System Assessment of this document.
Standard Guidance on section 1 of ASME EA-4 is provided
ASME EA-4 (the standard) is organized in the follow- below. Sections 2 and 3 of this guidance document
ing sections: provide an introduction to industrial compressed air
(a) Section 1 : Scope and Introduction . This section systems and background/ rationale for that criteria
includes the scope for the standard, limitations of the that de f ne an effective compressed air system assess-
standard, and an introduction on how to use the stand- ment. Sections 4 through 7 of this guidance document
ard that includes information on the systems approach parallel the sections in the standard at each subhead-
and the system engineering process. Guidance is pro- ing level.
vided in section 1 of this document.
(b) Section 2: Defnitions . This section provides de f- 1.3.1 The System Assessment Process. ASME EA-4
nitions of terms used in the standard. No guidance is presents requirements for compliance when conducting
provided for this section, although a glossary with de fni- a compressed air system assessment to reduce energy
tions for additional terms is included as Nonmandatory use and improve performance. It also describes a frame-

1
 ASME EA-4G–2010

work for a more extensive system assessment to address SOW. This information can be added as an appendix to
performance issues and related energy opportunities. the assessment report.
Compressed air is used in many different industries A compressed air system assessment must consider
for many different purposes. No two compressed air diverse needs and priorities. For many stakeholders
systems are the same; therefore, no two compressed air energy effciency is a secondary priority. Their highest
system assessments will be the same. The framework priority is a reliable compressed air system that supports
of the standard includes some elements of assessment manufacturing equipment and processes; however,
work that are required for adherence to the standard. energy use and system performance are interrelated.
Other assessment activities are described as supplemen- Thus, the key to energy effciency is frequently related
tal elements of the system assessment. to improving system performance.
Required elements of an assessment apply to virtually Compressed air system performance is not always as
all compressed air systems and have direct impact on it seems. Highly visible symptoms often mask the true
system energy use. underlying root cause of ineffciency and poor perform-
Supplemental elements of an assessment may or may ance. Operational solutions often involve increased energy
not apply to an individual compressed air system or use, whereas root cause analysis will often identify a more
primarily affect system performance rather than energy energy effcient solution. As a consequence, an effective
use, or both. compressed air system assessment is a discovery process
Within the framework of the standard, members of the of investigating system operation to baseline energy use,
assessment team are responsible to plan the assessment identifying opportunities to improve performance, and
and create a statement of work (SOW) that addresses the reducing energy input to the compressed air system.
technical and business objectives of the assessment.
The standard recognizes that an energy assessment 1.3.2 System Energy Eff ciency. Individual com-
must be economically justifed. The framework of the ponents of a compressed air system such as compres-
standard is designed to provide fexibility so that the sors, air dryers, and flters can be more or less effcient.
extent of assessment objectives and the rigor of the meth- How individual air system components are integrated
odology applied are appropriate to the system complex- together and how they respond to the collective com-
ity. This will be different for a small- to mid-size facility pressed air demand of the many end use applications
with a relatively low amount of compressor horsepower found in most systems have the greatest impact on sys-
from a large facility. tem effciency. System effciency is most affected by the
For all systems, it is necessary to assess the entire sys- interaction of compressed air supply and demand.
tem including supply, transmission, and demand.
The standard states, “An assessment complying with 1.3.2.1 Compressed Air Energy Conversion. For
this Standard need not address each individual system most industrial plants, compressed air is a self gener-
component or subsystem within an industrial facil- ated secondary energy resource converted from a pur-
ity with equal weight; however, it must be suffciently chased primary energy resource, typically electricity.
comprehensive to identify the major energy effciency The electric motor effciency when combined with ther-
opportunities for improving the overall energy perform- modynamics of the compression process results in 85%
ance of the system.” of the primary energy resource being converted to heat.
A system assessment for small plants will take less That heat is most often rejected as waste heat; however,
time and be less costly than assessments for large plants. recovery of heat may be possible in some applications
It is the responsibility of the assessment team to develop and should be examined.
an SOW for an individual assessment that makes sense
and is economically justifed. Refer to para. 4.9 of the 1.3.2.2 Energy Reduction Opportunities. Improve-
standard and this guidance document. The last step in ments in compressed air supply effciency are constrained
planning the assessment is to do a goal check for rel- by the ineffciency of converting electrical energy input
evance, cost effectiveness, and capacity to produce the to compressed air energy; 85% of input energy is con-
desired results. The guidance in para. 4.9 suggests seven verted to heat. Reducing compressed air demand has
points to consider. the potential to shut down running compressor capacity,
The outcome of the goal-checking activity may deter- eliminating the energy input in its entirety.
mine that the goals can be achieved or may result in In situations where compressors cannot be shut down,
modifcation of the assessment SOW. For users who elect reducing the amount of compressed air produced will
full conformance to the standard, the team’s application often decrease compressed air supply effciency. The
of the assessment standard may be subject to third-party change in supply effciency is dependent on compressor
review by a certifed practitioner. To assist with review control strategy. In this situation, the savings associated
of the assessment, the assessment team can consider with reduced air use will be proportionate to the per-
documenting decisions made when determining the formance of available controls.

2
 ASME EA-4G–2010

1.3.3 Systems Approach. The systems engineering 2.1 Elements and Characteristics of Industrial
process must begin by discovering the real problem that Compressed Air Systems
needs to be solved; the biggest failure that can be made
As illustrated in the example compressed air system
in systems engineering is fnding an elegant solution to shown in Fig. 1, industrial compressed air systems, as
the wrong problem. [1]
de fned in ASME EA-4 and this guidance document,
have three basic functional areas. They are the supply
1.3.4 Systems Engineering Process. Paragraph 1.3.4
side, the transmission system, and the demand side.
of ASME EA-4–2010 discusses the systems engineering
process. As part of this process, the assessment team
needs to determine what is required and what needs to
2.1.1 Supply Side. The supply side of an industrial
compressed air system is where the air is compressed,
be done, and develop a plan as to how best to accom-
treated, stored, and sent out into the system. The supply
plish the assessment. The team should check the plan
side may include a single centralized compressor room,
to see if it is reasonable and cost effective and if it can
or may be composed of multiple compressor rooms
produce the desired results. The team should conduct
within the plant site. Effective management of energy
the assessment, analyze data collected, baseline current
reduction efforts on the supply side requires using a
operation, and identify opportunities for improvement.
minimum amount of energy to generate the required
The assessment should provide remedial measures with
quantity of air, at the proper air quality, with the neces-
conceptual designs and energy reduction estimates. The
sary storage to provide a consistent reliable supply of
assessment should report and document how the assess-
compressed air to the system. Key supply side compo-
ment was conducted, and give fndings, recommenda-
nents are generation, treatment, primary storage, and
tions, and expected results. The systems engineering
instrumentation that measures performance.
process should also include the following:
(a) What requirements does the compressed air sys-
tem have to meet?
2.1.1.1 Generation. Generation of compressed
air is most often accomplished as a self-generated sec-
(b) What is the present compressed air system and
ondary energy resource converted from a purchased
current method of operation?
primary energy resource, typically electricity. The ther-
(c) What is the statement of system assessment goals
based on requirements and the existing system? modynamics of the compression process result in 85%

(d) For planning the system assessment, what activi- of the primary energy resource being converted to

ties should be done, and how will they be done? heat, which is often rejected as waste heat. The energy
(e) For testing the system assessment, is it relevant conversion effciency is therefore very low at 15% or
and cost effective, and will it produce results? less. After being generated, compressed air normally
(f) For conducting the system assessment, how is the passes through treatment equipment. In some instances,
plan detailed and executed, and how is data gathered? responsibility for compressed air generation is assumed
(g) How is the data analyzed to create a baseline, by a subcontractor and is therefore a directly purchased
identify opportunities and remedial measures, and energy resource.
show results?
(h) How will the assessment — including fndings, 2.1.1.2 Treatment. Treatment of compressed air
recommendations, and expected results — be reported? is necessary to ensure that the air quality supplied is
consistent with point of use requirements. Three types
of contamination are typically present in compressed
2 INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSED AIR
air: particulates, oil (or hydrocarbon), and water vapor.
SYSTEMS
There is an energy requirement associated with equip-
A compressor is a machine that is used to increase ment used to treat compressed air. Coolers, separators,
the pressure of a gas. A typical modern industrial com- flters dryers, and other treatment equipment have fric-
pressed air system is composed of several major sub- tional resistance to compressed air fow resulting in
systems and many subcomponents as shown in the irrecoverable pressure loss that must be overcome by
example compressed air system in Fig. 1. Major subsys- increased energy input at the air compressors. In addi-
tems include the supply side, the transmission system, tion, various types of air dryers have varying energy
and the demand side. ASME EA-4 considers the entire input requirements associated with removal of water
system, from energy inputs to the work performed as vapor from the compressed air. In general terms, greater
the result of these inputs. Each component subsystem is removal of contamination from compressed air has an
now described. associated increase in energy use.

3
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Fig. 1 Example Compressed Air System

Transmission End use point

System
Material
supply
Secondary
storage
Production
Transmission vessel
air
receiver

Dedicated
Flow/pressure secondary
storage
Product
control storage
Use
point air tank
receiver

Packaging Flow/pressure
demand control Refill control
sector valve Production
demand
sector

Demand side

Supply side

Generation
Primary
equipment
storage

Treatment
equipment Air
Wet
receiver
storage

Air
receiver

Condensate drains

GENERAL NOTE: Not all systems will include all demand side components as illustrated.

4
 ASME EA-4G–2010

2.1 .1 .3 Pri m ary Storage. Primary storage helps capacity to transport the peak air f ow rate imposed
manage the dynamic performance characteristics of by the connected points of use. Distribution pipeline
a compressed air system in which the energy demand design should consider that the peak air f ow rate
of point of use applications is variable and constantly caused by concurrent, high volume, intermittent air
changing. Optimum energy performance is achieved by demands may occur at random, and can signi f cantly
maintaining an energy balance between compressed air exceed the average air f ow rate for the system. An
supply and demand. Energy supply is available from energy eff cient distribution system should minimize
rotating generation capacity of the compressors and irrecoverable pressure loss resulting from the interac-
compressed air energy storage. In the ideal system, air tion of air f ow with the f xed frictional resistance of the
compressors would supply the average air demand distribution piping.
while storage supplies energy for peak air demand.
Energy storage is then replenished when air demand is 2.1 .2.2 Pi pi n g Drops. Piping drops deliver com-
below average. For compressed air energy storage to be pressed air from the header to the point of use connec-
usable to the system, storage pressure must be greater tion and are a key element in the transmission system.
than the minimum required pressure. As such, there is The point of use piping begins at the inlet of the frst con-
an energy requirement associated with creating useable trol component associated with the point of use applica-
storage capacity. Compressed air storage is a recover- tion. That component may be a shut-off service or lock
able pressure differential in the system. When properly out valve, a flter/ regulator/ lubricator combination,
applied, storage improves system effciency; however, a solenoid control valve, or other control component.
operating the system with more energy storage than Piping drops should be properly sized and confgured to
the system will ever use increases the system’s energy deliver the peak airfow required by the connected point
requirement with no additional bene ft. of use application while causing a minimal amount of
pressure loss. Total transmission pressure loss including
2.1 .1 .4 I nstrumentation. Instrumentation measure- mainline, branch headers, and the piping drop should
ment provides the necessary oversight of system perform- not exceed 10% of the supply side pressure delivered to
ance to achieve sustainable long-term compressed air system the transmission system.
effciency. It is important to quantify the amount of primary
energy input to the system (kWh), the quantity of second- 2.1 .2.3 Secon d ary Storage. Secondary storage
ary energy resource, and compressed airfow (scfm) that is installed as a component of the transmission system serves
produced. Operations, maintenance, control adjustment, to provide a buffer during demand events. Secondary stor-
response of automation, changes in system dynamics, and age will slow the rate of pressure decay and, to a limited
many other factors affect supply side effciency. Sustainable degree, reduce pipeline velocity during high volume inter-
effciency requires monitoring of key performance indica- mittent demand events. Other forms of secondary storage
tors to provide oversight of operation. applied at the point of use can be more effective in serving
high volume intermittent fow demands of specifc point
2.1 .2 Tran sm i ssi on S ystem . The transmission sys- of use applications.
tem serves to deliver compressed air energy to the many
use points that require compressed air. Effective trans- 2.1 .2.4 Tran sm ission Controls. Transmission con-
mission maintains air quality while delivering the neces- trols can serve to control and stabilize delivered air pressure
sary air fow and pressure to the point of use at the time (e.g., pressure/ fow controls). In large systems there may
pneumatic energy is required to perform the production be multiple logical demand sectors (e.g., individual build-
task. To save energy, the transmission system seeks to ings, production areas, departments, and business units).
minimize irrecoverable pressure loss in the system. Key Different point of use requirements in the various demand
components of the transmission system are distribution sectors may allow lower supply pressure in some sectors
piping, piping drops to point of use connections, sec- as compared to others. Since any unregulated leakage and
ondary storage, transmission controls, and instrumenta- point of use applications will consume less compressed
tion that measures performance. air energy at lower pressure, it is desirable to identify and
operate demand sectors at the lowest optimum pressure
2. 1 . 2. 1 D i stri bu ti on Pi pi n g. Distribution piping associated with the point of use applications in that sec-
carries compressed air from the supply side of the tor. Some production sectors may require compressed air
system to all areas of the plant that are served by the supply at all times, whereas other sectors may be used on
compressed air system. Distribution piping includes a seasonal basis or single shift of operations. The trans-
the main lines and branch headers. Proper distribution mission control applied to these types of demand sectors
system performance delivers the necessary air f ow to might be a simple shutoff valve. Transmission controls can
any area of the system while minimizing irrecoverable reduce energy use by effectively controlling and minimiz-
pressure loss. An effective distribution system has the ing compressed air demand.

5
 ASME EA-4G–2010

2.1.2.5 Instrumentation. Instrumentation that Perceived high pressure point of use applications are
measures performance in the transmission system often observed to malfunction at a specifc connection
monitors the distribution of compressed air to record pressure. The assumption is that system pressure must
irrecoverable pressure loss and establish accountability be increased, while the root cause of the malfunction is
for compressed air energy use. For large systems, hav- excessive point of use pressure drop occurring for a few
ing multiple physical or logical demand sectors (e.g., seconds or less during the peak airfow demand of the
individual buildings, production areas, departments, point of use application. Energy effcient point of use
and business units) is good practice. Compressed air piping supplies the peak airfow with minimal pressure
energy use of individual sectors should be metered and loss meeting the dynamic performance of the point of
recorded, with reporting of usage trends. use application.

2.1.3 Demand Side. The demand side of the system 2.1.3.3 Point of Use Storage. Point of use stor-
encompasses all of the compressed air use in the plant age is a specifc type of secondary storage applied at
air system. Leakage is one component of compressed selected point of use applications to improve the speed,
air demand and in many systems represents 30% or thrust, and/or torque of the point of use application. In
more of compressed air demand. Artifcial demand is addition, if secondary storage is applied with appropri-
an additional component of waste that occurs when ate refll control, high volume intermittent demands can
demand side pressure is higher than required, causing be supplied from storage while controlled refll provides
all unregulated leakage and use points to consume a a more average air demand on the transmission system.
greater amount of airfow. The typical industrial com- By averaging the air use, peak pipeline velocity in the
pressed air system includes many points of use of com- transmission system is reduced, and the supply side is
pressed air, perhaps hundreds or more. Compressed not subject to peak air demand that may cause addi-
air demand is the total cumulative airfow of connected tional generation to come online.
leakage, artifcial demand, and point of use applica-
tions. Key components of the demand side are point 2.1.3.4 Point of Use Controls. Point of use con-
of use, point of use piping, point of use controls, sec- trols include service isolation or lock-out valves, flters/
ondary storage, and instrumentation that measures regulators/lubricators, directional control valves, fow/
performance. speed controls, check valves, secondary storage controls,
and any other device in the system located between the
2.1.3.1 Point of Use. Point of use in a compressed point of use connection (at the piping drop) and the point
air system is where compressed air energy is con- of use. Point of use controls are also a potential source
verted to mechanical work or accomplishes a produc- of excessive pressure loss or poor control response
tion related task. Given the poor conversion effciency time during the peak airfow demand of the point of
of primary energy to compressed air energy, the use of use application. Energy effcient point of use controls
compressed air should be limited to uses that cannot be respond appropriately to the dynamic airfow and pres-
served by an alternative, more effcient energy technol- sure requirements of the point of use application.
ogy. Inappropriate use of compressed air is any point
of use application that can be better and/or more eff- 2.1.3.5 Instrumentation. Instrumentation that meas-
ciently served by an alternative energy technology. High ures performance at critical points of use in the system may
volume intermittent point of use demands have the be considered. Compressed air serves as a utility system
potential to be served by compressed air storage thereby providing pneumatic energy to production equipment and
reducing peak energy requirements. Points of use that processes. In some critical applications compressed air sys-
are perceived to require supply pressure higher than tem performance has a direct impact on production rate,
the majority of the air demands on the system should product quality, scrap rate, and rework cost. For these criti-
be investigated. If the need for high pressure is valid, cal applications, compressed air is a processes variable that
an alternative means of serving this need may allow the should be controlled, monitored, and recorded in a manner
overall system pressure to be reduced, resulting in over- consistent with other process controls.
all energy reduction.
3 AN EFFECTI vE COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM
2.1.3.2 Point of Use Piping. Point of use piping ASSESSMENT
includes all components of piping that extend from the
point of use connection to the actual end use. Point of use An effective compressed air system assessment, which
piping may include both feld-installed piping as well is the focus of ASME EA-4 and this guidance document,
as piping within machinery or equipment built from an is a discovery process of investigating system operation
original equipment manufacturer. Point of use piping to baseline energy use and identifcation of opportuni-
must be sized with suffcient capacity to allow the peak ties to improve performance and reduce energy input
airfow rate to be supplied with minimal pressure loss. to the compressed air system. The assessment process

6
 ASME EA-4G–2010

de fnes specifc informational objectives appropriate to production, process information and compressed air
the system’s design and function. Those objectives form system knowledge will establish the plan of action and
a roadmap to study the system. The assessment process SOW for the assessment.
includes developing and executing a plan to measure The standard allows for one or more methodologies to
the behavior of different portions of the compressed air be used for various assessment action items. Note that
system and analyzing how each can affect other system the extent of work will vary with facility size and system
elements. The measured data should prove or disprove complexity. The site-specifc assessment plan of action
the system performance characteristics that are thought should be based on economic justifcation and other fac-
or known to exist. tors the assessment team agrees upon during prelimi-
Performance of a compressed air system is not always nary assessment activity.
as it seems. Highly visible symptoms often mask the
true underlying root cause of ineffciency and poor per- 4 GUIDE TO ORGANIzING Th E ASSESSMENT
formance. For example, the dynamic interaction of an
existing high volume intermittent demand may induce 4.1 Identi f cation of Assessment Team Members,
a high pipeline velocity in distribution piping, which Roles, and Responsibilities
causes a temporary pressure upset affecting other points The assessment team should include stakeholders in
of use in the system. Alternatively, a perceived high- all areas of plant operations. To represent stakeholders’
pressure point of use caused by point of use pressure needs, the assessment team should include representa-
drop can establish the minimum air pressure require- tives from
ment for the system. It is important to validate the pres- (a) management
sure requirements. In these examples, the entire system (b) production
is often operated at increased pressure in an attempt to (c) facilities
overpower the problem. For an effective compressed (d) maintenance
air system assessment, the appropriate performance of (e) environmental health and safety
generation, treatment, storage, transmission, and point
of use requirements must be evaluated. Compressed air 4.1.1 Required Functions and Personnel. Potential
symptoms of poor performance must also be investi- assessment team members to fll the functional roles
gated to identify the root cause system issues resulting identifed in ASME EA-4 could include those described
in the observed performance. in (a) through (c).
Application of a systems approach to a compressed (a) Authorized Manager. An authorized manager
air system assessment directs the focus toward total sys- should accept overall responsibility and have fnal
tem performance rather than individual component eff- decision-making authority. Responsibilities could
ciency. It is necessary to include supervising the assessment team and providing
(a) understand compressed air point of use as it sup- resources necessary to plan and execute the assessment.
ports critical plant production functions Resources include such items as funding, availability of
(b) correct existing poorly performing applications, company personnel at the plant site and, as necessary,
and those that upset system operation requisitioning internal work orders, and supplies. The
(c) eliminate wasteful practices: leaks, artifcial manager should also allocate and authorize the partici-
demand, and inappropriate uses pation of outside contractors and consultants, and facili-
(d) create and maintain an energy balance between tate the participation of any necessary outside personnel
supply and demand requiring contracts, scheduling, confdentiality agree-
(e) optimize compressed air energy storage and air ments, and SOW.
compressor control (b) Assessment Team Leader. Plant management can
ASME EA-4, Energy Assessment for Compressed Air demonstrate commitment to the assessment goals, objec-
Systems, applies to all compressed air systems large and tives, and activities by appointing a system assessment
small, simple and complex. When applying the stand- team leader familiar with the processes, systems, and
ard, the goal is to reduce energy use and achieve a cost equipment related to the compressed air systems in the
savings. Improving system performance, enhancing plant. The team leader should be familiar with operating
system reliability, and increasing productivity can cre- and maintenance practices for the compressed air system
ate cost savings above and beyond the energy savings equipment (or should have access during the assessment
alone. to people who are) and should be empowered to obtain
The standard recognizes that assessment work must necessary support from plant personnel and other indi-
be cost effective. That is why preliminary assessment viduals and organizations during the assessment.
activity is used to develop a site-specifc assessment (c) Compressed Air Expert . The team should include
plan of action and a measurement plan. Ultimately, use a compressed air expert. This individual, either a cor-
of this standard is at the discretion of those participating porate or plant employee or outside consultant, should
in the assessment. The assessment team, working with have the requisite qualifcations, background, experi-

7
 ASME EA-4G–2010

ence, and recognized abilities to perform the assessment applications of compressed air. In addition, this person
activities, data analysis, and report preparation. should be experienced in application of the systems
approach applied to compressed air system assessment.
NOTE: Also see para. 4.8.1, "Identifcation of Other Assessment
Team Members Required," in the standard.
4.2 Faci li ty M an agem en t Support

4.1 .1 .1 Resource allocation is

Resource Allocati on .
Management commitment can communicate the
necessary to plan and execute the assessment. Resources assessment’s importance to the organization. It is an
may include such items as funding, availability of com- opportunity to align the assessment work with organi-
pany personnel at the plant site, and, as necessary, req- zational goals and objectives. Some general purposes of
uisitioning internal work orders, and supplies. When system assessments are to
allocating resources, there may be a need to authorize (a) improve resource utilization and cost reduction
the participation of outside contractors and consultants. (b) contribute to the organization’s growth and
Consider how to oversee the participation of outside stability
personnel including contracts, scheduling, confdential- (c) improve product quality
ity agreements, SOW, etc. (d) improve customer satisfaction
The person given authority and responsibility for (e) reduce life cycle cost of process performance
resource allocation should have experience with various (f) provide accountability of compressed air energy use
plant energy systems and involvement in this and other (g) identify opportunities for process and product
plant energy management initiatives. improvement
(h) provide knowledge and training for compressed
4.1 .1 .2 Coordin ation , Logistics, an d Com m un ication s. air energy optimization
Assessment objectives and action items involve a wide (i) provide management information for continuous
cross-section of plant personnel including facility manage- improvement
ment, production management, equipment and machine The greatest success of compressed air system manage-
operators, and skilled trades including electrical, mechani- ment can result from an interactive spirit of cooperation
cal, and machine repair personnel. to identify and achieve common goals. The assessment
The responsible person should provide information to does not by itself result in system improvement; how-
plant personnel and coordinate the necessary support ever, the assessment provides information needed to
activities required for the assessment. plan and implement energy reduction and performance
The assessment is a fuid process. Unexpected condi- improvement.
tions at the plant site or initial assessment fndings may It is important to recognize that people have a natu-
warrant modifcation of the assessment plan of action ral resistance to being measured. Therefore, it is appro-
and SOW. When changes to the SOW become known, priate to express that system issues and opportunities
the assessment team should communicate the proposed drive measurement of the compressed air system. The
changes for approval. purpose is to empower the people who design and oper-
The person given authority and responsibility for coor- ate the compressed air system with information that has
dination logistics and communication should be knowl- not been previously available to them.
edgeable in many aspects of the plant’s operations, have Application of systems engineering principles is a
experience with various energy systems, and have some new approach as compared to the traditional compo-
familiarity with the plant’s compressed air system. nent level design and evaluation of compressed air sys-
tems. It can be acknowledged that following traditional
4.1 .1 .3 Com pressed Ai r System s Kn owled ge. The approaches in engineering is common practice and
assessment team should work within the framework of has been the norm for compressed air system design.
the standard to create a process that leads to the com- Conducting a system assessment is a change in approach
pletion of an appropriate assessment. Using prelimi- to compressed air system design and evaluation that is
nary information, the assessment team should identify an improvement over traditional methods.
areas of the system that offer the best potential results
for energy and system performance improvement and 4.3 Com m un i cati on s

prioritize areas to receive more detailed study.

There is no additional guidance for this clause.
The assessment team should develop a plan of action
consistent with assessment goals and site-specifc goals,
4.4 Access to E q ui pm en t, Resources, an d
and outline the SOW and supporting documentation.
I n form ati on
The person given authority and responsibility for sys-
tems knowledge should be knowledgeable in the function Several days may be necessary to comply with certain
of various compressed air system components. This person site access requirements. For example, security clearance
also should be familiar with overall compressed air sys- requirements or documenting insurance coverage is best
tem operation from the air compressors through end-use done well in advance of the planned date for site access.

8
 ASME EA-4G–2010

NOTE: Also see para. 5.2, Site Access Procedures, which are once the problem is resolved, the temporary solution
requirements that are typically done upon arrival at the plant site. often becomes permanent.
For example, in systems with high-volume intermit-
Digital photos or videos, or both, can help document
tent air demands, a low-pressure condition may occur
the assessment process and fndings. Determine require-
when it is necessary to start up a compressor to supply the
ments and procedures necessary to allow digital pho-
high volume demand event. If the system does not have
tos and videos to be taken and identify the terms under
enough compressed air storage to maintain adequate
which images can be used in analysis of data, reporting
system pressure during the permissive start-up time of
of fndings, and documentation of the assessment.
the compressor, production operations can be affected.
Document and communicate to members of the
A common quick-fx solution is to keep the “stand-by”
assessment team including plant personnel, contractors,
compressor running. This can be done by running the
and consultants all pre-access site requirements neces-
compressor manually or by preventing the automatic
sary to gain access to all areas of the facility required to
shutdown control from stopping the compressor.
perform the assessment.
The energy-effcient solution treats the root cause of
Site access requirement could include but are not lim-
the problem, which is inadequate air storage. The scope
ited to items listed as follows:
of work would include measurements to determine the
(a) basic safety training requirements [e.g.,
characteristic signature of the demand event and analy-
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA),
sis to design a properly applied storage solution.
Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA)]
Working through Mandatory Appendix I, Preliminary
(b) personal protective equipment (e.g., hard hat,
Data Collection Matrix, the assessment team will create
safety glasses, safety shoes, gloves)
a list of goals and an associated assessment scope to
(1 ) respirator requirements
achieve each goal. This list will become the site-specifc
(2) special safety gear (e.g., fre-resistant clothing,
assessment goals (para. 4.7), which together with the
metatarsal guards, fall protection)
assessment scope for each of the goals can be used to
(c) site requirements for drug and alcohol testing
develop the assessment plan of action (para. 4.8).
(d) lockout/ tag out procedures
Then in para. 4.9, Goal Check, the assessment team
(e) hazardous (classi fed) area requirements for
can evaluate the assessment plan of action. If the assess-
instruments/ measurement equipment
ment team fnds that the goals are not being met, they
(f) insurance requirement
should modify the goals or assessment scope, or both, to
(g) security clearance requirements
create a revised assessment plan of action that satis fes
(h) written safety plan for onsite activity when con-
the goal check evaluation.
ducting the assessment (section 5)

4.6 Initial Data Collection and Evaluation

4.5 Assessment Goals and Scope
Some of the information about the plant and the
The basic goal of a compressed air energy assessment compressed air system in the ASME EA-4 Mandatory
is stated in the Foreword of the standard: “Assessments Appendix I, Preliminary Data Collection Matrix can be
involve collecting and analyzing system design, opera- collected without the physical presence of all team mem-
tion, energy use, and performance data and identifying bers at the plant. If key members of the assessment team
energy performance improvement opportunities for do not work at the plant, other members of the assess-
system optimization.” ment team can collect this information before the rest of
How that goal is applied to different compressed air the team arrives. The following elements of Mandatory
systems and the scope of assessment activity will vary Appendix I could be included in the following catego-
among systems. Fundamental goals such as measur- ries: I.1, I.2.a, I.2.b, I.2.e, and I.3.a.
ing baseline energy use, compressed air demand, and Designing the assessment begins by gathering as much
system operating pressure are obvious. Other goals are information as possible about the compressed air system
somewhat less apparent. and its operation. Mandatory Appendix I, Preliminary
Data Collection Matrix, guides this process. There
4.5.1 Example Goal and Assessment Scope. Refer are many different ways to gather this information in
to Mandatory Appendix I, section I-2, Plant Function, advance of the assessment team’s meeting to defne goals
c.2). This part of the standard states the assessment team and the assessment scope. Holding individual meetings
should talk with the compressor operators to determine with all stakeholders of the system can be a lengthy, time-
the problem and the severity of the impact on system consuming process. As an alternative to individual meet-
operation. The assessment team should determine past ings, the team might consider developing questionnaires
problems and their solutions. When problems exist with for distribution to stakeholders. Exchanging existing doc-
a compressed air system, quick solutions are often neces- umentation among interested parties for comment can
sary but are often not very energy effcient. Often these be effective. Webcasts and teleconferences can also be an
quick solutions are intended to be temporary. However, effcient way to get good information.

9
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Table 1 Site-Speci f c Assessment Goals

I-4 Inventory Key End Use Air Demands
a. What are the high energy use equipment in the plant?
1) What equipment and processes use large amounts of compressed air?
2) How often and how long do these equipment or processes use air?
3) Does the large compressed air use have a negative impact on other end-use applications?
b. What high volume intermittent end-use applications do you know of in the plant?
1) What equipment and process requirements are using large amounts of compressed air for short periods of time, followed by an
interval of time with minimal air demand?
2) Does the high volume intermittent compressed air use have a negative impact on other end-use applications?
GENERAL NOTE: The letter and number designators correlate with the letters and numbers in Mandatory Appendix I, section I-4 of ASME
EA-4–2010.

4.7 Site-Speci f c Assessment Goals listed in the plan of action matrix. Where the plan of
action matrix does not meet plant site goals, adhere to
If some members of the team do not work at the plant,
the principles of systems engineering, apply the sys-
they can work together with plant personnel on the
tems approach, and be suffciently comprehensive
assessment team to develop the plant’s assessment goals
when developing the plan of action for the assessment.
(Table 1) before they arrive at the plant.
ASME EA-4 addresses the systems engineering process
Typical goals for an assessment include improving
(para. 1.3.4) and the systems approach (para. 1.3.3).
effciency, improving performance, reducing downtime,
If the plant desires full adherence to the standard, a
having a more reliable source of compressed air, and
third party could evaluate the SOW of the assessment.
reducing maintenance.
Key elements of the review are as follows:
The information in Mandatory Appendix I,
(a) The assessment considers the entire system, from
Preliminary Data Collection Matrix, is designed to pro-
energy inputs to the work performed as the result of
vide a list of possible site-speci fc assessment goals. For
these inputs.
example, Mandatory Appendix I, section I-4, Inventory
(b) The assessment is suffciently comprehensive to
Key End-Use Air Demands, can be used to create a ques-
identify the major energy effciency opportunities for
tionnaire, webcast, or meeting agenda to help determine
improving the overall energy performance of the system.
site-specifc assessment goals (shaded items are supple-
(c) Where the standard is silent or inconsistent for any
mental elements of assessment).
specifc application, the assessment process is guided by
Other parts of this section of the matrix address the
the following:
following end use objectives:
(1 ) Adhere to the principles of systems engineering.
(a) perceived high pressure use
(2) Apply the systems approach.
(b) low pressure use
(3) Be suffciently comprehensive.
(c) poorly performing applications
(d) end use applications with air quality issues
Similarly, the rest of the matrix can be used to col- 4.9 Goal Check
lect information that will allow the assessment team to The following checklist is adapted from Systems
develop overall site specifc assessment goals. Engineering Measurement Primer [2] and may provide
guidance in reviewing the assessment plan of action.
4.8 Assessment Plan of Action (a) Relevance. Why perform this action item? Is there more
Using information from the previous three than one reason for this action item? Is it a result of ambigu-
sections — Assessment Goals and Scope, Initial Data ity in the related assessment objective? Only select action
Collection, and Site-Specifc Assessment Goals — the items that are pertinent to an objective to be obtained.
assessment team will develop an assessment plan of (b) Completeness. Are goals, stakeholder’s needs, and
action and develop an SOW for the assessment. system requirements being met? Has any key parameter
As stated in the standard’s second-to-last paragraph of needed to analyze data and achieve results been omitted?
para. 4.8, “The assessment team using information and Has a balanced set of objectives among supply, transmis-
knowledge gained with respect to organizational, energy, sion, and demand that adheres to the systems approach been
and system performance goals, together with system identifed? Is the assessment suffciently comprehensive?
requirements and stakeholders’ needs, shall incorporate (c) Timeliness . Can the system assessment meet the

the plan of action into a SOW for the assessment.” required time schedule? Be sure data collection, analysis,
Meeting the plant site goals and information needs and reporting will provide results in the time allowed. Is
may include objectives and action items that are not more time required or should the SOW be modifed?

10
 ASME EA-4G–2010

(d) Simplicity. Can data be collected and analyzed percent full-

easily and cost effectively? Will the assessment pro- load bhp 5 bhp as percentage of full-load bhp at
duce results that can be presented in a manner such that this operating level
stakeholders will understand what it means? percent time 5 percentage of time running at this
(e) Cost E ffectiveness . Is the budget suffcient? Will the operating level (percent full-load bhp)
system assessment provide more value than it costs? Is
the SOW appropriate, or should it be modifed? 4.9.2.1 Example. A typical manufacturing facility
(f) Repeatability. Will the same plant operating condi- has a 200-hp compressor (which requires 215 bhp) that
tions provide the virtually the same data and informa- operates for 6,800 hr annually. It is fully loaded 85% of
tion twice? Are accuracy and precision adequate? This the time (motor effciency 5
0.95) and unloaded the rest
is important for future use of the system assessment’s of the time (25% full-load bhp and motor effciency 5
baseline measurement. 0.90). The aggregate electric rate is $0.05/ kWh.
(g) Accuracy. Are objectives, action items, methodol-
ogy, and the resultant data relevant to system assessment
Cost when fully loaded 5
goals? Are proposed measures reliable, and are measure- (215 bhp) 3 (0.746) 3 (6,800 hr) 3
ments being made at the appropriate time? Measurements ($0.05/ kWh) 3 (0.85) 3 ( 1.0)
should be accurate, and the resulting analysis should
5 $48,792
0.95
accurately serve the intended purpose of making the
measurement. Cost when unloaded 5
(215 bhp) 3 (0.746) 3 (6,800 hr) 3
4.9.1 Evaluating the Cost Effectiveness of an ($0.05/ kWh) 3
(0.15) 3 (0.25)
Assessment SOW. The economic bene ft of an energy 5 $2,272
0.90
assessment depends on the assessment cost as com-
pared to the potential savings and cost of implementa-
Annual energy cost 5 $48,792 1 $2,272 5 $51,064
tion. Evaluating the cost effectiveness of an assessment’s
SOW requires an estimate of present energy cost of the
4.9.2.2 Factors That Can Affect the Calculation. The
following factors can affect the calculation:
system and possible cost savings. There are simple
(a) motor operation in service factor (above name-
straightforward calculations that can provide an esti-
plate horsepower)
mate of present annual energy cost for air compressor
(b) part-load operation and the air compressor ’s con-
operation. Two methods are described below: using the
trol type
manufacturer ’s rated performance for brake horsepower
(c) operating pressure at the compressor discharge
(bhp), and performing a spot check measurement of the
(as compared to equipment specifcation)
air compressor ’s amperage. Cost savings are much more
(d) utility rate structures using average $/ kWh
variable (between 15% and 50% savings) and diffcult
instead of actual rate that may be seasonal, based on
to estimate but should be considered by the assessment
time of day, or using different block rates
team as justifcation for the SOW.
(e) motor effciency (especially after poor-quality
repairs and rewinds)
4.9.2 Using Compressor Rating: Annual Electrical
Energy Cost ($) Estimate [3]
4.9.3 Using Spot Check Measurement (Amps): Annual
(bhp) 3 (0.746) 3
(number of operating hours) 3 Electrical Energy Cost Estimate
($/ kWh) 3( percent time) 3
(percent full-load bhp) (voltage) 3 (measured amperage) 3
(1.732) 3 (PF)
motor efficiency 3 (hours ) 3 (percent time) 3
($/ kWh)

where 1,000
0.746 5 conversion between hp and kW
bhp 5 motor full-load horsepower (fre- where
quently higher than the motor name- 1.732 5 a factor used for three-phase
plate horsepower; check equipment power (i.e., the square root of 3)
specifcation) divisor of 1,000 5 converts watts to kilowatts
motor effciency 5 motor effciency at this operating full load amps 5 the average of amperage for all
level of the three phases supplying
number of electricity
operating hours 5 the total number of hours the com- hours 5 the total annual operating
pressor runs during the year hours for the electric motor

11
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Fig. 2 Motor Power Factor as a Function of Percent Full-Load Amperage

1 00%

80%
Power Factor

60% 200–250 hp

1 50 hp

40% 1 00–1 25 hp

40–75 hp

20% 1 5–30 hp

5–1 0 hp

0%
35% 45% 55% 65% 75% 85% 95% 1 00%
Percent Full-Load Amperage

$/ kWh Cost when fully loaded 5

energy cost 5 usually an aggregate cost consid- 3 3
(469.7) (239.7) (1.732) (0.89) 3
ering energy cost, demand charge, 3 6,800 3
85% ($0.05/ kWh) 3
time of day or seasonal energy cost 5 $50,156
1,0 0 0
variation
percent time 5 percentage of time running at this Annual energy cost of a full-load operation 5 $50,156
operating level (measured amperage) When using measured amperage to calculate the
PF 5 the operating power factor of the elec- power of an air compressor motor running at less than
tric motor the full load condition, it is important to consider the
voltage 5 the average voltage for all of the three changing power factor (PF) of a motor operating at a
phases supplying electricity fraction of its full load rating.
Spot check measurements of unloaded voltage and
4.9.3.1 Example. A typical manufacturing amperage are as follows:
facility has a 200-hp compressor that operates for
6,800 hr annually. It is fully loaded 85% of the time Voltage Value Amperage Value
and unloaded the rest of the time. The aggregate elec-
tric rate is $0. 05/ kWh. The compressor ’s nameplate Vab 469 Aa 94
motor amperage is 21 8 amps with 1 . 1 5 service factor
Vbc 470 Ab 97
(SF) rating.
Spot check measurements of voltage and amperage Vac 472 Ac 95
for a full load are as follows: Vaverage 470.3 Aaverage 95.3

The measured unloaded amperage is 95.3 amps as

Voltage Value Amperage Value compared to nameplate FL amperage of 218 amps indi-
cates that the unloaded amperage is 43.7% of full-load
Vab 467 Aa 238 amperage. Referring to the chart shown in Fig. 2, [4] the
Vbc 473 Ab 241 unloaded power factor can be estimated for unload at
43.7% of FL amperage to be 0.57.
Vac 469 Ac 240
Vaverage 469.7 Aaverage 239.7 Cost when unloaded 5
3
(voltage) (unloaded amps) (1.732) 3 3
For the operating power factor of the electric motor 3
(PF unloaded) (hours) (percent time) 3 3 ($/ kWh)
(PF), the full load is assumed to be 0.89. 1,000

12
 ASME EA-4G–2010

3 3 3
(470.3) (95.3) (1.732) (0.57) 3 error, resolution error, planned and unplanned assump-
3 3
6,800 15% ($ 0.05/ kWh) tions, etc. Accuracy is improved by using measured
5 $2,257 values in place of assumed or stipulated values. A more
1,000
effcient sample design, increasing sample size, and
improved measurement techniques will also improve
Annual energy cost: unloaded operation 5
$2,257 accuracy. In general, improving accuracy of the meas-
Annual energy cost: total 5
$50,156 1
$2,257 5
$52,413 urement plan increases cost. The assessment should
remain cost-effective (see para. 4.9).
4.9.3.2 Factors That Can Affect the Calculation. (b) Transparency. All aspects of the measurement plan
Factors that can affect the calculation are as follows: should be clearly and fully disclosed.
(a) motor operation in service factor (above name- (c) Reliability . Reliability considers the measurement
plate horsepower) plan’s adherence to the system assessment goals. The
(b) part-load operation and the air compressor ’s con- measurement plan should address key parameters,
trol type represent all operating modes of the plant, and fairly
(c) operating pressure at the compressor discharge represent normal operating conditions. Measurement
(as compared to equipment specifcation) technique requires appropriate placement of instru-
(d) utility rate structures using average $/ kWh ments, stable electrical signals, appropriately inter-
instead of actual rate, which may be seasonal, based on preted in engineering units, with sample rate and data
time of day, or using different block rates. intervals so as to properly characterize the measured
(e) changing motor power factor as motor load falls parameter.
below full load output.
5.1.1 Measurement Instruments. The readings of
5 GUIDE TO CONDUCTING Th E ASSESSMENT many instruments will “drift” over time due to wear and
physical properties of the sensing element. The magni-
Time and effort applied to action items for the sys- tude of errors for various types of sensing elements is
tem assessment should be traceable to issues, oppor- generally available in manufacturers’ specifcations and
tunities, remedial measures, and implementation of various instrument handbooks.
compressed air system improvements. Most projects Instrument drift can be identifed through “as found”
cannot afford to collect data or gather information that testing where the instrument under test is compared to
will never be used. the reading of an instrument that has undergone recent
calibration. Instrument drift is managed through re-cali-
5.1 Measurement Plan bration following procedures of recognized measurement
Something that is not de fned cannot be measured. authorities such as the National Institute of Standards
For each measured parameter, the measurement plan and Technology (NIST). For calibration, primary stand-
should identify the measurement location, the sample ards and no less than third-order standard traceable cali-
rate, data interval, and duration of measurement. The bration equipment should be used wherever possible.
measurement plan should consider the end-to-end Instrument accuracy is only one aspect of the measure-
measurement accuracy for each parameter. ment system accuracy. Other factors such as poor place-
Measured data should include a statement of esti- ment of the instrument so it does not get a proper “view”
mated quantifcation uncertainty declaring both cover- of the parameter being measured, electrical interference,
age interval and confdence level. signal conversion error, and analog to digital conversion
“The quantifcation uncertainty is estimated as 10%  resolution all act to reduce the instrument’s accuracy or
with 90% confdence.” precision. The instrument accuracy and precision speci-
A statement of coverage interval without confdence fed by the manufacturer probably overstates the meas-
level could result in an exceedingly narrow coverage urement system’s end-to-end accuracy and precision for

interval if confdence is very low (e.g., 0.1% with 30% actual readings in the feld.
confdence). A broad coverage interval together with
low confdence should result in more conservative state- 5.1.2 Measurement Techniques. There is no addi-
ments, estimates, and projections. tional guidance for this clause.
Quantifcation uncertainty is not intended to be the
result of a rigorous statistical process, but an uncon- 5.1.3 Baseline Period and Duration of Data Logging.
frmed estimate. Many factors affecting end-to-end The baseline period should include all “typical periods” of
measurement accuracy, listed in (a) through (c), are dif- plant operation. It is common practice to use 24-hr days as
fcult to quantify for in situ feld measurement. the basic operating period. However, other time periods
(a) Accuracy. Accuracy re fects the cumulative effect can be used. Typical days are representative of the plant’s
of all errors introduced in measurement and analysis planned or unplanned changes in production. Changes
including factors such as instrument error, sampling may be seasonal, based on the day of the week, market

13
 ASME EA-4G–2010

conditions, availability of raw materials, or other fac- water from the pail into the measuring cup repeatedly
tors. Compressed air system energy profles exhibit both until all of the water has been measured and adding up
time-dependent and production-dependent variation. each individual measurement, the number of gallons of
Depending on a particular day’s production operation, the water in the bucket has been directly measured.
production-dependent portion of the plant’s compressed
air energy baseline will exhibit different characteristics. 5 .1 .4.2 I n d i rect M easurem en t. Referring to the
Days with similar compressed air energy profles (typical example in para. 5.1.4.1, suppose there is no type of
days) are grouped together as different “day types.” measurement container. How is the amount of water in
When considering the duration of baseline meas- the bucket indirectly measured?
urement, it is necessary to measure all typical days Indirect measurement of a parameter is inferred
of operation. Some typical days such as holidays may through the measurement of a suffciently comprehen-
represent a small fraction of the plant’s compressed sive group of associated parameters so as to quantify the
air energy base year operation. Baseline performance desired parameter.
for a typical day may be stipulated based on historical Using a scale, the weight of the water and bucket is
operating information. Stipulated baseline perform- measured. Then, the water is emptied from the bucket,
ance should not exceed 1 0% of the plant’s base year and the empty bucket is weighed. It is determined that
energy use. the difference (weight of the full bucket 2 the weight of
the empty bucket) is 8.34 lb. Knowing that the density
5 .1 .3 .1 Exam ple: D eterm i n i n g Baseli n e Durati on
8
of water is approximately 8.34 lb/ gal (at 60 F), it is indi-
for Food Processi n g Plan t [ 5 ]. A food processing plant rectly determined that the bucket held 1 gal of water.
produces canned fruit and operates with a peak produc- Suppose that the water is not near room temperature
tion period for 13 weeks of seasonal operation. For the but is much hotter. If the water is hot, only a measure
remaining 39 weeks the plant has continuous operations of weight may be insuffcient to determine the volume
including repackaging product to fulfll ongoing cus- of water. Another associated parameter that affects the
tomer orders. measurement is the temperature of the water, because
The assessment team recognized two typical operat- the weight density of water decreases (or specifc volume
ing periods: seasonal production and continuous pack- increases) with increasing temperature. In this example,
aging. Each of the two operating periods has potential 8
the temperature of the water is 150 F. The weight den-
for variations by day of the week, particularly weekend 8
sity of water at 150 F is 8.18 lb/ gal. At that temperature
operation. Seasonal peak operation typically lasts for a bucket holding 8.34 lb of water is actually 1.02 gal — a
13 weeks, and the baseline measurement was done dur- small difference. It is up to the measurement practitioner
ing a week in August. A continuous packaging produc- to determine the associated parameters to be measured
tion pro fle is taken for a week in February. and the resultant accuracy interval and confdence of
The measurement plan included combining data from the inferred value for the desired parameter.
the plant’s existing DCS with data measured using port-
able data loggers and transducers. The DCS monitors 5.1 .4.3 Example Direct v
ersus I ndirect Measurement.

all points necessary to establish the operating pro fle for Measurement of power consumed by an electric motor
the continuous packaging production period. However, is one example of a compressed air system parameter
during the seasonal peak time one plant air compressor that can be directly or indirectly measured.
and two rental compressors have no input to the DCS. Factors that determine kilowatts are as follows:
The portable data loggers and transducers sample at (a) voltage for each of the three phases supplying
a rate of 10 msec and recorded data at a 6-sec interval. electricity
This data allowed overall system dynamic assessment (b) amperage for each of the three phases supplying
while some individual events and end use applications electricity
were measured at up to a 25 Hz data interval. (c) the operating power factor (PF) of the electric motor
(d) balance or imbalance of voltage, current, or power
5 .1 .4 Di rect v
ersus I n d i rect M easurem en t factor (or all) among the three phases
For direct measurement, a range of kilowatts and
5 .1 .4.1 D i rect M easurem en t. Direct measurement kilowatt-hour transducers are commercially available.
of a parameter is accomplished with an instrument Differences are measurement of true RMS power or aver-
designed for such a task. age power (average power is 11% lower than RMS power).
For example, if someone has a bucket of water, how Transducers may measure based on an assumption of bal-
many gallons of water are in the bucket? anced load or may measure actual phase imbalance.
Direct measurement of a parameter is accomplished Indirect measurement may be made by data logging
with an instrument designed for such a task. amperage and making assumptions for voltage, power
Making a direct measurement requires a measurement factor, and load imbalance. Allowable voltage varia-
container — for example, a measuring cup. By pouring 
tion for NEMA B design motors is 10%. Power factor

14
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Fi g. 3 M easured Power Factor v ersus Percen t Full-Load Am perage

0.95

0.90

Measured Power Factor, 1 50 hp 460/3/60 0.85

0.80

0.75

0.70

0.65

0.60

0.55

0.50
25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%

55%

60%

65%

70%

75%

80%

85%

90%

95%

1 00%

1 05%

1 1 0%

1 1 5%

1 20%
Legend: Measured Amperage as % of FL Amperage (FLA � 1 69)
� Average PF

depends on motor design and also varies with actual proximity to an elbow in the pipe and induced swirl in
load on the running motor. Data in Fig. 3 is measured the fow velocity pro fle.
performance of motor power factor versus measured Other considerations of the transducer ’s installation
amperage as a percent of full-load (FL) nameplate environment including extreme temperature (hot or
amperage for a 150 hp premium effciency NEMA cold) or mechanical vibration may affect the transduc-
Design B; 460 volt, 3 phase, 60 Hz electric motor. Notice er ’s performance.
the variation in the measured performance of Fig. 3 as
compared to “typical data” presented in Fig. 2, para. 4.9 5 .1 .6 Electri cal Si gn al I n tegri ty. Industrial sites have
of this guidance document. many pieces of equipment that can interfere with the
For both direct and indirect measurements, the electrical signals associated with measurement equip-
assessment should document all relevant application ment. Common electrical signals used for measurement
data from the manufacturer ’s instrument speci f ca- 
instruments are voltage ( mV DC to 10 VDC), current 
tion (e.g., calibration information, accuracy, precision, (commonly 0 ma to 20 ma with some 0 ma to 50 ma), and
installation, and application considerations). The frequency (0 Hz to 500 Hz through 0 kHz through 100
assessment should identify and document any in situ kHz). The following infuences can seriously degrade
installation factors that deviate from the manufactur- signals: capacitive or magnetic coupling, ground loops,
er ’s recommendations. The assessment should esti- common mode voltage difference, over-voltage and
mate accuracy and conf dence of the in situ end-to-end transients, and electromagnetic and radiofrequency
feld measurement. interference.
For each instrument used, document the relevant
data from the manufacturer ’s instrument specifca- 5 .1 .7 Plan n i n g an d M easurem en t Tech n i q ues. There
tion (e.g., calibration information, accuracy, precision is no additional guidance for this clause.
performance).
5 .1 .7.1 Sam ple Rate an d D ata I n terval. Comp-
5 .1 .5 Tran sd ucer Transducer installa- I n stallati on . ressed air system performance is continually changing.
tion has the potential to affect the measurement system’s As a result, system parameters including airfow rate,
end-to-end accuracy and confdence. Poor placement of pressure, and power use of air compressors are chang-
the transducer may prevent it from having a representa- ing. End use applications such as automated packaging
tive “view” of the parameter it is measuring. For exam- or assembly equipment may operate at high speeds.
ple, a pressure transducer ’s reading may be affected by Air demand can undergo large changes, increasing or
its location relative to a check valve installed in the pipe- decreasing in a few seconds of time as high volume air
line, or a fow meter ’s readings may be affected by its demands come on-line and off-line.

15
 ASME EA-4G–2010

5.1 .7.1 .1 Dyn am ics. Evaluating dynamics of sys- 5 .2 Si te Access Proced ures

tem operation and end use application performance often

The assessment should comply with plant site-spe-
requires a high frequency sample rate and also high fre-
cifc safety training and safety requirements including
quency data intervals. To capture dynamic performance
but not limited to
it is necessary to have a data interval equal to at least one
(a) appropriate personal protective equipment and
order of magnitude greater than the time base of the event
access to any specialized safety gear that is required
being measured. For example, to capture the dynamic
(b) lock-out procedures and access to equipment and
pressure profle of an air cylinder that extends in 0.5 sec, it
appropriate plant site contacts
is necessary to use a data interval of at least 0.05 sec (20 Hz
(c) hazardous areas requiring special safety rating for
data rate). To provide oversampling for signal noise reduc-
measurement equipment
tion, a sample rate of 100 Hz might be indicated.
(d) review of emergency evacuation procedures, loca-
tion of muster points, and process for accountability of
5 .1 .7.2 Si gn al N oi se. Signal noise is a random dis- personnel
turbance to the measurement’s electrical signal. Noise
is often caused by factors that affect electrical signal 5 .3 Assessm en t Ki ck- Off M eeti n g
integrity.
There is no additional guidance for this clause.

5 .1 .7.2.1 Sam ple Averagi n g. In random fashion

5 .4 Deploy Data Collecti on E q ui pm en t
throughout a given time period, noise-induced signal
variation will produce an equal number and amplitude Installation of portable instruments can be used for
of signals above and below the actual measurement short-term measurement activities. Short-term data is
value. One method of minimizing the impact of signal recorded with a portable digital data acquisition sys-
noise is “oversampling.” Using a high frequency sample tem (data logger). Multiple data loggers independently
rate, multiple samples are averaged throughout a fxed assign time and date values to logged data. Align the
time interval, and the resultant average value is stored time and date values of each separate data logger as
as the measured data. This sample averaging method closely as possible. The assessment should document
results is one data point per time interval. the expected time variation that will occur between data
systems.
5 .1 .7.2.2 Power M easurem en t. Power measure- The assessment should verify that the digital system
ments typically serve two objectives: determine energy is reading the transducer at the sample rate and data
use and assess the compressor ’s control response to interval as required by the measurement plan and con-
changing conditions. vert the values to correct engineering units. This can be
Energy use is determined by post processing individ- accomplished with a short test-run of data and compari-
ual power (kW) measurements, integrating them over son with independent instrumentation where available,
time, and calculating energy use (kWh). The greater the or comparison with a group of associated stipulated val-
frequency of sample rate, the more accurate the resultant ues and/ or indirect measurements.
integration of power to energy values. However, storing If the data is erroneous, the team should troubleshoot
high frequency data readings for long periods of time and correct equipment and/ or instrument installation
increases the amount of data involved in calculating the issues such that recorded data is appropriate. If unre-
measurement of energy. Sample averaging described solved measurement installation issues increase uncer-
above can be used as a data management method. Since tainty with respect to the recorded data, these should be
each averaged data point recorded represents an aver- documented along with the impact on the measurement
age of power readings, the accuracy of the calculated confdence level.
energy measurement is unaffected. After collecting large amounts of data, it is very
common for that data to be unusable. Such results are
5 .1 .7.2.3 En ergy M easurem en t. Watt-hour trans- not only disappointing, but they lead to additional
ducers integrate power measurement over time and pro- unplanned time and cost for the assessment.
vide a pulse output with each pulse representing some Before collecting data, ensure that the instru-
number of watt-hours. Based on energy measurement ment’ s b atteries are functioning, and, if p ossib le,
alone it is diffcult to assess the dynamic response of com- p ower up the equip ment and use the battery p ower
pressor controls to changes in system performance. For as a b ackup . Ensure the p ower outlet is working.
dynamic analysis, power measurement is more relevant. Lab el the p ower cord and data logger with the fol-
lowing message:

5 .1 .8 I d en ti fy Test Poi n ts an d Param eters. There is Compressed Air System Testing in Progress. Please Do Not
no additional guidance for this clause. Disconnect Power.

16
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Fi g. 4 E xam ple I n stalled Data System

Sys Disp MOS_1 1 Trend Select

Cub tert 76.7 deg

CWR
Air comp 1
Cub tert
CWS 1
1 25.1 psi
Air comp 2
A
i 2
r
Air comp 3 r
e
c
e 3
i
Air comp 4 Stand-by v
e
enabled r
4
Air comp 5 Stand-by � 1 .4 IN WC
enabled

Instrument air Distribution air

AIR FLTR NORMAL TMP 58.1 6 deg Light
PRESS 1 20.32 psi PRESS 1 1 4.56 psi
END/LINE 1 1 6.0 psi FLOW 2,740 scfm tower
FLOW 469 scfm DEW PT � 1 66.8 �F ack
END/LINE 1 09.8 psi

When setting up the data logger, check and re-check. 5 .5 Coord i n ate Data From Perm an en tly I n stalled

Be sure the data logger is set, running, and getting rea- Data System s

sonable data. Forgetting to put the memory card in,

The assessment should gather data available from
failing to start the logger, and forgetting to open the iso-
permanently installed systems [e.g., Supervisory
lation valve on the pressure transducer are all common
Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA)] . 1 If
ways to get incorrect data.
data from a short-term measurement activity (logged
Determine if the data are reasonable and look at data) will be used together with SCADA data, align the
the display on the data logger and see if the readings time and date values of each separate system as closely
make sense. If there is no display, download a short as possible. The assessment should document the
run of data and see if it makes sense. Do not forget to expected time variation that will occur between data
restart the data logger after downloading. It can be systems (see Fig. 4).
easy to spot the pressure transducer with a closed iso- The team should verify that the SCADA is reading
lation valve, but diff cult without reviewing the col- the transducer at the sample rate and data interval as
lected data. required by the measurement plan, and convert these
Ensure that the data logger is set up properly. Check values to correct engineering units. If the data is erro-
the measurement plan for the planned sample rate and neous, the team should troubleshoot and correct equip-
data interval. Make sure the time clock on the data log- ment and/ or instrument installation issues such that
ger is set correctly. Make sure the data interval makes recorded data are appropriate. If left unresolved, meas-
sense. If the plan calls for a slow data interval but the urement installation issues increase uncertainty with
equipment being measured operates at a fast cycle rate, respect to the recorded data, document issues, and the
review the plan and see if the assessment team wants to impact on measurement confdence level.
revisit the measurement plan.
Perform daily checks, making the rounds once a day,
1
and see that the data loggers are still running and that Permanently installed data systems have various
designations [e.g., Distributed Control System (DCS), Building
the data still looks good. Check the batteries and ensure Management System (BMS)]. For reference such systems will be
that nothing has been unplugged. referred to as SCADA.

17
 ASME EA-4G–2010

5.6 validate Data y 5 (50 psig/ V) 3 (3.3 V) 1 ( 2 50 psig) 5 115 psig

Instruments, digital systems, and methodologies used
for data collection differ in complexity and degree of dif- The correct value for a 3.3-V signal should be 115 psig.
fculty. Measuring and collecting large amounts of data
often result in some amount of missing or erroneous
5.6.3 Example: Known Correction Applied to the
data.
Data. An averaging style kilowatt transducer is used
to measure compressor power. Real power is measured
(a) Data can be interpolated from, or populated with,
as the RMS (root mean square) value of the sinusoidal
valid measured data taken during another time period
electrical voltage and current wave form. For a sine wave
of similar operation.
the RMS value is equal to 0.707 times the peak value, and
(b) Incorrect scaling of engineering units can be cor-
average is equal to 0.637 times the peak value. Therefore,
rected through post processing to rescale to correct engi-
the RMS value is equal to 1.11 times the average measure-
neering units.
(c) Indirect measures of related parameters along
5
ment (0.707 / 0.637 1.10989). Post processing of average
kilowatt measurements would add 11% to the measured
with stipulated values or spot check measurements can
value as a correction to RMS power.
be used to derive reasonable methods of post processing
data to apply appropriate correction factors.
Validation of data is a more rigorous process than “ver-
5.7 Plant Functional Baseline
ifying data,” which is described in para. 5.4 of this guid- The assessment should record data associated with
ance document. Validation of data identifes elemental plant function and production process information. Base
errors and uncertainties that ultimately affect the cov- year energy use is measured according to Mandatory
erage interval and confdence of the result. In addition Appendix II, Plan of Action Matrix in ASME EA-4. To
to identifying and correcting erroneous or missing data, completely defne base year conditions, it is necessary to
other corrections for calibration adjustments, errors of document the plant’s functional baseline through gath-
method, or known corrections are applied to the data. ering relevant production operating data. These data are
the basis of future system performance comparison. A
5.6.1 Example: Calibration Adjustment. A group of well designed and executed system assessment records

pressure transducers with 1% FS accuracy are used for plant operating conditions in a way that can be accessed
measurement. The transducers have improved repeat- in the future.

ability of 0.07%. On-site test measurements for the “as
found” pressure reading of each transducer recorded 5.7.1 Static Factors. Comparisons of future per-
the systematic offset pressure of each individual pres- formance will require adjustments for changing plant
sure transducer as compared to a calibrated 
0.015% function. Factors that govern compressed air energy use
pressure transducer. Post processing pressure data for over the short term are normally considered static fac-
each individual pressure transducer should be done, tors. Over the long term the normally static factors such
correcting the measured value by the tested systematic as those listed as follows may change:
offset pressure of the transducer. By this process the (a) amount of production space or number of pro-

overall coverage interval for pressure data is improved duction shifts per day
as compared to the accuracy specifcation of the original (b) type of products being produced

pressure transducers used for measurement. (c) the amount or type of pneumatically powered
production equipment
5.6.2 Example: Correcting Errors of Method. For
a given measurement, validation of data reveals that 5.7.2 Base Year Production Performance. The assess-
an incorrect scaling factor was set in the data logger ’s ment team should determine the necessary plant func-
confguration. A pressure transducer scaled as 0 VDC tional data and appropriate method to record and organize
to 5 VDC signal with a 0 psig through 200 psig range the data necessary to defne base year performance. The
should have been confgured with a 1 VDC to 5 VDC team should investigate and document base year produc-
signal. The incorrect scaling was 40 psig/ V. If the meas- tion performance including
urement made at the incorrect signal scale is 132 psig, (a) production rate during baseline measurement,

the electrical signal would have been 3.3 V (132 psig / annualized for the base year, based on the plant’s nor-
40 psig/ V). The proper slope for the transducer signal mal measurement of production output (e.g., number of
should be 50 psig/ V and 1 V offset. With 1 V offset, the units produced, tons of product produced)
transducer ’s offset pressure at 0 V signal is -50 psig. (b) type of production processes, square footage of

Correct scaling for a linear pressure transducer with production area, and number of machine and/ or pro-
1 VDC to 5 VDC electrical signal scaled to a pressure duction lines
range from 0 psig to 200 psig uses the equation of a (c) baseline operating practice, number and time

straight line duration of production shifts, seasonal schedules,

y 5 mx 1 b number of employees, etc.

18
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Table 2 Production Rates Recorded During the System Assessment

Day of the Week Typical Operating Period Date Production Volume

Thursday Partial production 11/6/08 178,845 lb

Limited production and
Friday 11/7/08 14,070 lb
maintenance
Saturday Down day 11/8/08 No production
Sunday Production startup 11/9/08 50,003 lb
Monday Full production 11/10/08 301,821 lb
Tuesday Full production 11/11/08 307,523 lb
Wednesday Full production 11/12/08 336,578 lb
Thursday Full production 11/13/08 269,503 lb

(d) present production outages, including tools, implementation of compressed air system improvements
machines, processes, and production areas that are shut often take between several months and 1 yr to 2 yr before
down for repair, maintenance, retooling, business cycles, all changes are complete. During the time of implementa-
market conditions, etc. tion, production levels may change, or physical changes to
the production process may have taken place. Adjustments
5.7.3 Example: Plant Functional Baseline. The to the plant’s production baseline may be necessary during
plant’s measure of production output is pounds of prod- a future post implementation assessment. Routine adjust-
uct. According to production records during the assess- ments are factors affecting production that are expected to
ment baseline period, the plant produced 1,279,498 lb of change. One example of a possible routine adjustment may
product from Thursday, November 6 through Thursday, be changing market conditions that cause changes in pro-
November 13. Production information for the baseline duction schedules. Nonroutine adjustments are a result of
period is shown in Table 2. Detailed production operat- factors that are less likely to change (e.g., a major addition
ing schedules were provided by each production man- to the plant changing the type or number of production
ager and are included in an appendix. lines operating in the plant).
The plant operates a total of eight production lines: To evaluate routine or nonroutine adjustments prop-
three specialty lines and fve standard lines. The pack- erly, a well documented baseline of the physical plant,
aging area has a total of 28 packaging machines. The production equipment/ processes, and production out-
number of packaging machines operating varies with put is essential.
production rate; normally full production typically
operates 22 packaging machines. 5.8 Functional Investigation
There are three material handling systems supplying
raw material to the production process. Material han- There is no additional guidance for this clause.
dling systems in the plant use compressed air for dense
phase transfer of raw material. One system serves two 5.9 Progress and Wrap-Up Meetings
storage hoppers: one storing material A and the other
The assessment team can communicate a number
storing material B. The second system transfers material
of ways during the progress and wrap-up meetings.
to the batching system. The third handling system con-
Knowledge and fndings obtained during the assess-
veys a measured weight of mixed material to one of the
ment should be communicated among the team mem-
eight production lines.
bers. This can be done through computer-generated
Operating periods are 24 hr. Annually operating periods
slides (e.g., PowerPoint) or other means.
include 170 full production periods, 50 production startup
Charts and graphs of data can effectively summa-
periods, 50 limited production and maintenance periods,
rize performance information. Photos of existing plant
35 partial production periods, and 60 down days.
equipment can serve to document the present produc-
If the plant’s production includes seasonal operation,
tion process and the type of equipment in use. Excerpts
the baseline may need to consider several additional
from original equipment manufacturer (OEM) manuals
typical operating periods.
for production equipment with diagrams, description
Establishing a well documented functional baseline of operation, recommended maintenance, and other
is important to post implementation measurement and information can document production process require-
verifcation. If the production process had not changed ments. Opportunities for energy reduction (e.g., inap-
and production volume is equal to the baseline period, propriate use of compressed air) can be documented
then the functional baseline has little relevance. However, with photos.

19
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Table 3 Example Baseline Summary

Average Average Annual Energy
Total Operating Airfow, Airfow, Peak Demand, Load Factor, Annual Energy, Cost,
Day Type Hours acfm %Cs. kW % kWh $ / yr
Production 6,000 538 40.9 1 82.5 58.9 769,950 $30,798.00
Weekends 400 630 47.9 1 03.6 47.5 41 ,440 $1 ,637.00

System totals 6,400 544 41 .4 1 82.5 58.2 81 1 ,390 $32,435.00

The meeting can be held with all team members air dryers have constant energy use independent of
attending in person. Other alternatives exist such as tel- air f ow rate through the dryer, while cycling-style dry-
econferencing. However, given the importance of visual ers have reduced energy use when air f ow rate or inlet
presentation of fndings discussed above, a webinar temperature are lower than the dryer ’s rated design.
(webcast) style meeting is preferred over teleconferenc- Since the air dryer ’s energy use is low as compared to
ing, as it allows all team members to view visual presen- that of an air compressor, the dryer energy use can be
tations that can facilitate discussions. stipulated by manufacturer ’s rating and be within the
1 0% limit set forth in ASME EA-4 (para. 5.1 .3). Direct
6 GUIDE TO ANALYSIS OF DATA FROM Th E measurement of kilowatt input to refrigerated air dry-
ASSESSMENT ers in the system will yield the most accurate measure
of dryer energy use.
6.1 Baseline Pro f les For heatless regenerative-style air dryers, purge air-
The team should fow is the major energy supply to the dryer. The energy
(a) determine baseline performance for the sys- use is measured in the compressor energy that gener-
tem power pro fle and the associated airfow rate of ates the purge airfow. Heatless air dryers require a
demand small energy input to operate electrical controls, but this
(b) assess total baseline performance to hourly pro- is generally considered negligible. For the heat of com-
fles of energy use and total air demand pression-style air dryers, the energy of regeneration and
(c) baseline the system’s compressed air supply pressure drop are also measured within the air compres-
effciency sor power measurement.
(d) analyze daily performance and identify the pro- Heat-regenerated and blower-purge air dryers
fle for typical days of operation use a signi f cant amount of external energy input for
(e) annualize data for the expected number of operat- processing the air f ow. The energy input is usually
ing days for each day type pro fle (see para. 6.1.5) from electricity required to drive the purge blower and
(f) project base-year energy and air demand totals to power electrical heaters used to heat the purge air-
An example baseline is shown in Table 3. fow. Alternatively, some heat-regenerated air dryers
Detailed data such as the baseline pro fle for individ- may use steam or direct- fred gas heaters for purge-air
ual typical operating periods shown in Table 4 may be heating. For a regenerative air dryer equipped with
best presented in an appendix to the assessment report. standard controls, dryer purge and energy use are con-
As a supplemental element of an assessment (see ASME trolled with a fxed time cycle. Energy-saving controls
EA-4, Mandatory Appendix II, II-1 a.2), the total energy such as dew-point demand cycle controls are becoming
use reported would include all parasitic energy consump- more common. Dew-point demand cycle control initi-
tion related to the compressed air delivered. Some para- ates purge cycles as needed to maintain design dew
sitic energy sources are treatment equipment such as air point. When the moisture load to the air dryer is below
dryers and flters. Depending on system design, parasitic the design rating, extended drying time reduces the
energy use may be minimal or signifcant; if the latter, the frequency of regeneration cycles, thus lowering overall
assessment team may decide that it should be included as energy consumption.
a supplemental element of the assessment. Other parasitic energy consumption may include
The energy use for irrecoverable pressure loss in fl- water-pumping energy or ventilation fans to support
ters is included in the compressor power measurement compressor cooling requirements. In some instances,
due to the impact on compressor discharge pressure. Air compressor heat may impact energy requirements
dryers have various energy sources depending on the for air-conditioning the compressor room. The prac-
dryer ’s design. titioner should evaluate all energy f ow necessary to
Refrigerated dryers have a separate electrical input support the compressed air system and account for all
to power the refrigeration system. Noncycling-style energy input.

20
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Table 4 Example Baseline Prof le for Production Day Type

Hour of Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Comp #1
Measured power,
kW 72 72 72 72 72 72 84 84 84 84 84 84
Calculated airf ow,
acfm 1 90 1 90 1 90 1 90 1 90 1 90 380 380 380 380 380 380
Calculated %
capacity 40 40 40 40 40 40 80 80 80 80 80 80
Cascade # 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Comp #2
Measured power,
kW 20 20 20 20 20 20 56.8 56.8 56.8 56.8 56.8 56.8
Calculated airf ow,
acfm 0 0 0 0 0 0 277 277 277 277 277 277
Calculated %
capacity 0 0 0 0 0 0 33 33 33 33 33 33
Cascade # 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Total power, kW 92 92 92 92 92 92 1 40.8 1 40.8 1 40.8 1 40.8 1 40.8 1 40.8

Total airf ow, acfm 1 90 1 90 1 90 1 90 1 90 1 90 657 657 657 657 657 657
% System capacity 1 4.4 1 4.4 1 4.4 1 4.4 1 4.4 1 4.4 50 50 50 50 50 50
Hour of Day 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Comp #1
Measured power,
kW 90 90 90 90 90 90 78 78 78 78 78 78
Calculated airf ow,
acfm 475 475 475 475 475 475 285 285 285 285 285 285
Calculated %
capacity 1 00 1 00 1 00 1 00 1 00 1 00 60 60 60 60 60 60
Cascade # 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Comp #2
Measured power,
kW 92.5 92.5 92.5 92.5 92.5 92.5 20 20 20 20 20 20
Calculated airf ow,
acfm 546 546 546 546 546 546 0 0 0 0 0 0
Calculated %
capacity 65 65 65 65 65 65 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cascade # 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Total power, kW 1 82.5 1 82.5 1 82.5 1 82.5 1 82.5 1 82.5 98 98 98 98 98 98

Total airfow, acfm 1 ,021 1 ,021 1 ,021 1 ,021 1 ,021 1 ,021 285 285 285 285 285 285
% System capacity 77.7 77.7 77.7 77.7 77.7 77.7 21 .7 21 .7 21 .7 21 .7 21 .7 21 .7

21
 ASME EA-4G–2010

6.1.1 Power and Energy Prof les. There is no addi- potential to satisfy pressure requirements of production
tional guidance for this clause. equipment, it can be very energy intensive.
The assessment team should determine the proper tar-
6.1.2 Demand Prof le. There is no additional guid- get pressure for the compressed air system. Starting with
ance for this clause. end-use pressure requirements, the team can develop
a system pressure profle accounting for reasonable
6.1.3 Supply Eff ciency. There is no additional guid- recoverable pressure loss throughout the system and
ance for this clause. necessary recoverable pressure differential for effective
compressed air energy storage. The team needs to con-
6.1.4 Identify Operating Period Types. There is no sider the present system performance and the impact on
additional guidance for this clause. compressed air pressure throughout the system.
There are many operating conditions that can contrib-
6.1.5 Annuali ze Energy Use and Air Demand. There ute to excessive, irrecoverable pressure loss. Some con-
is no additional guidance for this clause. ditions are transient; they occur for short periods of time
and are a result of temporary operating conditions that
6.2 System volume are a consequence of changes in air demand of a specifc
end use, or group of end-use demands. Several system
System volume is an important parameter neces- design characteristics affect the airfow / pressure rela-
sary to assess system events and compressor control tionship and will impact the system’s dynamic pressure
response. As system pressure increases, compressed air pro fle. Analysis of the measured dynamic pressure
energy is entering storage, and that energy is released pro fle may identify characteristic signatures of various
from storage as system pressure decreases. To calculate transient conditions that have a negative impact on sys-
the amount of compressed air entering or leaving stor- tem pressure performance.
age, two parameters are required: the storage volume Dynamic pressure performance conditions may
and the pressure increase or decrease occurring within include the following:
that volume. (a) Pressure Variations . Pressure variations are changes
The mechanical volume of a system is simply the sum that are observed to be systemwide, affecting the entire
of the individual volumes of each air receiver, pipeline, pressure profle. Pressure variations can result from
or other vessel within the compressed air system. many aspects of system performance. For example, a
The effective volume of the system is the system’s cascade compressor control strategy may result in the
mechanical volume adjusted for the actual pressure system pressure operating at the high end of the control
increase and decrease that occurs. All components and range during periods of low air demand. As air demand
pipelines in a compressed air system have frictional resist- increases and additional compressors are added to gen-
ance to airfow. As a result, the magnitude of pressure eration capacity, the system pressure operates at lower
change is not constant throughout the entire system. and lower portions of the compressor control range.
Multiple compressor systems where each compres-
6.3 Pressure Prof le sor operates with local control response can experience
Using the cumulative result of all remedial meas- pressure variations that are a consequence of interaction
ures related to the system pressure profle, including among the various independent compressor control
mitigating the effect of pressure variations, drawdown systems.
events, dynamic pressure instability, irrecoverable pres- (b) Drawdown Events . These events are characterized
sure loss, and excessive end-use dynamic pressure loss, by the continual decay of overall system pressure affect-
the team should establish specifc recommendations for ing the entire pressure profle. When total compressed
an appropriate system pressure pro fle. air demand exceeds rotating online generation capac-
There are many different system performance charac- ity, system pressure will decrease as time goes on. The
teristics that affect the air pressure delivered to end-use rate of pressure decay, or drawdown rate, depends on
equipment. During the assessment, information is gath- the supply defcit (how much air demand exceeds gen-
ered about the system’s existing pressure profle and its eration capacity) and the storage volume of the system.
dynamic performance. Problems with system perform- The highest pressure-drawdown rate occurs with a large
ance often result in an unacceptably low pressure sup- supply defcit and low storage volume. The supply
plied to end-use applications. A common solution to low de fcit can be a result of increased air demand, such as
systemwide pressure, low pressure in a particular part operation of a high-volume, intermittent air use causing
of the system, or occasional low-pressure problems is to total air demand to exceed generation capacity. Another
increase the compressor control set points or run addi- source of a system drawdown event is the unanticipated
tional compressor horsepower as necessary to ensure shutdown of an air compressor (for example, in response
acceptable pressure at all times throughout all parts of to a high-temperature or motor-overload condition) that
the compressed air system. While this solution has the may create a supply defcit.

22
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Fig. 5 Example Pressure Prof le 1

1 50

Lo a d /u n l o a d
1 45
800 h p
s e tti n g s o f ro ta ry’ s

ce n tri fu g a l
o ve rl a p s e tp o i n t o f
1 40

th e ce n tri fu g a l

co m p re s s o r
1 35

1 30

B l o wo ff p o i n t
1 25
1 2 0 psi g 3 , 80 0 s cfm ,

7 00 bh p U n l o a d po i n t
1 20

1 1 5

S et po i n t

th ro ttl e l i n e , 1 1 5 p s i g Lo a d p o i n t
1 1 0
U C- 7 0 4 U C- 7 0 5 U C- 7 0 6

1 05

1 00

95

(c) Dynamic Pressure Instability . This pressure insta- of air fow change [as discussed in para. 6.3(c)] localized
bility results from changes in air f ow rate interacting to the end-use point. End-use dynamic pressure insta-
with system resistance of a portion of the compressed bility is generally considered in the pipe drop from a
air system and causing a change in compressed air header to the machine connection point and from there
pressure loss through that portion of the system. The to the end-use pneumatic device.
pressure drop through a f xed resistance in a com- After investigating pressure pro f le performance, the
pressed air system will change as a squared function compressed air system assessment team can develop
of change in air f ow rate. For example, if a flter has solutions to issues that negatively impact the sys-
3 psid at 1 00-scfm air f ow rate, that pressure loss will tem pressure pro f le. Possible solutions may include
increase to 9 psig at 200-scfm air f ow rate. Dynamic changes to compressor controls, overall control strat-
pressure instability can occur in any part of the com- egy, air storage piping, component size, end-use pip-
pressed air system. Pressure variations occur as air f ow ing connection, and other designs that will provide
changes through restrictions, such as treatment equip- optimum pressure pro f le performance. The assess-
ment, main line distribution piping, branch sections ment team should provide speci f c remedial measures
of distribution piping, or any part of the system, and to address opportunities to optimize the pressure pro-
these cause restriction to air f ow. Dynamic pressure fle. Based on proper implementation of recommended
instability usually affects the pressure pro f le in local- remedial measures, the assessment team should pro-
ized sections of the restriction and points downstream vide speci f cations for an appropriate system pressure
of the restriction. An exception is dynamic pressure pro f le.
instability resulting from the interaction of air f ow Example pressure pro fles are shown in Figs. 5 and
change with fxed resistance of supply-side air treat- 6, and Fig. 7 shows an example measured pressure
ment equipment, which affects the compressor control pro fle.
signal pressure upstream of the treatment equipment.
(d) Irrecoverable Pressure Loss . Irrecoverable pressure 6.3.1 Average Pressure and Pressure
loss is the resultant pressure reduction caused by indi- variations. There is no additional guidance for this
vidual components of the system and the airfow rate clause.
through the component.
(e) End-Use Dynamic Pressure Instability. Dynamic 6.3.2 Peak Airfow: Effect on the Pressure Prof le. As
pressure instability is the resultant pressure performance a result of isolated demand events or the simultaneous

23
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Fig. 6 Example Pressure Pro f le 2

1 50

1 45
800 h p

ce n tri fu g a l

1 40

1 35

1 30

C o n tro l wi th

B l o wo ff p o i n t
a u to m a ti o n u s i n g
1 25
1 2 0 psi g 3 , 80 0 s cfm ,
a ta rg e t s e t p o i n t

7 00 bh p
s tyl e co n tro l l e r
1 20

1 1 5

S et po i n t

th ro ttl e l i n e , 1 1 5 p s i g U n l o a d po i n t
1 1 0

1 05

Lo a d p o i n t
1 00 Al wa ys ke e p

U C- 7 0 4 U C- 7 0 5 U C- 7 0 6
ro ta ry s cre w

co m p re s s o r co n tro l
95

ra n g e b e l o w th e

ce n tri fu g a l

co m p re s s o r’ s

th ro ttl e l i n e

Fig. 7 Example Measured Pressure Pro f le

1 1 5. 00
1 : Com p_di sch arg e psi g

1
1 1 0. 00 1

1 05. 00
2 1
2: Ai rdryer_ou tl et psi g

3
2

1 00. 00 3
4

4 4
95. 00
3: Packag i n g psi g

2
3
3
90. 00 4
4: Pri n ti n g _press psi g

85. 00
2

80. 00

75. 00
1 3: 00: 00 1 3: 30: 00 1 4: 00: 00 1 4: 30: 00 1 5: 00: 00 1 5: 30: 00 1 6: 00: 00 1 6: 30: 00 1 7: 00: 00 1 7: 30: 00 1 8: 00: 00
08/1 5/2005 08/1 5/2005 08/1 5/2005 08/1 5/2005 08/1 5/2005 08/1 5/2005 08/1 5/2005 08/1 5/2005 08/1 5/2005 08/1 5/2005 08/1 5/2005

Ti m e, sec

24
 ASME EA-4G–2010

occurrence of multiple random demand events, the peak in system design and maintenance. The team should
airfow rate of a compressed air system can at times be evaluate air treatment components such as aftercoolers,
much greater than average airfow. With the impact of moisture separators, dryers, and flters to ensure they
compressed air storage, peak airfow can at times exceed have the lowest possible pressure drop at specifed max-
the total generation capacity of the system’s air compres- imum operating conditions of fow and temperature.
sors. Peak airfow in a system has two potential effects The pressure drop through the system also increases
on the system’s pressure profle. as the square of airfow rate (velocity). High-volume,
(a) Pressure Drawdown . The continual decrease in sys- intermittent demands create peak airfow rates, causing
tem pressure that occurs as a result of a demand event signifcant pressure fuctuations. The pressure profle is
whereby the air demand exceeds available generation the key to identifying whether high dynamics from end
capacity of the system’s operating air compressors. users are causing the instability or undersized piping is
As drawdown is occurring, compressed air energy responsible.
is released from storage. The amount of storage that is Interruption of production operations at the point
available and the degree to which demand exceeds sup- of use can be a symptom of low pressure supply at the
ply combine to determine how rapidly system pressure use point. Casual analysis and anecdotal information
decreases (drawdown rate). The duration of the demand often lead to the conclusion that compressed air system
event and the drawdown rate determine how much the pressure must be increased at the source to prevent pro-
system pressure goes down during the event (draw- duction interruption. Often, intermittent low-pressure
down pressure). conditions at the point of use can be attributed to tran-
(b) Pressure Instability. The increase or decrease in sient pressure disturbances that exist on the demand side
compressed air pressure due to the interaction of chang- of the system and cannot be detected by observation of
ing airfow rate with the fxed resistance to fow rep- the supply-side pressure. The perception that low sys-
resented by system components and piping through tem pressure is the cause should be investigated further
which the airfow must pass. to assess the root cause of the production interruption.
For compressed airfow (at a given pressure and tem- When assessing the stability of supply pressure to a
perature) through any component or pipeline having perceived high-pressure end use, dynamic pressure pro-
fxed resistance, the change in pressure loss is a squared fle measurements often include three or four key pres-
function of the increase or decrease in airfow rate. Due sure measurement locations, such as the following:
to starting and stopping of various air demands and the (a) header pressure in the area of the perceived high-
cyclic nature of many air demands, compressed airfow pressure use that is being evaluated
rate throughout a compressed air system frequently (b) on the piping drop to the machine at the equip-
changes. The changing airfow rate interacts with the ment connection point
fxed resistance of the system components and piping, (c) downstream of the flter, regulator, lubricator sup-
resulting in frequent changes in pressure drop causing plying the equipment
pressure instability, which is observed in the system’s (d) as close as is practical to the end-use pneumatic
dynamic pressure profle. device that is believed to require higher pressure
Dynamic interaction and the fow/pressure-drop
6.3.3 Excessive Irrecoverable Pressure Loss. There relationship may cause pressure upset to the end-use
is no additional guidance for this clause. device because of excessive pressure loss between the
plant air header and the use point. Pressure loss during
6.3.4 Excessive Pressure Gradient. There is no the end-use air demand can be evaluated by perform-
additional guidance for this clause. ing dynamic measurement of pressure at the points
described above.
6.4 Perceived h igh-Pressure Demand It is also important to note that pressure instability at
There is no additional guidance for this clause. the header could also cause random production inter-
ruptions even when the dynamic pressure profle from
6.4.1 Rated / Recommended End-Use Pressure. There the header to end use operates with minimal pressure
is no additional guidance for this clause. loss. It is possible that operation of equipment in other
parts of the compressed air system is creating perform-
6.4.2 Dynamic Flow/Pressure Relationship. There is ance conditions that upset pressure in the local distri-
no additional guidance for this clause. bution header at the perceived high-pressure use that is
being assessed.
6.4.3 Stability of Supply Pressure. Piping of the Comprehensive investigation should include efforts
proper diameter ensures air gets where it needs to to rule out upstream pressure instability as a causa-
go, when it needs to get there, close to the originat- tive effect of unacceptable pressure performance. These
ing pressure, and in the quality and quantity required. efforts should include measuring the local pressure pro-
Minimizing pressure drop requires a systems approach fle for a suffciently long duration of time to experience

25
 ASME EA-4G–2010

potential pressure upsets caused by other equipment (d) elimination of the artifcial demand that results when
in the system. If there are suspect high-volume, inter- storage pressure requirements increase pressure through-
mittent air demands that may cause system pressure out the entire system. Installation of a pressure/ fow con-
upset (such as dense phase transports or high-volume trol can separate the relatively higher-pressure compressed
blowing applications), efforts should be made to moni- air storage receivers from the downstream air demands.
tor these demands during operation of the suspect air This will serve to protect unregulated demands from being
demand events. supplied at the elevated storage pressure that is necessary
to create usable compressed air energy in storage.
6.4.4 Remedial Measures and Quantify Savings.
There is no additional guidance for this clause. 6.5.1 Average Airfow and Airfow variations. The
contribution of compressed air storage to dynamic air
6.4.4.1 Existing Pressure Anomalies. There is no demand can be evaluated based on the system’s storage
additional guidance for this clause. volume and pressure drawdown rate ( dP/ dT). Note the
pressure drawdown may not be equal throughout the
6.4.4.2 valid h igh-Pressure Use. There is no addi- entire compressed air system (see also para. 6.4.3).
tional guidance for this clause.
6.5.2 Transmission System Performance. There is
6.5 Demand Prof le no additional guidance for this clause.
When measuring dynamic airfow rate to the system
(see Mandatory Appendix II, II-7 a.1), it is best to take
6.5.3 Remedial Measures and Quantify Savings. There
is no additional guidance for this clause.
the measurement at a point downstream of primary
storage. By measuring at this location, airfow supplied
from primary storage will be directly measured. If the 6.6 Critical Air Demands
fow measurement is made upstream of primary storage 6.6.1 Effect on Productivity and Energy. When pro-
or inferred by measurement of compressor operation, it ductivity impact outweighs an increase in energy use,
is necessary to account for airfow delivered from pri- it is important to consider the positive effect on pro-
mary storage. The contribution of compressed air pri- ductivity and associated fnancial bene ft of improved
mary storage to dynamic airfow rate can be evaluated performance.
based on the storage volume and pressure drawdown One method is to consider energy intensity or energy
rate ( dP/ dT) (see also para. 6.4.3). input per unit of production output. The team should con-
When assessing the demand pro fle, it is necessary sider that this analysis of critical air demands may bene ft
to identify any large supply/ demand imbalance. For from narrowing the measurement boundary. Narrowing
example, if rotating generation capacity far exceeds the measurement boundary may allow energy perform-
the average air demand, an improved control strat- ance to be more easily compared to production variables.
egy should consider automatic shutdown of excess If greater production output is not necessary, con-
compressor capacity. If peak air demand exceeds the sideration should be given to time-dependent and
rotating generation capacity, a short-term pressure production-dependent components of energy use.
drawdown may cause additional compressors to come Production-dependent energy use may increase but
online. Alternatively, increased compressed air energy could be offset to varying degrees by reduction in time-
storage may allow the peak air demand to be satis fed dependent energy use.
without the power consumption of starting additional If an increased production rate is necessary, alterna-
air compressor capacity to meet the short-term peak air tive energy scenarios to achieve the production goals
demand. may be considered. Energy reduction may be the result
Other possible remedial measures for this situation of avoided energy use that would result from an ener-
may include gy-intensive method of increased production as com-
(a) application of dedicated storage with control- pared to a more effcient alternative. This approach may
led re fll at high-volume, intermittent air demands require adjustments to the energy baseline and/ or post-
to allow the supply side of the system to operate at a implementation energy analysis. Adjustments should
lower average airfow rate. At the same time, dedicated be based on identifable physical facts associated with
storage serves the high-volume, intermittent demand the critical air demand and related production process
requirement. within the measurement boundary.
(b) for high-volume, low-pressure demands, installa-
tion of an alternate, more appropriate air source, such as 6.6.1.1 Example of Narrowing the Measurement
low-pressure blowers. Boundary. An existing machining cell in a manu-
(c) improved primary storage with larger storage facturing plant has a group of various machine tools,
volume and optimized storage pressure differential. including drills, lathes, mills, and grinders. It has been

26
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Fig. 8 Compressed Air Waste

I n a p p ro p ri a te u s e Arti fi ci a l d e m a n d

N o rm a l

p ro d u cti o n
Le a ka g e

proposed to replace equipment in the machining cell 6.6.2.1 Flow-Static End Use. Flow-static end-use
with new multi-axis NC machining centers. The airfow applications of compressed air are characterized by
rate consumption of the new machining centers will be operating situations where the peak airfow require-
greater than the existing variety of machine tools con- ment of the end use and the critical end-use pressure
sume. However, the production rate of parts produced occur at different times. One example is a clamping cyl-
will also be increased. As a result of the increased capac- inder wherein the peak airfow occurs as the cylinder is
ity, new levels of production can be achieved. Or if pro- moving into position and the critical pressure is neces-
duction requirements remain constant or decrease, there sary after the cylinder is stopped and clamping force is
will be reduced run time for the machining cell. being applied.
While the amount of compressed air energy for every
hour of production at the machining cell will increase 6.6.2.2 Flow-Dynamic End Use. Flow-dynamic
(kscf/hr), the number of parts (parts/hr) is expected to end-use applications of compressed air are character-
increase to a greater proportion. As a result, the overall ized by operating situations where peak airfow rate
energy intensity (kscf/part) is expected to decrease. and the critical supply pressure must be supplied simul-
For the assessment baseline and future post-imple- taneously. For example, an air motor requires airfow to
mentation measurement and verifcation, it is necessary maintain speed and pressure to develop torque.
to identify the change in both air consumption and pro-
duction rate of the machining cell. Measurement of total 6.6.3 Analyze Process Limits. There is no additional
plant air demand will not allow suffcient resolution of guidance for this clause.
airfow data to quantify the change that is attributed
only to performance of the machining cell. 6.6.4 Remedial Measures and Quantify Savings.
The solution is to narrow the measurement boundary There is no additional guidance for this clause.
and make baseline measurements for only the machining
cell separate from the total plant pro fle. The assessment 6.7 Compressed Air Waste
measurement plan should include a separate baseline Using data collected during the assessment, the team
of the machining cell’s present production rate and air- should quantify various components of compressed air
fow pro fle. Post-implementation, measurement and waste. The assessment should provide specifc remedial
verifcation can then include measurement of the new measures necessary to eliminate waste and quantify
production rate and airfow profle, which will prove or energy savings estimates. Figure 8 shows compressed
disprove that the anticipated reduction in energy inten- air waste for an example system.
sity has been achieved. Demand for compressed air goes beyond what is
needed to do work. The typical industrial compressed
6.6.2 Critical End-Use Characteristics. When evalu- air system delivers half or less of its compressed air to
ating critical end-use requirements, it is helpful to clas- productive end-use air demand. The other 50% or more
sify the end use as “Flow Static” or “Flow Dynamic.” is wasted. Types of waste include inappropriate use,
Flow-static end-use applications will primarily address leakage, and increased demand due to excessive system
the dynamic pressure profle, while fow-dynamic appli- pressure. To effectively cut costs in a compressed air sys-
cations must consider the dynamic performance of both tem, wasteful air demands need to be minimized.
airfow and pressure. The unproductive demands are defned as follows:

27
 ASME EA-4G–2010

artifcial demand: additional compressed air usage due 6.9 Reduce System Operating Pressure
to pressure levels higher than what is necessary to keep To minimize system operating pressure, the team
equipment operating properly. should
inappropriate uses: any application that can be done more (a) establish the recommended target pressure for
effectively or more effciently by a method other than system operation
compressed air (b) analyze the recorded system pressure pro fle and

leaks: an unintended loss of compressed air to ambient apply the cumulative result of all remedial measures
conditions related to the system pressure pro fle, including mitigat-
ing the impact of pressure variations, drawdown events,
dynamic pressure instability, irrecoverable pressure loss,
6.7.1 Leakage. As the assessment team develops a and excessive end-use dynamic pressure loss
target for the amount of leak reduction and an estimate (c) establish speci fc recommendations for an appro-
of energy savings, they should apply reasonable expecta- priate system pressure profle (see also para. 6.3 of this
tions of how much leak reduction is possible. For example, guidance document)
it stands to reason that greater leak reduction is achievable The assessment should state the recommended
when there are relatively fewer large leaks as compared to demand-side target pressure and pressure variation tol-
numerous small leaks. These larger leaks are easier to fnd, erance for each demand sector. The team should evalu-
and also there are fewer leaks to repair. On the other hand, ate system operation at the reduced target pressure and
numerous small leaks may be a result of widespread use estimate energy reduction.
of poor piping practice in which small leaks are likely to Implementing the necessary remedial measures to
occur. Effectively dealing with this type of leakage may effectively operate at reduced pressure, as outlined in
require changes to existing piping practice. For example, the assessment team’s recommended pressure profle, is
minimizing the use of rubber hose with clamps and using a step-by-step process. Operating the system according
harder pipe or tubing can be a change to existing methods to a new pressure profle will depend on implementing
that can take time to produce measurable results. a comprehensive group of remedial measures address-
Other practical considerations include the following: ing things such as air storage, irrecoverable pressure
(a) Is time available for skilled trades to repair
loss, distribution piping upgrades, removal of restric-
leakage? tions in point-of-use piping, and perhaps modifcation
(b) Is equipment downtime available to allow repair
of the actual end-use pneumatic equipment.
to be done? The assessment team needs to be sure that all necessary
(c) Will overtime work be necessary and will it be
measures are in place to ensure system reliability as oper-
approved? ating pressure is reduced. Even then pressure reduction
should be done slowly over days or weeks. All stakehold-
6.7.2 Inappropriate Use. There is no additional ers in compressed air system operation should be alert to
guidance for this clause. the fact that unintended consequences of lowering sys-
tem pressure may need to be dealt with. If problems arise,
6.7.3 Arti f cial Demand. There is no additional guid- increase pressure to an acceptable level, assess the prob-
ance for this clause. lem, implement a solution, and then continue reducing
system pressure. Simply put, if the system experiences an
6.8 Optimi ze Air Treatment event that causes a production curtailment or outage, the
There is no additional guidance for this clause. energy-effcient operating scenario will be quickly aban-
doned in favor of the (former) less effcient but more reli-
6.8.1 Appropriate Air Quality able operating methodology.

NOTE: ISO 8573 has changed signifcantly — use current version. 6.10 Balance Supply and Demand
The team should analyze system control methods
6.8.2 Redundant Treatment Equipment. There is no necessary to maintain real-time balance between sup-
additional guidance for this clause. ply and demand with suffcient transmission capacity to
move compressed air energy from supply to demand as
6.8.3 Treatment Effect on Pressure Prof le. There is required by the dynamic characteristics of the system.
no additional guidance for this clause. The optimum supply-and-demand balance would be
achieved if the full load generation capacity of all run-
6.8.4 Remedial Measures and Quantify Energy ning air compressors exactly matched the compressed
Result. There is no additional guidance for this air demand. Of course, the likelihood of maintaining
clause. that exact balance is virtually impossible. In most sys-

28
 ASME EA-4G–2010

tems, the air demand is not constant; rather, it changes the reduced demand pro fle. Examples of optimal con-
as machines and production processes start and stop trol strategies include the following:
during their normal operating cycles. (a) Shut down any compressors that are not needed
Over a given time period, for example, 1 hr, the sys- to support the reduced demand pro fle.
tem would have some average air demand with periods (b) Where possible, operate compressors at their
of peak air demand above and valley periods below the most effcient performance condition, which is typically
average air demand. The goal when balancing supply at their full-load design point.
and demand is to have rotating online compressor capac- (c) Apply trim capacity operation with the most eff-
ity slightly greater than the average air demand. Peak air cient part-load capacity given the available mix of com-
demand should be supplied from storage, and storage refll pressor sizes and control types.
would occur during the valley periods of air demand. (d) In multiple compressor systems, consider appli-
To implement proper storage for the operating strat- cation of control automation to maintain supply-and-
egy described above requires measurement of the sys- demand balance under normal variations in the demand
tem’s dynamic air demand with analysis of average, pro fle.
peak, and valley air airfow rate and time durations. The assessment should provide specifc remedial
These data allow the practitioner to determine the fea- measures necessary to implement the proposed control
sibility of implementing compressed air energy stor- strategy. The assessment should quantify the expected
age. When engineering storage, the amount of usable energy reduction and estimate savings.
compressed air storage is dependent on the volume of
receiver capacity and the pressure differential between 6.11 Assess Maintenance Opportunities
the storage pressure and system’s target pressure as
Like all electromechanical equipment, industrial com-
de fned in the pressure pro fle.
pressed air systems require periodic maintenance to
It is also necessary to consider that shifts in air demand
operate at peak effciency and minimize unscheduled
(increases or decreases in air demand that have a long
downtime. Inadequate maintenance can have a signif-
time duration) will require adding to the rotating com-
cant impact on energy consumption via lower compres-
pressor capacity with increased demand and provide the
sion effciency, air leakage, or pressure variability. It can
opportunity to shut down rotating compressor capacity
also lead to high operating temperatures, poor moisture
with decreased demand. The practitioner must consider
control, and excessive contamination. Most problems
that all air compressors have a permissive startup time
are minor and can be corrected by simple adjustments,
period (the amount of time from when the compressor
cleaning, part replacement, or the elimination of adverse
receives a signal to start and when it actually begins
conditions.
delivering compressed air into the system). Permissive
Common maintenance mistakes include not main-
startup times vary based on the type of air compressor,
taining flters, end-use flters, and lubricators; ignoring
the capacity control method of a compressor, and pos-
air dryer and condensate trap maintenance issues; not
sibly how control parameters are set within the air com-
providing adequate ventilation; and not performing
pressor ’s control panel.
lubricant analysis.
Compressed air energy storage must be suffcient to
Preventive maintenance is de fned as a maintenance
supply air to the system during the permissive startup
activity performed at a regular interval of time or run-
time for the various air compressors. In systems where
hours to prevent systems from failing. Predictive mainte-
there is insuffcient storage to support air demand dur-
nance uses diagnostic equipment to monitor and detect
ing permissive startup time, a control strategy may use
the onset of deterioration; this extends service life by
“spinning reserve” capacity. An air compressor operating
controlling the degradation. Other maintenance actions
in spinning reserve has its electric motor running and is
can be classifed as breakdown ( fxing broken equip-
operating at its unloaded power while delivering no com-
ment), corrective (repairing equipment that is not meet-
pressed air into the system. Spinning reserve capacity is
ing operating specifcations), and tune-up (a special kind
an ineffcient strategy and can be improved with proper
of preventive maintenance on an entire subsystem).
application of storage, which allows the compressor to be
Most of the issues covered in Mandatory Appendix
shut down when its capacity is not needed.
II, II-14 fall into the tune-up category, or they could be
The team should analyze the total effect of compressed
the frst action in establishing a predictive or preventive
air demand reduction, including the elimination of inap-
maintenance program.
propriate use, leakage, and artifcial demand, together
with the impact of recommended compressed air stor-
age to reduce peak air fow supplied from generation.
6.12 Evaluate h eat Recovery Opportunities
Given the baseline demand pro fle, the team should cal- As air is compressed, the temperature of that air
culate projections for the reduced demand pro fle with increases, and the heat generated by this temperature
implementation of recommended measures. The assess- increase must be removed from that air. The heat gen-
ment should optimize compressor control strategy to erated during this process can be as much as 80% to

29
 ASME EA-4G–2010

93% [6] of the input power. Such a high percentage of input. The written report documents system perform-
input power represents a signi f cant quantity of heat ance improvement opportunities and includes an imple-
generated. However, the energy quality of the heat mentation action plan. The report addresses all parts of
generated is low. In other words, while compressing the compressed air system, including supply, transmis-
air generates a large amount of heat, the available tem- sion, and demand. The report quantifes baseline energy
8 8
perature, typically in a range of 1 30 F to 200 F, limits use and projected energy reduction associated with the
the heat recovery opportunities to those applications opportunities identifed.
that can take advantage of these lower temperatures.
However, despite the low energy quality, there are 7.1 Final Assessment Report
opportunities that can make use of 50% to 90% of the
The essential information here is the title of the project
waste available heat.
indicating the company’s name, project manager, assess-
When considering applications, the frst variable that
ment team leader, assessment technical leader, and the
should be considered in an assessment is whether the air
date. The title of the report can be a statement of the
compressor being evaluated is air cooled or water cooled.
subject.
The reason for this is because the heat rejection medium
will infuence what type of heat recovery opportunities
make the most sense. In addition, those opportunities that
7.2 Final Assessment Report Contents
can make use of the heat rejection medium directly with A table of contents is recommended and should
no intermediate heat exchanger will typically recover the include report headings and page numbers that accu-
most heat and have the best paybacks. rately re fect the material that appears beneath them.
The following includes some applications that might
be appropriate for either air-cooled or water-cooled air 7.2.1 Executive Summary. The executive summary
compressors; this list is not intended to be exhaustive: is used by decision makers (managers) to determine
(a) Air-Cooled Compressors what actions need to be taken as a result of the assess-
(1 ) space heating ment. This section condenses and summarizes the report
(2) process air drying in brief. The executive summary is independent of the
body of the report. The executive summary emphasizes
NOTE: Ducting from units can be used to direct the cooling air
from enclosed compressors directly into the space to be heated the objective (which states the goals) and the analysis of
or to the drying application. When using ducting, the assessment the results (including recommendations, projected sav-
team should consider the following: ings, and costs to implement).

(a) the ability to redirect hot air to outside the

facility during periods when heating or drying is not
7.2.2 Facility Information. This section provides
plant background information with a brief description
desired
of manufacturing processes and products.
(b) the need for a booster fan to overcome the
head pressure created by the addition of ducting
(b) Water-Cooled Compressors
7.2.3 Assessment Goals and Scope. The introduc-
tion and scope of work provides the reader with the
(1 ) process-water heating or preheating
background information needed before reading the
(2) potable-water heating or preheating
body of the report. It should also give the reader a clear
(3) boiler-makeup preheating
idea of what material is to follow; it should describe the
project and de fne the scope of the report.
6.12.1 Equations to Approximate Energy Recovery
Using Mandatory Appendix II (Plan of Action Matrix)
Opportunity
of ASME EA-4, describe what system assessment objec-
energy savings (MMBtu/ yr) 5
(fraction of heat recov- tives, action items, and methodologies were used for
erable) × (load factor) × [compressor break horsepower your plan of action.
(hp)] × [hours of operation (hr/ yr)] × [conversion The assessment goal is to successfully improve the
(0.002545 MMBtu/ hp-hr)] / (compressor effciency) compressed air system energy effciency. ASME EA-4
presents a comprehensive set of tasks and analyses that
cost savings 5
energy savings (MMBtu/ yr) / (effciency must be accomplished to provide a proper assessment of
of offset heating equipment) a compressed air system. This Standard outlines certain
fundamentals that must always be included in a system
assessment to ensure the end user receives the expected
7 GUIDE TO REPORTING AND DOCUMENTATION
bene fts. However, to properly address the wide range
An effective compressed air system assessment is a of systems and applications of compressed air in indus-
discovery process that includes investigating system try, a certain fexibility must also be allowed so that a
operation, baselining energy use, and identifying oppor- wide variety of users can gain the bene ft of having their
tunities to improve performance and reduce energy system appropriately assessed.

30
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Fi g. 9 E xam ple of a Si m ple Block Di agram

Compressor End End

#1 use use

Compressor Dryer Filter Receiver

#2

Compressor End End

#3 use use

7.2.4 D escri pti on of System (s) Stud i ed an d S i gn i f can t 7.2.4.2 Si te I ssues. An operational review of sys-
S ystem I ssues. The plant’s compressed air system(s), tem, energy/ utilities consumption and cost, demand-
including the scope of the system’s supply-side char- side issues, transmission issues, and supply-side issues
acteristics, transmission equipment, and demand-side should be included. Best practices (i.e., methods and
characteristics, should be described. To allow for better procedures found to be most effective at energy reduc-
understanding of any system, the report shall provide a tion) should be noted.
graphical representation of the system, such as a block
diagram, so that those reading and reviewing the report 7.2.5 Assessm en t Data Collecti on an d M easurem en ts.

can have at least a basic understanding of the system’s The report shall document the measurement techniques
confguration. used. The report shall clearly identify the processes and
methodology used in the study so that the customer and
7.2.4.1 System Block D i agram . The block diagram other third parties can judge the accuracy and valid-
should be as simple or detailed as necessary to match ity of the assessment. It should include the following
the required level and intent of the assessment and the information:
complexity of the system. A simple block diagram is (a) study time of the assessment: number of days
a one-line diagram that depicts the supply side or the onsite, duration of data collection, start and end date
demand side or both. The monitoring points should be of the assessment period, similarity of study period to
identifed on the diagram. Any proposed modifcations actual annual operation, etc.
to the compressed air system should be shown as dotted (b) data collection equipment used: instruments,
lines or as a separate “new system” drawing. metering, data loggers, gauges, etc. For instance, a table
For basic assessments on relatively straightforward of all of the instrumentation used and its accuracy may
systems, the block diagram may be as simple as the be presented, as shown in Table 8. Instrument manufac-
one shown in Fig. 9. Figure 10 shows a more complex turers have various specifcations used to describe the
system. performance of their products. Many descriptions of
A more detailed schematic may be required on more performance are based on customary specifcations used
complex systems or when the assessment warrants and recognized in markets they serve rather than current
added detail. In addition, transducer locations may also practice in the feld of metrology. Common parameters
be included to enhance clarity, as illustrated in Fig. 10. include percent of full scale (F.S.), hysteresis, nonlinear-
Each measurement point should be identifed with a ity, sensitivity or drift, effect of operating temperature,
unique address. etc. Installation factors — such as pipe geometry, pipe
Notes accompanying any block diagram should list dimensions, inner pipe surface roughness, etc., in the
the ratings and end uses of the various pieces of equip- case of fow transducers — will affect the instrument’s
ment (compressors, dryers, flters, etc.). Tables 5, 6, and performance as applied in the feld. The practitioner,
7 show very simple examples. using available data, experience, and judgment, should
Finally, should signifcant system changes be recom- perform a Type B uncertainty estimate for the measured
mended that involve new equipment or relocating or parameter.
repiping existing equipment, a block diagram or sche- (c) sample rates and duration of any data logging or
matic should be provided if it adds clarity. sampling methods.

31
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Fig. 10 Complex Block Diagram Showing Transducer Locations

All dryer outlet B5A
Building 1 8 valves controlled
Compressor A03 by automation
1 50 hp 660 acfm B1 3
A03 1 25 psig
PT PT B49

(2) 700 scfm desiccant dryers FT

B55

A02 2,000 gal B60

B66
Compressor A02
1 50 hp 655 acfm Prefilters After-filters PT
1 45 psig B80

B81
A01
Compressor A01 PT
1 50 hp 660 acfm Leaks
1 25 psig 1 ,200 scfm desiccant dryer

Legend:
FT Flow meter location
PT Pressure transducer location

Table 5 Example Equipment-Rating Notes

Nominal hp / bhp
Equipment ID Manufacturer Model Rated Performance Type Control Type
Lubricated rotary
150 hp / 165 bhp screw,
Comp A01 Company A RSL 150 660 acfm / 125 psig water cooled Load / unload
150 hp / 171 bhp Lubricated rotary
15 hp cooling fan screw,
Comp A02 Company B RSH 150 665 acfm / 145 psig air cooled Inlet modulation
150 hp / 162 bhp Lubricant-free two-
10 hp cooling fan stage rotary screw,
Comp A03 Company A RSL 150 660 acfm / 125 psig air cooled Load / unload
Receiver Company E ... 150-psig MWP 2,000 gal ...
700 scfm, 15% purge Regenerative 10-min
Air dryers 1 and 2 Company C RHL 1000 150 psig MWP heatless time cycle
1,200 scfm
Pre f lter Company D FC 1200 150 psig MWP Coalescing ...
1,200 scfm Particulate
After f lter Company D FP 1200 150 psig MWP 1 micron ...
10 hp blower,
30 kW heater
1,200 scfm
7% purge Regenerative
Air dryer 3 Company D RBP 1200 150 psig MWP blower purge Dew-point demand
1,200 scfm
Pre- f lter Company D FC 1200 150 psig MWP Coalescing ...
1,200 scfm
After- f lter Company D FP 1200 150 psig MWP Particulate 1 micron ...
GENERAL NOTE: MWP = maximum working pressure

32
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Table 6 Example Equipment Age / Comments

Equipment ID Age / Comments

Compressor A01 Very old; used for backup; water-cooled

Compressor A02 10 yr old; air cooled with 15 hp cooling fan
Compressor A03 Brand new; air cooled with 10 hp cooling fan
Air dryers 1 and 2 10 yr old
Air dryer 3 New
All f lters New; timer-style drain valve
Receiver Timer-style drain valve

Table 7 Example Key End-Use Air Demands

Pressure
End-Use Building Minimum Required Required Airfow
ID Location (Present), psig Type of Use (Quality) Comments

Conveyors, welders, chip Intermittent (general Very intermittent low

End use 1 B49 90 (100) blow-off plant) average usage
B5A 100 scfm – 300 scfm 2-in. supply line with
End use 2 outdoors 80 (100) Actuators, valves, pumps (–20°F) fow meter

Air hoists, hand tools, blow- Unknown (Not Intermittent except

End use 3 B81 100 (100) offs speci f ed) continuous blow-off
Tank agitation, diaphragm 400 scfm – 500 scfm
End use 4 B66 60 (100) pumps (Oil free / 37°F) Constant usage

Table 8 Example Accuracy Information

Instrument Speci f cations — Manufacturer’s Data

Instrument Type Manufacturer Percent F.S. As Applied Calibration Interval, yr

kW transducer kwPro 0.50% 1% 1

Amp/volt multimeter MultiPro 2% 5% 2
Pressure PressurePro 0.25% +/– 1 psig 1
Dew point DewPro ... +/– 2°F 1
Temperature TempPro ... +/– 2°F 1
Flow FlowPro 1% 10% 1
Data logger DataPro 0.20% 0.50% 2
GENERAL NOTE: F.S. = full scale

33
 ASME EA-4G–2010

7.2.6 Data Analysis. The methodology and results 7.2.6.1 Sample Statement of Methodology. A
from the data analysis shall be documented, including statement of the methodology may be as simple as the
estimated energy savings. Additional analysis may following example:
address other energy and nonenergy bene f ts such (a) This system assessment for XYZ Company was
as improving resource utilization, reducing per-unit prepared using ABC System Analysis Software and data-
production cost, and improving environmental per- logging equipment. This software uses the principles and
formance, and may include a range of implementa- equations as adopted for compressor load profles from
tion costs, which can be mutually agreed upon. The the CAGI standard performance curves and manufactur-
assessment should include the minimum identi f ed er’s CAGI data sheets. The data-logging tools were used to
estimates of energy cost savings from recommended analyze and record data every 15 sec and store more than
improvements. Additional calculations may address 322,552 data points. The evaluation started at midnight on
other energy and nonenergy bene f ts. The analysis 11/15/2004 and ended at midnight on 11/21/2004 for a
shall state uncertainty, including coverage interval total data-logging period of 7 days. During meetings with
and con f dence level of any cost estimate that may be plant personnel, this period was established as typical and
variable. representative for their annual operation.
Data quality analysis should be considered in busi- (b) The site conditions are based on NOAA standard
ness decisions. Assessment activities strive to provide site conditions for this area.
comprehensive, high-quality data. “No test data should (c) Annual operating hours are the reported sched-
be reported or used without knowledge of its quality, its uled hours as provided by plant personnel.
measurement uncertainty. Violating this precept causes (d) The energy rate information is based on informa-
undue risk of incorrect business decisions.” [7] tion gathered from utility bills.
The data analysis report should also include the fol- (e) All equipment ratings are obtained from a com-
lowing information: bination of site-gathered nameplate data and published
(a) Software programs that were used to evaluate manufacturer ’s data.
data, model systems, and create reports or recommen- (f) Economic payback and system improve-
dations (AIRMaster 1 , MotorMaster, dynamic mod- ment options were analyzed and evaluated using the
eling software, proprietary software, etc.) should be AIRMaster1 software program.
identi f ed. Calculation methods of publically available
software such as AIRMaster 1 are known. Proprietary 7.2.6.2 Reporting Assessment Findings. Findings
software, privately developed spreadsheet calcula- can be classifed as
tions, or manual calculations applied to assessment (a) positive fndings, which provide information con-
data should be documented with a brief statement of tributing to proof of the operation theory
methods applied. (b) pertinent negative fndings, which provide infor-
A description of dedicated storage calculation meth- mation to disprove or rule out the operation theory
ods should be provided. (c) unremarkable fndings, which provide no valu-
able information, positive or negative
EXAMPLE: Recommended compressed air energy storage is
calculated using the present system storage volume and the Unremarkable fndings should not be included in the
measured rate of pressure decay during the system drawdown report. However, pertinent negative fndings shall be
event associated with operation of the XYZ process. These data reported.
de f ne the system’s present supply de f cit during normal pro-
duction operations. That de f cit is the basis for calculation of
the recommended storage volume and operating pressure dif-
7.2.6.2.1 Example of a Positive Finding. A dual-
ferential for dedicated storage to support the XYZ process. The spindle honing machine fnishes the wrist pin bore on
recommended re f ll f ow rate is designed to support the aver- a high-volume production line for automotive-piston
age air demand of the normal production cycle using a f xed Cv machining. The symptom of operation is a high rate of
re f ll control.
reject scrap parts due to unacceptable wrist pin bore tol-
(b) Nonstandard formulas and calculations should erance and surface fnish.
be listed where applicable. For instance, where formu- The bore tolerance control is accomplished with a
las are used to create indirect or inferred measurements, precision compressed air regulator supplying an air/ oil
the formula or calculation methodology should be dis- hydraulic intensifer with a 4:1 ratio. A hydraulic cylin-
cussed or listed. der actuates a linkage that applies force to the radial seg-
(c) Assumptions and other pertinent information, ments of the hone tool.
such as manufacturer ’s data/ ratings, ambient condi- Troubleshooting has developed two theories of operation
tions, energy costs, etc., should be provided. that may result in a seemingly random failure to maintain
proper tolerance and surface fnish of the wrist pin bore.
NOTE: This information may be provided in the body of the report
(a) Mechanical vibration in the machine spindles
(where appropriate and as part of the explanation of the facts of
the report) or may be presented in an appendix or supplemental causes forces on the tool that the bore tolerance control
table. cannot compensate for.

34
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Fig. 11 Dynamic Pressure Trend

48 90

47
89

46

88

45
Co n tro l l e d Ai r Pre s s u re , p s i g

Ai r S u p p l y Pre s s u re , p s i g
87

44

86
43

42 85

41
84

40

83

39

82

38

81
37

36 80

1 2 : 46: 1 5 . 0 0 1 2 : 46: 1 6. 0 0 1 2 : 46: 1 7 . 0 0 1 2 : 46: 1 8 . 0 0 1 2 : 46: 1 9 . 0 0 1 2 : 46: 2 0 . 0 0

Ti m e o f D a y ( h h : m m : s s . xx) o n 5 /2 3 /9 7
Le g e n d :

Ai r h e a d 1

Ai r h e a d 2

Ai r s u p p l y

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Air system assessment was taken from May 20, 1997 through May 23, 1997.
(b) Bore tolerance control (line 8); data at 50 Hz; sample rate chart 2.

(b) Operation of the compressed air supply, precision of-use pressure pro fle recorded the characteristic signa-
control, and hydraulic intensifer is inconsistent and ture of pressure performance, as shown in Fig. 13.
does not apply proper force to the hone tool. Dynamic pressure data was taken while the machine
A pressure trend measured at a 50-Hz sample rate was functioning properly and while it malfunctioned.
(see Fig. 11) shows that as the air supply pressure (rep- The machine wraps product at a rate of 1 case every
resented by the black line in Fig. 11) decreases from 1.6 sec. Pressure measurements were taken at a sample
85 psig to 80 psig, the controlled air pressure on head 2 rate of 1 KHz with data averaging, to 25-Hz data inter-
(the light gray line) remains stable while the controlled val. Pressure transducers used had a range of 0 psig to
air pressure on head 1 (the dark gray line) increases from 200 psig, and were accurate to 
0.15% with response
43 psig to over 46 psig. The pressure increase is ampli- time (10% to 90%) of 1 msec or less.
fed 4 times by the hydraulic intensifer, and the result Operation of the machine was observed for 1 hr.
is an out-of-tolerance part from head 1 and a properly During this time, there were periods when the machine
machined part from head 2. performed well and times when it malfunctioned. Data
This is a positive fnding for an inappropriate response for the dynamic pressure pro fle are illustrated in Fig. 13.
of the controlled pressure, which provides information Figure 13 shows three pairs of data tracing. The sup-
that there is a correlation between pneumatic perform- ply pressures (TP17) are the highest pressure, manifold
ance and rejected parts. pressures (TP18) are the center, and the end-use pres-
sures (TP19) are the lowest. The lighter gray lines plot the
7.2.6.2.2 Example of a Pertinent Negative data gathered when the machine functioned correctly,
Finding. The wrapping machine shown in Fig. 12 sur- and the darker black lines plot the data from when the
rounds a carton with plastic heat-shrink flm. A pneu- machine was observed to be malfunctioning.
matically operated cutoff knife heat-seals and cuts the These data represent a pertinent negative fnding. The
plastic wrap. Periodically the machine malfunctions, similarity of signatures in these data suggests that the
resulting in incomplete sealing of the wrap along the malfunction observed is not related to compressed air
entire knife edge. Dynamic data logging for the point- performance. This dynamic analysis for the point-of-use

35
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Fi g. 1 2 Wrapper M ach i n e an d Test Pressure Locati on s TP1 7, TP1 8, an d TP1 9

TP1 9
TP1 8

TP1 7

Fi g. 1 3 Wrapper Dyn am i c Pressure Pro f le Si gn ature (25 - hz Data I n terval)

1 00

98

96

94

92

90
Pressure, psig

88

86

84

82

80

78

76
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 .0 1 .2 1 .4 1 .6 1 .8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0
Legend: Lapsed Time During Test, ss.0
Correct function
Incorrect function
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Plant air system assessment.
(b) Wrapper; comparison correct and incorrect function; dynamic pressure performance (25-Hz data interval)
(c) Supply pressures (TP 17) are the highest pressure.
(d) Manifold pressures (TP 18) appear in the center.
(e) End-use pressures (TP 19) are the lowest pressure.

36
 ASME EA-4G–2010

pressure pro fle tends to rule out compressed air pres- done to improve their system, as well as provide a rela-
sure variation as a root-cause factor in the malfunction tive ordering of the items. It may also provide some indi-
of the wrapping machine. cation of economic justifcation and costs as appropriate
to help the plant personnel better understand the need for
7.2.7 Annual Energy Use Baseline. There is no addi- improvements and their overall value. A simple example
tional guidance for this clause. of an action plan with ordered action items and their rela-
tive costs and benefts is detailed in para. 7.2.8.4.1.
7.2.8 Performance Improvement Opportunities
Identi f ed and Prioriti zation 7.2.8.4.1 Example Action Plan
(a) Correct maintenance issues with Compressor 2
7.2.8.1 Energy/Performance Opportunities. The (RS-100 100 HP compressor). Controls not responding
report should list all potential energy savings. Start at to demand — plant pressure drops and causes produc-
the end uses of the system and work back up the energy tion issues.
supply path. For example, look for ways to reduce the (b) Reduce nonproductive demand. Current nonpro-

fow rate, pressure, etc., at the end use. End-use reduc- duction demand of 385 cfm in a plant that averages a
tions, with proportionate compressor energy reductions, production-based demand of approximately 450 cfm is
tend to yield the greatest energy bene fts. Use data from unacceptably high (85%).
the data analysis to back up claims. NOTE: Nonproductive demand is primarily composed of overall
leak rate and unused manufacturing equipment with open orifces
7.2.8.2 Nonenergy Opportunities. The report that bleed air or keep nonoperational devices idling in standby
mode. High nonproductive demand in facilities of this type is not
should include information on production output lev-
uncommon as a high percentage of end-use equipment is of the
els, emissions reductions, lower maintenance costs, and constant-bleed and blow-off variety.
product quality improvements that are an outcome of
your recommendations. (c)Perform an internal leak audit to identify leaks and
fx asmany leaks as possible, and then verify required
7.2.8.3 Key Findings. When performing root- compressor load to meet new leak demand.
cause analysis, it is common practice to think about pos-
NOTE: This may be performed in-house or by an outside contrac-
sible problems that contribute to performance issues. tor with ultrasonic leak detection.
When evaluating operating theories related to system
performance, is it helpful to ask yourself the following (d) Implement and install a compressed air supply

questions: shutoff program for all end-use equipment with con-

(a) What do I think? stant bleeds or idling devices.
(b) What do I know?
NOTE: This may be as simple as installing/ identifying the man-
(c) What can I prove? ual shutoff valves on the compressed air supply connection to the
The plan of action often includes observation, data machine along with training the operators to close the valve when
logging, and dynamic analysis of specifc aspects of sys- the machine is not in use or is shut down. Or, this may be as com-
plex as installing automatically actuated, timed solenoid valves
tem performance. These data can serve to prove or dis-
interlocked with the machinery to shut off the air to the machine
prove various theories of operation.
automatically when it is not required.

7.2.8.4 Recommendations for Implementation (e) Install air-free drains on all main condensate col-
Activities. The report shall show how to implement lection points in the compressor room — approximately
the identifed energy-saving opportunities. Report on 12 points in existing system and 8 points in new system
strategies to execute improvements. Prioritize the list. (compressor separators, dryers, compressor room flters,
Prioritizing is the process of deciding which actions will and tanks). Air-free drains will help reduce compressed
have the most signifcant impact, which are the most air waste but will also more effectively drain water from
important, and which are the most feasible. the system. See action plan item 3 for further comment
Set a high priority on the options that offer the great- and analysis.
est potential savings. Preparing metrics such as return (f) Install new compressed air treatment system
on investment and payback period can determine which to eliminate compressed air contamination problems
items to pursue frst and help convince management throughout the facility. See compressor room schematic
that they are worthwhile investments. and item 4 below for proposed new layout.
The overall result of any assessment is ultimately an
NOTE: From information provided by plant personnel, estimated
action plan or basically a “to do” list for plant personnel. maintenance and production-downtime issues attributable to poor air
This action plan needs to provide enough detail for the quality (water and oil contamination) are at least $5,000. See attached
plant personnel to clearly understand what needs to be supplemental information and economic analysis for details.

37
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Table 9 Example Operational Summary

Final Plant Operational Summary

Measured Parameter Current System Proposed System

Production f ow range 375 cfm to 535 cfm 225 cfm to 460 cfm
Production pressure range 80 psig to 1 05 psig 90 psig to 95 psig
Total annual cost $55,000 to $57,000 $35,000 to $40,000

(g) Install new, dry 3,000-gal compressed air stor- Certain parts of this data will clearly be included as
age system and 1,000-cfm fow control to stabilize pres- part of the report (compressor ratings, calculations, etc.),
sure and reduce peak demands and resultant pressure but actual volumes of logged readings typically cannot
fuctuations. be included. On the other hand, this hard-logged data
can often be conveniently included electronically on
NOTE: The piping in the plant compressed air room is unnecessar-
ily complex and problematic. Compressed air leaves the room and
appropriate media (CD, DVD, or portable drive) for
feeds into the plant from at least six different lines. See compres- future review.
sor room schematic and economic analysis for layout and detailed
payback analysis. Table 9 summarizes operational and cost param- 7.4 Review of Final Report by Assessment Team
eters for the current versus the proposed system.
Members
7.2.9 Recommendations for Implementation Activities. There is no additional guidance for this clause.
ASME EA-4 recognizes that cost estimates are a component
of the decision process that leads to recommendations for 8 BIBLIOGRAPh Y
implementation activities. These estimates are described
[1 ] International Council on Systems Engineering,
as an optional activity and are intended to be screening or
Guide to the Systems Engineering Body o f Knowledge —
feasibility estimates. This level of project estimate is further
G2SEBoK, INCOSE.org, http:/ / g2sebok.incose.org/ ,
described as a Class 5 estimate [8] with effort index of 1, the
2.1.1.4. Systems Engineering Discovery.
lowest preparation effort.
[2] Antony, P., et al., Systems Engineering Measurement
Primer (Seattle, WA: INCOSE, International Council on
7.2.10 Appendices. An appendix is for added or Systems Engineering, 1998), 15.
appended material that may be relevant to your report
[3] Industrial Technologies Program, “Compressed
but that cannot be placed comfortably in the body of
Air Tip Sheet #1,” Energy Effciency and Renewable
the report. Use it for supplementary material that, if
Energy, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC,
included in the body of the text, would interrupt the
DOE/ GO-102004-1926, 2004.
fow. For example, a lengthy derivation of an equation [4] Motor Challenge, Fact Sheet “Determining Electric
or many days of raw data would be included in the
Motor Load and Effciency,” U.S. Department of Energy,
appendix. A bulky folded map or drawing should also
Washington, DC, ITP Fact Sheet DOE/ GO-10097-517.
be put in an appendix, as should commercial material,
[5] Taranto, T., et al., “Measure it, See it, Manage it:
such as product speci fcations or engineering docu-
Using Real Time Data to Benchmark, Optimize, and
ments. Refer to the appendix at the relevant point in
Sustain System Energy Effciency” Paper presented at
the text.
ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Effciency in Industry,
2007 OSTI ID: 929671, http:/ / www.osti.gov/ bridge/ .
7.3 Data for Third Party Review [6] Improving Compressed Air System Performance: A
Have enough raw data from the assessment avail- Source Book for Industry, Compressed Air Challenge, U.S.
able for any third party review. Documentation should Department of Energy, Washington, DC, 2003, p. 59.
be prepared in a fashion that is easily accessed by veri- [7] Diek, R., Measurement Uncertainty Methods and
f ers and other persons not involved in its develop- Applications, 4th ed., The Instrument, Systems and
ment, since several years may pass before this data is Automation Society (ISA), Research Triangle Park, NC,
accessed or needed. State that typical compressed air 2007.
systems will change over time and any future review [8] ASTM E 2516-06 Standard Classifcation for Cost
may not be representative of conditions at the time of Estimate Classifcation System, ASTM International, West
the survey. Conshohocken, PA, www.astm.org, 2006.

38
 ASME EA-4G–2010

NONMANDATORY APPENDIX A
EXPANDED GLOSSARY

A-1 DEFINITIONS energy effciency measure (EEM): a specifc change to a

compressed air system that results in improved eff-
accuracy, measurement (accuracy o f measurement): the
ciency as well as other system bene fts (for example,
closeness of agreement between the measured value of increased equipment life and reliability).
a parameter and a true value of the parameter (see also
energy management project:course of action, with a de f-
uncertainty in section 2 of ASME EA-4).
nite beginning and end, used by the organization to
NOTE: A measurement is said to be more accurate when it offers a achieve energy goals and targets.
smaller measurement error.
energy profle: regularly updated overview of the organi-

the ratio of
accuracy, transducer (accuracy o f a transducer): zation’s energy status that serves as a means to connect
the error to the full-scale output or the ratio of the error an organization’s energy use to its primary business
to the output, as specifed, expressed in percent. (Source: output.
ISA S31.1–1975 R1982) energy system:any logical equipment grouping that
uses and/ or produces primary or secondary energy
NOTES:
resources.
(1) Accuracy may be expressed in terms of units of the meas-
ured parameter, or as a percentage of full-scale output. the difference between the
error (measurement error):
(2) Use of the term “accuracy” should be limited to general- measured value of a parameter and a true value of the
ized descriptions of characteristics. It should not be used in speci-
parameter.
fcations. The term “error” is preferred in specifcations and other
specifc descriptions of transducer performance. estimate: the result of estimation.

system information obtained through

action item outcome:
estimation (estimating):the process of determining the
implementation of action items. value of a parameter through the use of stipulated values,
assumptions, observation, calculation, and judgment.
a systematic method for identifying spe-
causal analysis:
cifc problem areas in work products, project progress, ends toward which effort is directed to achieve the
goal:

and processes; determining the causes of problem areas; energy policy.

and developing and implementing solutions to prevent one or more meaningful conclusion(s) result-
in formation:
the problem areas from occurring in the future. (Source: ing from action items, or signifcant questions used to
INCOSE Systems Engineering Measurement Primer) organize additional assessment activities.
to gain an understanding of processes,
characterize: knowledge: a degree of understanding a subject from
products, or both, and establish baselines for future application of measurement, insight, and experience.
assessment.
measured value: the result obtained by making a direct
the quantifcation of
confdence level (coverage probability): measurement.
confdence (probability) that the true value of a param-
MMsc f: million standard cubic feet. A measurement
eter is within a specifed coverage interval.
of compressed air used to express total air mass. It is
coverage probability: see confdence level. frequently applied over a specifed time period. For
data: raw facts without context. example, 2 scfm (standard cubic feet per minute) deliv-
ered for 1 yr would result in 1,051,200 scf (standard
direct measurement:a method to determine the value of
cubic feet) of air delivered, expressed as 1.05 MMscf or
a measured parameter that is done with an instrument
(1.05 MMscf/ yr). (See also ASME EA-4 Nonmandatory
designed for such a task.
Appendix A, Units of Measure for Compressed Air
ECM: see energy conservation measure. System Assessment).
EEM: see energy effciency measure. observe:a careful, methodical, deliberate act of an
energy conservation measure (ECM): an activity or set of observer to examine a subject using cognitive analysis,
activities designed to increase the energy effciency of a empirical factual knowledge, and sensory processes.
facility, system, or piece of equipment. ECMs may also parameter:a physical quantity, property, or condition
conserve energy without changing effciency. having a value that can be expressed as a number with

39
 ASME EA-4G–2010

corresponding unit of measure. For example, in the NOTE: Secondary energy resources may include steam, com-
expression 100 psig, the value is 100 and the unit of pressed air, chilled water, and hot water.

measure is pound-force per square inch gauge.

sensing element: the part of a transducer that responds
parameter, true value: see true value o f a parameter. directly to the physical property to be measured.
primary energy resource: raw resources that enter the facil- signifcant energy uses: primary or support equipment,
ity from an energy supplier. processes, applications, or activities identifed by the
energy pro fle as a signifcant component of an organi-
NOTE: Primary energy resources may include electricity, natural zation’s energy cost or consumption or both.
gas, petroleum products, solid fuels, and water.

NOTE: Signifcance criteria is determined by the organization.

qualitative analysis: the evaluation of parameters to deter-
mine relevance without measuring them precisely. stipulated value: the value of a parameter based on
quantitative analysis: the measurement and evaluation assumption, reference to literature, calculation, etc.
of parameters to express their behavior in numerical system: functional group of energy-using industrial
terms. equipment organized to perform a specifc function.
remedial measure: a speci fc change, or one of a group of systems approach: a method for managing and correcting
multiple changes, to a compressed air system that results system issues that focuses on total system performance
in improved performance, reliability, effciency, or other rather than individual component effciency.
system bene fts. Changes may affect the facility, equip-
target: a measurable performance requirement to be set
ment, software, training of personnel, maintenance, or
and met to achieve part or all of a goal.
any other aspect of compressed air system design or
operation. transducer: a device that provides a usable output in
response to measurement of a physical parameter. For
research: a discovery process of information gathering
example, a pressure transducer measures pressure and
and validation through discussion and reference to exist-
outputs an electrical signal such as voltage or current
ing documentation. [Source: http:/ / www.reference.
proportional to the measured pressure.
com/ browse/ wiki/ Root_cause (accessed: February 22,
2008)]. true value o f a parameter: the unique true value of a param-
eter ’s physical property.
secondary energy resource: converted form of primary
energy resource.

40
 ASME EA-4G–2010

NONMANDATORY APPENDIX B
MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY

Time and effort applied to action items for the system (1 ) Assuming a coverage interval is  0.001 in., what
assessment should be traceable to issues, opportunities, is the confdence that the true size of the paper is within
remedial measures, and implementation of compressed 8.499 in. to 8.501 in. wide and 10.999 in. to 11.001 in.
air system improvements. Most projects cannot afford to long?
collect data or gather information that will never be used. (2) Assuming a coverage interval is  0.1 in., what is
“No test data should be reported or used without the confdence that the true size of the paper is within
knowledge of its quality, its measurement uncertainty. 8.4 in. to 8.6 in. wide and 10.9 in. to 11.1 in. long?
Violating this precept causes undue risk of incorrect The measurement in example (1) would have a low
business decisions.” [7] confdence, perhaps 50% or less, and in example (2) a
Everything in the world around us has physical prop- high confdence, maybe 99% or more. The quantitative
erties. We use those properties to describe what we value for confdence is arrived at through statistical anal-
observe. Many properties can be measured; for exam- ysis of factors that affect the result of a measurement.
ple, an object’s size and weight can be measured. Other Reporting a value, coverage interval, and confdence
properties can be described but are not measured (e.g., clearly states a measurement’s result.
the shape or color of the object). The shape or color are
observations 1 by comparison, measurements are made B-1.1 Uncertainty
using some type of instrument. For example, a ruler can
Every measurement has inherent uncertainty that the
be used to measure the size of an object, and a scale to
measurement represents the true value. There are many
measure its weight.
sources of error that contribute to the total uncertainty
of a measurement’s result. Error can be introduced by
B-1 COvERAGE INTERvAL AND CONFIDENCE OF (a) the measurement instrument, range, sensitivity,
MEASUREMENT precision, accuracy, and response
(b) operator error
Every measurement has error, which is the difference
(c) measurement techniques, sample rate, data inter-
between the measured value and the true value of the
val, and duration of measurement
parameter being measured. Furthermore, since there is
(d) loss of electrical signal integrity, interference,
no way to know the exact true value with absolute con-
ground loops, reference voltage error
fdence, the amount of error cannot be exactly known.
(e) accuracy of signal conditioners
Every measurement has some inexact error or coverage
(f) analog-to-digital resolution (quantization error)
interval.
(a) Coverage interval is the range of values believed
to include the true value of a measurement.
B-1.2 Error Types
(b) Confdence of measurement is the degree of cer- There are two types of measurement error, systematic
tainty that the true value of a measurement lies within error and random error.
the coverage interval. (a) Random Error. Random error is the measurement
Practically speaking, there is a relationship between error that causes repeated measurements to be ran-
confdence and coverage interval. A very narrow cov- domly different. For a truly random error in a given
erage interval may have a low degree of confdence, period of time, repeated measurements will be equally
whereas a broad coverage interval can have a very high above and below the measured value. If so, making a
degree of confdence. greater number of measurements and averaging the
results will more accurately estimate the measured
EXAMPLE:
value. Oversampling with data averaging is one method
A standard sheet of paper is 8.5 in. wide and 11 in. used to minimize the impact of random error.
long. Is that an exact size? (b) Systematic Error. Systematic error is the measure-
ment error that introduces the same error in the measured
1 value for each repeated measurement. Systematic error
It is acknowledged that colorimetry is the science and
technology used to quantify and describe the human perception of can result from repeatable calibration error, incorrect scal-
color. In general terms, an object’s color is described as red or blue ing of transducer signals, poor measurement methods,
without reference to quantifying red or blue.

41
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Fig. B-1 Illustration of Measurement Errors

True
value
Population

Frequency of Value
Systematic mean
error
Measured
Total value
error

Random
error

Measured Value
GENERAL NOTE: This f gure was adopted from ASME PTC 19.1-2005, Fig. 4-2-1.

and other independent sources of error. Identifcation of tistical approach to evaluate uncertainty is de fned as a
systematic error requires comparison of separate inde- Type A evaluation of measurement uncertainty.
pendent measurements or calculations or both.
Figure B-1 illustrates the relationship of systematic B-2.1 Type A Uncertainty Estimate
and random measurement errors for a population of
A Type A uncertainty estimate is the result of rigor-
repeated measurements.
ous statistical evaluation of repeated results of the same
Systematic errors should be identifed and eliminated
measurement.
to the extent practical. Data verifcation during deploy-
This method is applicable in measurement of a con-
ment of data collection equipment (refer to ASME EA-4,
trolled steady-state process or laboratory setting where
para. 5.4) and coordination of data from permanently
tests can be replicated, allowing for repeated results of
installed data systems (refer to ASME EA-4, para. 5.5)
the same measurement. However, in the realm of in situ
can assist in identifcation of systematic errors, provid-
performance measurement of industrial compressed air
ing an opportunity to correct the measurement error.
systems, steady-state performance and replicate testing
Data validation before post-processing analysis (refer
are virtually impossible. As a consequence, repeated
to ASME EA-4, para. 5.6) is an additional opportunity to
results of the same measurement are unavailable for a
identify and correct systematic measurement errors. The
Type A estimate of uncertainty.
assessment team can determine reasonable methods to
For industrial compressed air systems, the practical
apply corrections to the measured data.
approach to evaluate uncertainty in measurement is a
Random errors can be minimized through applica-
Type B estimate.
tion of existing best practices related to measurement
equipment, installation methods, and measurement
B-2.2 Type B Uncertainty Estimate
techniques.
Total error in measurement is the cumulative effect of A Type B uncertainty estimate is the result of informed
all individual components of both random and system- judgment, experience, and knowledge of the measure-
atic error. When reporting measurements, account for ment instrument and measurement process along with
all components of error when expressing the coverage reference data taken from handbooks or other authorita-
interval and confdence of the result. The graphs shown tive sources.
in Fig. B-2 illustrate the effect of varying degrees of both When making a Type B estimate of uncertainty, the
systematic and random error as they affect measurement assessment team considers the error caused by factors
results for a population of repeated measurements. affecting the measurement. For example, the accuracy or
error of individual transducers used is known from the
B-2 DETERMINING COvERAGE INTERvAL AND manufacturer ’s data or calibration information for the
CONFIDENCE IN MEASUREMENT transducer. In some cases, a measurement may be calcu-
lated as a result of multiple measurements. For example,
As illustrated in Figs. B-1 and B-2, one method of power can be calculated based on measured amperage,
quantifying coverage interval and confdence in meas- voltage, and power factor.
urement is to gather a population of repeated meas-
urements and apply statistical evaluation to develop a voltage 3 amperage 3 1.732 3 power factor
comparative distribution of measured values. This sta- 1,000

42
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Fig. B-2 Measurement Error Components

True value and Population

Frequency of Value

Frequency of Value
population mean mean

True
value

Measured Value Measured Value

(a) Negligible Systematic Error (b) Large Systematic Error

Small Random Error Small Random Error

True value and Population

Frequency of Value

Frequency of Value
population mean mean

True
value

Measured Value Measured Value

(c) Negligible Systematic Error (d) Large Systematic Error

Large Random Error Large Random Error
GENERAL NOTE: This f gure was adopted from ASME PTC 19.1-2005, Fig. 4-2-2.

The accuracy of the value for power calculated using ing error from these other sources relies on the judg-
the equation above is dependent on the accuracy of each ment and experience of the team. For example, many
individual variable that is either measured or assumed. fow measurement transducers sense mass velocity
The uncertainty of each individual variable is one ele- (standard feet per minute) in the pipeline, which is then
ment of uncertainty that ultimately affects the uncer- multiplied by the cross-sectional area (square feet) of
tainty of the result. the pipeline to calculate mass fow rate (standard cubic
feet per minute). For insertion-type meters that have not
B-2.3 Combined Uncertainty been calibrated in the job-site pipeline, variation in the
Combined uncertainty is the result of combining pipeline’s area introduces error in the measured mass
elemental uncertainties given that each of the meas- fow rate. Old steel pipe may have internal corrosion,
ured variables has its own effect on the total error in the effectively reducing the pipeline’s inside diameter.
result. Individual elemental errors (a , b, c, etc.) are evalu-
ated and then combined by taking the root of the sum of B-2.4 Normal Distribution (Gaussian Distribution)
the squares. Observation of randomness in nature causes a distri-
bution of data with a particular kind of shape sometimes
u 5 ua
2
1 u 2 1 u 2 1 ... etc .
b c
described as the bell curve (see Fig. B-3). Mathematicians
have studied the normal distribution and have devel-
In addition to instrument accuracy, other and perhaps oped equations to describe its characteristics.
less obvious sources of potential error can affect the The center of the population of data is the arithmetic
uncertainty of measurement. Identifying and estimat- mean of the measured value, x, also called average; and

43
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Fig. B-3 Normal Distribution of Data

Population
mean

Frequency of Value 34.1 % 34.1 %

1 3.6% 1 3.6%

2.1 % 2.1 %
� 3 � � 2� � 1 � x 1� 2� 3�
Measured Value

for a number N of individual measurements of x

i
, x is B-2.5 Other Types of Distributions
de fned as
In addition to normal (Gaussian) distribution, there are

∑
1 other types of distribution, including, but not limited to,
5
N

x xi
rectangular (uniform) and triangular. In a uniform distri-
N i 51
bution, a source of uncertainty affecting any single meas-
urement results in equal probability that the value of X is
B-2.4.1 Standard Deviation. Standard deviation 2 1
at any point in the distribution range of X to X. The cal-
describes how much the population of data varies from culation of standard deviation of a rectangular distribution
the mean. A small standard deviation indicates that data 1
given that the end points of data are –X and X is
is grouped closely to the mean, whereas a large standard
1
deviation indicates the data is spread over a larger range 5 × X
more distant from the mean. Standard deviation, , is  3
calculated as the square root of the variance in data.
The uniform distribution leads to the most conserva-
tive estimate of uncertainty; that is, it gives the largest
( x1 2 )
2
1( 2 )
2
1 ... ( 2 )
2

5
x x2 x xN x
standard deviation.
N

or using summing notation B-2.6 Con f dence

Confdence is calculated with consideration of the dis-
5
1
∑ 2
N

(x x )
2
tribution of measurement results. Distributed random
i
N i 51 variables affecting a measurement result tend toward a
normal distribution of data, as shown in Fig. B-3. At a
Standard deviation is calculated such that a known
portion of the data population exists within speci fed
confdence level of 90%, the allowable error is 1.96  
standard deviations.
proportions of standard deviation. For a normal dis-
tribution, the 68 – 95 – 99.7 rule applies; about 68% of
data is within 1 standard deviation (1 ) of the mean,  B-2.6.1 Precision Standards. The need for precision
standards has been the subject of some debate. In the
approximately 95% is within 2 , and about 99.7% is 

within 3 .

context of evaluation, a 90/ 10 standard indicates a 10%
coverage interval at 90% confdence. Another way of
Standard score (zs) (other terms of art for various
looking at this standard is that there is a 90% chance that
felds of study: Z-score, Z-values, Z-factor) indicates
how many standard deviations a particular value is

the measurement result is within 10% of the true value.
The 90/ 10 precision standard is referenced in ASHRAE
above or below the population mean.
Guideline 14, IPMPV–2007 (International Performance
For various values of z , the percentage of values
Measurement and Verifcation Protocol), and other lit-
expected to lie in and outside the symmetric interval
erature on the subject. ASME EA-4, para. 5.1 identifes
1 
(− z , z ) are as shown in Table B-1.
the 90/ 10 rule as a “target” for the measurement plan.

44
 ASME EA-4G–2010

Table B-1 Standard Score z and Coverage Interval for Normal Distributions
Percentage Within Coverage Percentage Outside Coverage Ratio Outside
z Interval [Note (1)] Interval Coverage Interval
1s 68.2689492% 31 .731 0508% 1 / 3.1 51 4871
1 .645s 90% 1 0% 1 / 10
1 .960s 95% 5% 1 / 20
2s 95.4499736% 4.5500264% 1 / 21 .977894
2.576s 99% 1% 1 / 1 00
3s 99.7300204% 0.2699796% 1 / 370.398
N OTE:
(1 ) The percentages within bounds are de f ned by the formula %perc = erf(n  / √2) 3 50% 1 50%.

B-2.7 Expanded Uncertainty certifcate or manufacturer ’s data. Specifed as

Expanded uncertainty, U, de fnes an interval about the


1% of F.S. including nonlinearity, nonrepeat-
ability, zero offset, and span-setting errors.
measurement result that the measurement is believed to
lie within to a specifed confdence. Expanded uncer-
ub 5 pressure transducer thermal coeffcient.
Manufacturer ’s data shows a reference tem-
tainty is calculated by multiplying the combined uncer-
tainty, u , by a coverage factor, k. The coverage factor is
8 8
perature of [68 F (20 C)] % of span/ F. The 8
manufacturer ’s specifed thermal coeffcient is
selected from the Z -score for the desired coverage inter-
val. For example, if the desired coverage interval is 95%,

0.04% / F. 8
k 5 2 (or 1.960); for 90% coverage interval, k 1.645 5 uc 5 data-logger analog input accuracy. The manu-
facturer ’s data shows the analog input accu-
would be selected.

racy is 0.25% F.S.
U5 k3 u ud 5 quantization error for analog-to-digital (A/ D)
U5 k u 1 u 1 u 1 ... etc . conversion. The data logger used is an 8-bit
2 2 2
a b c
A/ D converter providing 255 (2 8 – 1) incre-
ments of resolution. Error is uniformly distrib-
B-2.8 Example of Pressure Transducer Measurement uted between –1/ 2 least signifcant bit (LSB)
A pressure transducer and data logger are going to and 1
1/ 2 LSB, and signal to quantization
be installed at an end-use application in a steel mill noise ratio is assumed to be negligible.
to measure the point-of-use pressure pro f le at the To calculate combined uncertainty, the elemental
door-operator cylinder of a reheat furnace. It is neces- uncertainties must be expressed in the same units of
sary to determine the in situ end-to-end measurement measure, usually output units. In the example, pound-
uncertainty and con f dence for the pressure measure- force per square inch gauge (psig) will be used. Elemental
ments. Pressure measurement locations are at the air uncertainties that are given as expanded uncertainty
header in the reheat area, the connection point to the will be converted to a coverage interval of 1 standard 
FRL inlet upstream of the solenoid control valve, and deviation to give a consistent level of confdence for all
the pneumatic cylinder port at the end of cylinder that elemental uncertainty.
lifts the furnace door. The temperature in the area is Calculate elemental uncertainty for calibration;
elevated, plus there is radiant heat from the furnace. expanded uncertainty U is assumed to be a Type A
An infrared thermometer has determined that the evaluation for normal distribution with coverage fac-
pressure transducers operate at a maximum tempera- tor of k 52 ( Z -score 5
2 for 95% confdence). Therefore,
8
ture of 1 20 F. the elemental uncertainty is U divided by 2. The pres-
Since the furnace and compressed air system do not sure transducer range is 0 psig to 200 psig with 1% or 
operate at a steady-state condition that would allow tak-  2 psig expanded uncertainty.
ing a population of repeated measurements, a Type A
uncertainty estimate is not possible. Therefore, a Type B U  2 psig
estimate of uncertainty must be made.
ua 5 5 5  1 . 0 psig
k 2
First, list the elemental uncertainties, u , to be consid-
ered. Elemental uncertainties must be expressed in simi- Elemental uncertainty for operating temperature is
lar terms before they are combined. Therefore, all of the calculated assuming Type B evaluation. This is a more
elemental uncertainties must be given in the same units conservative assumption of uniform or rectangular dis-
and the same level of confdence. tribution of data as compared to normal distribution. In
ua 5 pressure transducer calibration. Shows a rectangular distribution, there is equal probability that
expanded uncertainty, U, from the calibration a given measurement will be near the mean, or at the

45
 ASME EA-4G–2010

limits of the coverage interval, or anywhere in between. B-2.8.3 Proper Expression Quantifying the Result of
For Type B evaluation, the coverage factor k is equal to Measured Pressure X. A proper expression of the result
the square root of 3. has three components.
From manufacturer ’s data, at 120 F operating tem- 8 (a) a value for the measured result X
perature the possible effect on the reading is 2.08%  (b) the coverage interval of the measurement
8 8 
[(120 F – 68 F) × 0.04%] or 4.16 psig.  (c) the confdence of the measurement
Therefore, the pressure measurement above could be
U  4. 16 psig
ub 5 5 5  2. 4 psig expressed as
3 1 . 732 X psig  5.30 psig with 95% confdence
or as
Elemental uncertainty for the data-logger ’s analog X psig  4.36 psig with 90% confdence
input accuracy is calculated assuming expanded uncer- The resultant statement of pressure measurement
tainty, U, is a Type A evaluation for normal distribu- shown above represents the end-to-end accuracy of the
tion and a coverage factor k 2 for 95% confdence. 5 measurement system. Field measurements need to con-
The data-logger manufacturer ’s information shows sider all of the factors that contribute to measurement
 
0.25% F.S., which is 0.5 psig for 0 psig to 200 psig error. Ultimately, the practitioner should evaluate the
full-scale range. entire measurement process and report a Type B esti-
mate of coverage interval and confdence for the in situ
U  0. 5 psig end-to-end feld measurement.
uc 5 5 5  0. 25 psig
k 2
B-2.9 Example of Converting Uncertainties From One
Elemental uncertainty for A/ D quantization error is Unit to Another
calculated assuming Type B evaluation. Given 255-bit
A power transducer has an output of kilowatts. The
increments for 0 psig to 200 psig range, the LSB value
output of the kilowatt transducer also depends on the
is 0.78 psig.
uncertainty of current transducers (CTs), which have an
U  0. 78 psig output of amperes. The dissimilar units of kilowatts and
ud 5 5 5  0. 45 psig amperes cannot be used for combining uncertainties.
3 1 . 732
Fractional uncertainty can be used to combine
uncertainty of dissimilar units. For example, a power
B-2.8.1 Combining Elemental Uncertainty. Elemental transducer has an accuracy of 
0.5%, and a current
uncertainty is combined in quadrature, or calculated as 
transducer has 1.5% accuracy measuring at 200 A. The
the root sum of the squares of all elemental uncertainties. kilowatt transducer at 200 A and 500 V max. input has
a range of 0 kW to 173 kW. The kilowatt measurement
u 5 u 1u 1u 1u
a
2
b
2
c
2
d
2 
is 0.86 kW expanded uncertainty. The current is 3 A 
expanded uncertainty. For normal (Gaussian) distribu-
5 1 . 0 1 2. 4 1 0. 25 1 0. 45
2 2 2 2
tion, the elemental uncertainty is the expanded uncer-

5  2. 65 psig 
tainty divided by 2, in this case, 0.43 kW and 1.5 A, 
respectively. The fractional uncertainty is the elemental
uncertainty divided by the value.
B-2.8.2 Expanded Uncertainty. Combined uncer-
tainty re f ects a coverage interval that represents a u kW 0 . 43 kW
normal distribution of results. Therefore, expanded (
f u kw )5 5 5 0. 0025
kW 173 kW
uncertainty, U, is equal to the combined uncertainty
multiplied by a coverage factor ( Z -score) as appropri- uA 3 . 0 kW
ate for the desired expression of conf dence. A cover-
( )5
f uA 5 5 0. 015
A 200 kW
age factor of 2 is generally used for a conf dence of 95%
[however, the actual conf dence is 95.4499736% (see The fractional uncertainties are dimensionless and can
Table 8)] . For conf dence of 90%, a coverage factor of therefore be combined. You will note that the fractional
1 .645 should be used. uncertainty expressed as a percentage is the original
expanded uncertainty percentage divided by the cov-

U 5k×u erage factor for a normal (Gaussian) distribution. The

fractional method is shown for the situation in a Type B
U 5  5. 30 psig ( for k = 2 . 0 or 95 % confidence ) estimate where measurement uncertainty can be given a
U 5  4 . 36 psig ( for k = 1 . 645 or 90 % confidence ) value but is not necessarily expressed as a percentage.

46
 ASME EA-4G–2010

The elemental fractional uncertainty is combined in B-2.11.1 Summation in Quadrature for Addition and
quadrature or calculated as the root sum of squares as in Subtraction. When a calculated result involves the
the pressure transducer example in para. B-2.8. addition or subtraction of measured values, the com-
bined uncertainty, u , is equal to the root sum of squares
B-2.10 Direct versus Indirect Measurement and for the elemental uncertainties.
Precision
Generally, direct measurement of a parameter with
u 5 ua
2
1u 1u
b
2
c
2

an instrument designed for the task provides the high-

est precision. Indirect measurement is accomplished by
measuring multiple related parameters, each of which B-2.11.2 Summation in Quadrature for Multiplication
contributes to the total error. Furthermore, assumptions or Division. When a calculated result involves multi-
and stipulated values used in the process of calculating plication or division of measured values, the combined
the indirectly measured parameter add elements of error. uncertainty should apply fractional elemental uncer-
For example, indirect measurement of delivered air- tainties. For example, for measured values A , B , and C
fow from a compressor might include measurement of resulting in a calculated value of X, the following expres-
compressor power and a stipulated value of the com- sion is used for combined uncertainty:
pressor ’s rated airfow, and assumptions regarding
the compressor ’s part-load performance pro fle that
2 2 2
uX  uA  uB  uC 
describes a relationship between power and airfow
5   1  1 
X A  B 
 C 

rate. It is necessary to consider many factors that intro-
duce error to the indirect measurement. Inlet conditions
including air temperature, relative humidity, and abso-
B-2.11.3 Summation in Quadrature for Squared or
lute pressure along with mechanical condition of the
Square Root Functions. For calculated results involv-
ing measured values affecting calculation of squared or
compressor will affect the compressor ’s rated airfow.
square root functions, combined uncertainty is expressed
The part-load performance pro fle is affected by adjust-
using elemental uncertainties in the following forms:
ment of the compressor ’s controls, mechanical condi-
tion, and the effect of system dynamic performance on 2u A
control signal pressure. for a squared valu e
A
ASME EA-4 (para. 5.1.4) requires in situ validation or
of assumptions and stipulated values associated with uB
indirect measurements. In other words, what was done for a square root
2B
to evaluate the various on-site conditions affecting the
indirect measurement and to quantify their contribution
When the calculated result involves a multistep calcu-
to measurement error? The end-to-end accuracy of feld
lation, propagation of uncertainty applies summation in
measurement needs to consider all of the factors that
quadrature for the proper form of elemental uncertainty
contribute to measurement error. Ultimately, the assess-
at each step. Once the combined uncertainty has been
ment evaluates the measurement process and reports a
evaluated, the practitioner should apply the appropriate
Type B estimate of coverage interval and confdence for
coverage factor k (or Z-score) for the desired confdence
the in situ end-to-end feld measurement.
of the result.

B-2.11 Propagation of Uncertainty in the Result of B-2.11.4 Other Considerations in Measurement

Mathematical Calculations Uncertainty. Metrology and measurement uncertainty
Measured values are often used for mathematical calcu- are constantly evolving areas of science and technology.
lations. The resultant value of a calculation may be objec- The analysis presented here is rudimentary. It assumes
tive of testing, or in the case of indirect measurement, may that variables have no interdependent correlation to each
be the value of a desired measured parameter. Whenever other. If parameters exhibit some degree of covariance
measurement results are used in calculations, the uncer- where change or error in one parameter has some effect
tainty of individual values propagate through the calcula- in the error of other related parameters’ errors, many
tion and affect the uncertainty of the calculated result. other methods are available to account for uncertainty.

47
 ASME EA-4G–2010

N ON M AN DATORY APPE N DI X C

KE Y RE FE RE N CE S

ASHRAE Guideline 14-2002, Measurement o f Energy EVO 30000-1 :2006, International Performance
and Demand Savings , American Society of Heating, Measurement and Verifcation Protocol , Concepts and
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Practices for Determining Energy Savings in New
Atlanta, GA, 2002. Construction, Volume III, Part 1 , Washington, DC,
ASME EA-4–2010, Energy Assessment for Compressed Air 2006.
Systems . The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Improving Compressed Air S ystem Per formance: A
New York, NY, 2010. S ource B ook for Industry , Compressed Air Challenge,
ASME PTC 19.1, Test Uncertainty. The American U. S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, 2003,
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY, 2005. p. 59.
Bell, Stephanie, Measurement Good Practice Guide ISO/ IEC Guide 98-3:2008, Guide to the Expression o f
No. 11 , Issue 2, “A Beginner ’s Guide to Uncertainty of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM), Organization for
Measurement,” Centre for Basic, Thermal and Length Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2008.
Metrology, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, ISO/ IEC Guide 99:2007, International Vocabulary o f
Middlesex, U.K., 2001. Metrology — Basic and General Concepts and Associated Terms
Chatfeld, Christopher, Statistics for Technology, 3rd (VIM), International Organization for Standardization,
Ed., Chapman & Hall 1983 / CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, Geneva, Switzerland, 2007.
reprint 1999. NIST Technical Note 1297, Guidelines for Evaluating and
Diek, Ronald, Measurement Uncertainty Methods and Expressing the Uncertainty o fNIST Measurements , National
Applications , 4th Ed., The Instrument, Systems and Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg,
Automation Society (ISA), Research Triangle Park, NC, MD, 1994.
2007. Youden, W. J., Experimentation and Measurement , NIST
ASTM E 2516-06, Standard Classifcation for Cost Special Publication 672, National Institute of Standards
Estimate Classifcation System , ASTM International, West and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1962.
Conshohocken, PA, www.astm.org, 2006.

48
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